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Ethics of Visual Rhetoric

Susan Van Dusen

RHET 7313 - Dr. Karen Kuralt

Fall 2014

Many authors argue that an understanding and appreciation of ethical visual

rhetoric is an essential skill for technical communicators. Visual elements, graphics and text

must be examined as a cohesive unit in order to determine a documents ethical value and

understand how it is perceived by the audience. As Sam Dragga states, This ability to

design information gives the technical communicator a new rhetorical power and imposes

new ethical obligations on using that power (Dragga 256).

This paper will examine the writings of several authors regarding the ethics of

visual rhetoric and the responsibilities communicators have when selecting and creating

visual elements that are informative, accurate, and aesthetically pleasing. It also will look at

the authors opinions on the role of the user in the design process, how dialogic ethics is

changing the way technical communicators engage with their audience, and why its vital to

include ethics in the communication curriculum.

The Elements of Visual Rhetoric

Technical communicators responsibilities do not stop with putting words on a

page; they are called to design entire documents -- including their supporting graphics --

from start to finish. This form of communication, known as visual rhetoric, is more than

just molding traditional rhetoric to fit a different model. It requires an ability to use visual
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elements to communicate information effectively, accurately, and efficiently (Rosenquist

45). It also requires an understanding of the ethical implications this form of

communication demands and how it is processed and understood by the audience.

Visual rhetoric elements include typeface, layout, color, illustrations, photographs,

and graphics. Working together, their goal is to make the information they represent more

accessible for the audience. When one or more of these elements is used in a way that

obscures the truth or interferes with the documents purpose, ethical challenges arise. To

avoid these challenges, technical communicators must strive to achieve a hybrid literacy,

in which words and visuals integrate seamlessly on the page or screen, rather than simply

being juxtaposed next to each other. If technical communicators did this linking for their

audiences -- integrating verbal and visual information within a single display that is

mutually illuminative -- a truly ethical communication might occur (Stroupe, cited in

Dragga and Voss 270).

According to Christina Rosenquist, visual elements are only effective when their

natural purpose aligns with the documents overall purpose (46). She offers two main areas

to consider when selecting visual elements:

1. The primary purpose of the document

2. The primary purpose of that particular visual element and how it adds to or

detracts from the documents purpose. (Rosenquist 46)

Along the same lines, Geoff Hart argues for minimalism in design by eliminating

extraneous elements and focusing on those that best serve the document and its user. We

should aim for the minimum documentation that will get the job done, but provide enough

beyond the minimum that we dont leave our audience floundering (Hart).
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Understanding the role of the audience and the way in which they process

information is essential for communicators as they develop visual rhetoric. Selecting the

appropropriate form of visual rhetoric must be an utmost concern and should aid

communicators as they weigh the ramifications of their choices in terms of personal values,

community ethical standards, and content accuracy, as well as in terms of effectiveness

(Allen 99). For example, when selecting or creating visual elements, a clear differentiation

should be drawn between visuals that rely on language to communicate their message

(charts, tables and graphs) and those that illustrate objects (photos or illustrations)

(Peirce, cited in Manning and Amare 202). Communicators must then, within those broad

categories, determine which specific forms of visual rhetoric best suit the type of

information they are attempting to communicate and use them accordingly.

For example, if the communicators goal is to simplify and break down complex

information into subcategories, a table would be an appropriate element of choice since

tables are read in a similar manner to text. To illustrate at-a-glance comparisons of similar

information, graphs and charts are well suited. Photographs and illustrations, on the other

hand, serve as intermediaries between feeling and action (Manning and Amare 201) and

can be useful in reaching viewers on an emotional level. According to Charles Kostelnick,

this idea of reading visual language both reinforces and reshapes linguistic rhetoric by

helping readers organize the information presented to them and develop responses to it

(The Rhetoric 190).

The differences between an audiences perception of images and graphics is

important as the use of one without the other has the potential to eliminate vital pieces of

information. For example, attempting to educate students about Baroque art by showing
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multiple images of paintings with no explanation of the styles defining features is both an

unethical waste of time and an ineffective communication method (Walsh, cited in Manning

and Amare 203). The inclusion of diagrams explaining the elements of Baroque art,

accompanied by images of the paintings, would serve the audience more ethically by

providing both visual and text-based elements that support the presentations informative

purpose.

It is the ethical communicators responsibility to understand what the audience

needs to glean from a particular presentation, determine which type of visual element

makes that possible, and ensure that it is used in the most meaningful and ethically

responsible way.

The Role of Dialogic Ethics

Understanding of the audiences needs is particularly important in creating ethical

designs. For Paul Nini, the role of the audience supercedes both the communicator and the

client. I would argue that our single, most significant contribution to society would be to

make sure that the communications we create are actually useful to those for whom theyre

intended (Nini).

As collaborative design methods become more commonplace and users are called

upon to partner with design teams, technical communicators must be part of this process

and understand how it alters expectations of their work product. Describing processes

clearly and effectively for specific audiences will continue to be a central part of technical

communication. However, technical communicators will also need a strong ethical

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understanding of collaboration as users are encouraged to participate throughout the

design process (Salvo 274).

This practice of dialogic ethics, which encourages two-way communication between

practitioners and consumers, ensures user participation rather than user representation

and allows the user to provide information the designer may never have considered alone

(Salvo 275). It also engages people at an emotional level and creates trust between

business and consumers, leading to brand loyalty and mutual respect (Nunnally).

Arnett and his fellow authors state that this use of dialogic ethics begins with

understanding our own ground and our own understanding of the good. It is accompanied

by a desire to learn from the Other through engagement of difference (Arnett et al 95).

User engagement should start at the beginning of a project and extend through its entire

course to ensure the users voice isnt silenced. As Salvo says, Regard for the other is the

central principle for dialogic ethics, requiring that one see ones self in the place of the

other (275).

In this sense, dialogic ethics is the antithesis of the ethic of expediency, described by

Steven Katz as technical criteria as a means to an end (257). While the ethic of expediency

emphasizes the most convenient and practical route to a desired result, regardless of its

human implications, dialogic ethics recognizes the humanity of the user and respects their

input, through everything from one-time usability studies to important development

processes (Salvo 278). Katz also notes that technical writing, more than any other type of

communication, leads to action that impacts human life. Therefore, it is inextricably linked

to ethics and should be treated as such (Katz 259).

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The ethical responsibility of the designer is to maintain that dialogic relationship

with the consumer, making it possible to know the others needs, which is the point of

participatory design: to know from the others perspective what is needed to improve the

usability of the design (Salvo 276). While usability, Salvo says, is the essential process that

makes design conform to users needs, technical communicators are the mediators who

represent these needs (Salvo 277). Without a clear link between dialogic ethics and

usability testing, the technological users needs may never be expressed to the

technological producer and the design never altered to account for these needs (Salvo

278).

This ethical obligation of the technical communicator to inform producers of users

needs has the potential to put them at odds with both the design team and the end-user.

However, Salvo argues that this situation in fact opens up the avenue for true participatory

design and gives users the chance to be an integral part of the design process (280). He

continues to say that in participatory design, technical communicators play a unique role

and carry the burden of informing supervisors, product designers, and users when

communication or organizational issues place limits on design, rather than when it is

limited by the teams technical abilities (Salvo 281).

Recognizing the Audiences Humanity

Once a communicator understands the importance of audience input in the design

process and the ways in which the audience consumes information, they must take this a

step further and acknowledge how visual rhetoric and its elements -- including

photographs -- touch the humanity in each audience member.

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As Audra Buck-Coleman notes, Graphic design's messages can reach across streets

and across the globe; they can bring together countries, communities and strangers for a

common cause; they can also serve to divide otherwise amenable neighbors (191). This

quote particularly rings true when considering the use of photographs and their power to

touch viewers on a deep personal level. As Nancy Duarte states, Eloquent verbal

descriptions can create a strong impression, but frequently, a photograph or illustration

will make a more vivid imprint in the hearts and minds of the audience. When the human

mind recalls an image, it also recalls the emotion associated with that image (Duarte). For

that reason, the possible repercussions from the use of photographs require careful

consideration.

Former president of the National Press Photographers Association John Long states

that the same ethical principles that have long guided traditional photojournalism continue

to govern the use of photographs in print and online today (Long). When considering the

use of questionable photographs, Long argues that a distinction must be made between

what is truly unethical and what is simply distasteful. He states that while ethics refers to

lies or deceit, taste involves such things as blood, sex, violence and other aspects of life we

do not want to see in our morning paper as we eat breakfast (Long).

For example, while photos of dead soldiers may be of questionable taste, they are,

Long says, ethically acceptable because they provide vital pieces of information society

requires in order to make informed decisions. I feel bad for the family of the soldier [in the

photograph] but sometimes the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few, or the

one (Long).
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The selection of photos is not alone in requiring a humanistic approach. Graphics

also must adopt a similar ethic, according to Dragga and Voss. They argue that focusing

ethical discussions solely on the possibility of deception or distortion isnt sufficient;

conversations also should include ways to bring a sense of humanity into graphic elements.

We must recognize the equal obligation of the visual component to support and to

promote a humanized and humanizing understanding of technical subjects. In brief, ethical

visuals must be as humanistic as ethical words (Dragga and Voss 267).

For Dragga and Voss, this includes eliminating or altering visual elements that

depict deaths or other tragedies through the use of what they refer to as cruel graphics

showing a pitiless depiction of human suffering (Dragga and Voss 269). This includes bar

graphs or pie charts that depict deaths merely as statistics without regard for the human

condition they represent. Such graphics, they say, are the visual equivalent of referring to

human beings as which instead of who -- a minor grammatical error but a potentially

serious ethical failure (Dragga and Voss 269).

To humanize such graphics, Dragga and Voss propose the addition of a pull quote,

photo or pictograph to give the statistics the humanity of flesh and blood (269). This

addition of the human element into the visual equation (Dragga and Voss 270) creates a

more ethical groundwork for the audience to comprehend how the information truly

impacts the human condition.

How Visual Elements Work Together

Understanding the types of visual elements and how they work in conjunction with

each other helps communicators create visual rhetoric most appropriate to the needs of
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their audience. According to Alan Manning and Nicole Amare, there are three strategies at a

communicators disposal, each of which uses visual elements in a specific way:

1. Decoratives, which evoke feeling and include photographs, illustrations,

colors and fonts;

2. Indicatives, which provoke action and include bullet-pointed lists, boxes and

bold text; and

3. Informatives, which promote understanding and include tables, charts,

graphs and diagrams. (195)

Working cohesively, these three strategies create an environment for true ethical

communication to occur. However, when decoratives and/or indicatives interfere with a

documents informative purpose, ethical problems arise (Manning and Amare 195).

Examples of the misuse of decoratives include the over decoration of documents

with inappropriate or illegible fonts and clip art images that serve the designers aesthetic

goals, rather than the documents informative goals. Allen argues that this commonly

happens for two reasons: because the graphics are easily available and because

communicators are uninformed about their effects. In the absence of sufficient

background or guidelines, communicators may create misleading graphics when they only

intended to add aesthetic quality (Allen 93).

This is not to downplay the importance of aesthetics in visual rhetoric. In fact, as

Lucienne Roberts points out, For many designers, the property of goodness lies primarily

in aesthetics. Aesthetically pleasing design is not a luxury add-on, she continues, nor is

ethical design less visually engaging than unethical design (Roberts 75).
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Kostelnick goes even further when he argues that style choices are actually derived

from aesthetic judgments and that a readers response to and understanding of a document

is based on whether its design is appealing. We see documents before we read them: this

initial encounter evokes an aesthetic response but one with immediate practical

consequences. Since seeing precedes reading, the readers first glance influences the

information processing that follows. The balanced arrangement of visual elements on the

page, the contrast among these elements, the efficient use of space -- together these create

a unified visual display that predisposes the reader to respond favorably (or unfavorably)

to the information in the document (Kostelnick,The Rhetoric 200).

Hart agrees, stating that consumers expect emotional appeal and that good design

must be functional as well as attractive. He emphasizes, though, that aesthetic appeal -- or

elegance as he calls it -- is secondary to a documents accuracy, clarity and

comprehensiveness (Hart).

In the same vein, excessive or misplaced use of indicatives, such as bullet-pointed

lists, arrows, or boxes highlighting certain bits of information, can be considered an

unethical use of visual rhetoric (Manning and Amare 200). As Rosenquist states, ... to

compel someone to act without any clear purpose or benefit is itself a possible ethical

breach (50). This includes the use of visual elements that draw the viewers attention in

different directions with no discernable visual hierarchy (Rosenquist 50).

Hart describes the ethical use of indicatives when he says, ... design must not

scream so loudly for attention that it steals focus from the information; it must be

unobtrusive (Hart). This includes using legible fonts and including helpful components

such tables of content; indexes; prominent headings; and clear, concise text. It also allows
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online designers the opportunity to make their documents more accessible by allowing

users to choose fonts and adjust point size to meet their individual needs (Hart).

The very information on which a document is based must also maintain ethical

standards by conveying itself in a manner easily understood by the audience (Manning and

Amare 201). To process information, Manning and Amare argue that the audience must

first, either consciously or unconsciously, translate words into diagrams or icons. (201)

The meaning of any verbal information, if it is to be understood, has to be translated into

both perception (that is, what wed see, hear, or feel if the information is true) and action

(that is, how wed act if the information is true) (Manning and Amare 202). This is the

basis for why communicators present information as graphics, they argue -- to lessen the

burden on readers of converting complex text to mental icons, such as tables and graphs.

Either the speaker can foist on the audience all of this labor of reconstructing verbal

information as visual or other sensory information, or the speaker can at least partially

process the information visually, in advance, on behalf of the audience, by providing some

informative visuals (Manning and Amare 202).

The Importance of Credibility

After taking other ethical issues into the consideration, perhaps the most essential

concern for technical communicators is credibility. As stated in the Society for Technical

Communications Ethical Principles, To the best of our ability, we provide truthful and

accurate communications (Manning and Amare 196). This honesty principle may seem

obvious and simple to follow. However, technical communicators must be especially careful

that their use of visual rhetoric does not either intentionally or unintentionally mislead or
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fool audiences into believing a false assumption. The ramifications of doing so are both real

and far reaching. As Long notes, Once you damage your credibility, it is next to impossible

to get it back (Long).

Kostelnick argues that graphics are particularly susceptible to manipulation and

create cause for ethical concern. An entirely artificial form like a data display can be

particularly tendentious because designers have a great deal of leeway to visualize data

within the universe of conventional genres. That flexibility also allows designers to

manipulate data, which has generated widespread concern about the ethical abuses of data

design (Kostelnick, Melting-Pot Ideology 226).

In order to mislead a reader, communicators must tell the truth in such a way that

the reader misunderstands its relevance or relationship to the reality presented

(Herrington 154). This can occur through such methods as omitting the zero point on

charts to indicate artificially significant growth; using tables instead of charts to de-

emphasize comparisons; concealing information by using an inappropriate type of graphic

or placing it in a hard to find location; varying the size of icons in a graph; or other similar

strategies. (Allen 92, 95)

Herrington expounds on this idea by examining tables created by the Bureau of

Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms following the 1993 standoff at the Branch Davidian

compound near Waco, Texas. Although the tables depicting deaths and injuries to ATF

officers and Branch Davidian cult members may look similar, several important differences

exist. These differences include the use of larger typefaces, more white space, and an extra

column in the ATF table, making it appear longer. The ATF table uses simple language to

describe each persons injuries, while the Branch Davidian table uses technical medical
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terminology unfamiliar to many lay readers. In addition, while the Branch Davidian table

only includes deaths and significant injuries, the ATF table lists all injuries sustained,

including those as minor as severe irritation to left heel (Herrington 155-156).

Herrington argues that by incorporating misleading tactics such as these, readers

are led to overlook or underestimate the death and injuries to the Branch Davidian

members. These subtle types of deception are particularly troubling, she says, as even

readers who may be aware that statistics can lie are generally unaware of the power that

type sizes, textual font and style choices, and placement of text can have on readers

understanding (Herrington 154), and adds that a deceptive communication, regardless

of motive or utilitarian justification, is unethical and should have no place in acceptable

technical communication (Herrington 153).

Incorporating Ethics in Education

Given the many considerations technical communicators must make when creating,

selecting and designing ethical visual rhetoric, it only makes sense for these discussions to

be included in a comprehensive communication curriculum. While many students are

taught that design is an artform for personal expression, they are not educated in how their

designs impact their audiences. Nini argues that this is an ineffective way to instruct

students who will undoubtedly use their skills to communicate with audiences as an

integral part of their careers. The first thing I teach them in class is you start with the

audience. If you dont know who youre talking to, you cant talk to anybody (Pedersen,

cited in Nini).
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The need to educate students in ethical design practices isnt a new idea. In 2005,

Eva R. Brumberger called for increased attention to visual rhetoric in business

communication courses, arguing that, like writing, design is a rhetorically based process

and should be taught as such (319).

Rosenquist agrees, asserting that effective design education must include an

understanding of why visual images have specific effects on the viewer and how their

inappropriate or unethical use can cause a document to go wrong (49-50). She specifically

cites the classroom teaching strategy proposed by Linda Stallworth Williams in which she

requires students to reinvent a traditional sales letter using visual design elements such as

typeface, text arrangement, formatting and highlighting (Williams, cited in Rosenquist 47).

Although Williams requires a discussion and written analysis to help students understand

the role rhetorical strategies and language have on the effectiveness and ethics of sales

messages, Rosenquist argues this doesnt go far enough. Even though awareness of visual

design choices is a good starting point for discussion, students must also be instructed in

visual purpose and visual effect Without explicit links between visual design strategies

and the purposes they tend to effectively serve (or fail to serve), students are left with the

same subjectivity problem in choosing visual design strategies (Rosenquist 49-50).

Conclusion

As the role of technical communicators continues to evolve and expand, ethics must

remain a primary concern for all professionals in the field. Buck-Coleman succinctly sums

up this responsibility when she says, As image-makers for their community, and
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potentially the world, it is imperative that graphic designers use responsible language and

imagery (196).

The technical communicators impact is far reaching, particularly in an age when

their work can be shared around the globe in an instant. Essential to a technical

communicators career is his or her ability to compel an audience to take action. This is true

whether the audience is in an auditorium viewing a Powerpoint presentation or across the

world reading a document on the Internet. To ensure their success, technical

communicators must remain true to their ethical responsibilities and continually strive to

respect their audiences intelligence, humanity and time; to use their skills efficiently and

effectively; and to create documents that not only educate but also inspire.

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