Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow

It is not easy to calculate friction losses in pipes and channels with

turbulent flow due to the unsteady nature of flow.

The friction factor in the turbulent flow regime is therefore derived from
experimental analysis.

Nikuradse Equations

Experiments were performed on artificially roughened pipes. Two

important observations were made:

For low velocity - there is a Reynolds Number below which the pipe
   

has the same resistance as a smooth pipe.

The value of this Reynolds number is dependent upon the relative
roughness.
Nikuradse proposed the following equation for this “smooth zone of
flow”:

1 / f 0.5   =   4 log10 (Re (f)0.5 )   - 0.4           4000 < Re < 3.2 x 106

For higher velocity - there is a value of Reynolds number

   

above which the resistance of the pipe is independent of Re and is

solely a function of the relative roughness.

This “rough zone of low” is characterised by the following

   

equation.
 1 / f 0.5   =    4 log10 ( D / ks )    + 2.28

This result can be explained by the behaviour of the laminar sub-layer: in

the smooth zone this layer is so thick that roughness elements do not
project into the body of the flow and the pipe behaves as if it was smooth.

At higher flow rates this sub-layer gets thinner and roughness elements
project into the main body of the flow.

The flow state between fully rough and fully smooth is known as the
transition zone.

Colebrook-White Equation

Colebrook and White proposed the following general equation after

studying flow in real pipes:

1 / f 0.5   =    - 4 log10   [ (ks / 3.71 D)  +  (1.26 / Re (f)0.5)  ]

The values of friction factor obtained from the above equation are plotted
on a Moody diagram, which shows a family of curves for f plotted against
the relative roughness and Reynolds number.

Representative values of Relative Roughness (ks) are as follows.

Typical ks values

Pipe Material ks (mm)

 Cast Iron 0.250
Galvanised Steel 0.150
Uncoated Steel 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Concrete 0.30 to 3.0
Brass, copper, glass, perspex 0.003
Asbestos cement 0.030
Wrought iron 0.060
Plastic 0.030
Bitumen-lined ductile iron 0.030
Spun concrete lined ductile iron 0.030
Slimed concrete sewer 6.000

Uniform Flow Resistance Formulae

Over the years, various expressions have been developed with the
objective of predicting the velocity and depth of steady uniform flow in
an open channel under given conditions.

At the present time, three formulae retain significance – the Chezy

Formula, the Darcy-Weisbach Formula and the Manning Formula.

All three involve empirically determined roughness parameters.

Chezy Formula
V       =       C  ( R . S ) 0.5

Where;

V         =          the mean velocity of flow (m/s)

R          =          the hydraulic radius (m)

S          =          the channel slope (m/m)

C         =          the Chezy roughness coefficient

In general, C is a function of the flow Reynolds Number Re and the
relative roughness ks/R of the channel, ks being the characteristic height of
the roughness elements on the channel boundary, as tabulated for various
types of boundary surface by French (1985), Henderson (1966) and
others, and R the hydraulic radius.

For values of the Reynolds Number greater than about 106 the value of C
is virtually independent of the Reynolds Number and is related to the
relative roughness by the following expression:

C       =       (32 g)0.5  log10 [ 12 / (ks /R) ]

2. Darcy-Weisbach Formula

The Darcy-Weisbach formula is applied when calculating the head losses

in closed circular conduits.

hf     =       f  .  l  .  v2   /    2  .  g . d

where,

hf    =          head loss due to friction (m)

f     =          Darcy-Weisbach friction factor

l     =          length of the conduit (m)

v    =          velocity of fluid. (m/s)

g    =          acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

d    =          the diameter of the conduit (m)

The friction factor (f) depends in general upon the flow Reynolds
Number (Re) and the relative roughness.

The relation amongst the parameters is expressed by the Colebrook-

White Formula:
 1 / f 0.5         =       -2 log10 [ ( ks / 12 . R )  +  (  3 / Re . f 0.5) ]

This formula has been developed from data derived from pipe
experiments.

For very smooth boundaries, the term ks  /(12R) approaches zero, whilst
for flow under “wholly rough” conditions at high values of the Reynolds
Number Re the term 3/(Re.f  ½) approaches zero.

For open channels with relatively smooth boundaries, values of the

friction factor f may be estimated from pipe-resistance charts such as the
Moody Diagram.

In applying these charts to a free-surface flow, the Reynolds Number may

be calculated from the equation below and the relative roughness should
be taken as ks/4R.

Re     =        . v . d   /  

where,
     =          Density of fluid (kg/m3)

v    =          Mean flow velocity (m/s)

d    =          Diameter of conduit or pipe (m)

    =          the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,

(for water at 20oC  =  0.001300 kg/m s)

(for water at 10oC  =  0.001002 kg/m s)

Also Reynolds Number can be written as follows;

Re     =       V . A . R   /  

where,

V               =       Mean flow velocity (m/s)

A   =       Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)

R    =       the hydraulic radius (m)

    =       the kinematic viscosity of the fluid

(for water at 10oC and 20oC   is about 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

The friction factor (f) is dimensionless, and hence the value of f for a
given flow in a given channel is independent of the system of units.

3. Manning Formula

The following formula is used to evaluate the Chezy roughness

coefficient.

C       =       R1/5 /  n

where n is a roughness parameter which depends only upon the roughness
characteristics of the boundary surface and which is now known as the
Manning roughness parameter.

The Manning formula is essentially an empirical formula, based upon

field observations and laboratory measurements.

It is generally accepted that its validity for “fully-rough” flow conditions

is well established; fully-rough conditions will exist if n6(RS)½ is greater
than 10-13 approximately (with R in metres).

It is generally accepted that the Manning Formula should be adopted in

calculations associated with steady flow in open channels of medium to
large size.

Roughness Coefficients (n) for pipes and channels

Roughness coefficient
Surface
(n)
Glazed pipes, plastic pipes, very smooth iron pipes, neat
0.010
cement surface
Cement plaster, iron and other smooth pipes in good
0.011
condition
Concrete sewers >1500mm diameter 0.012

Concrete sewers 600 - 1500mm diameter 0.013

Cast iron, rough brickwork, ordinary concrete 0.015

Channels with brick sides and concrete base 0.015

Coarse brick, earth in good order channels 0.020

Earth canals and rivers free of stones and weeds 0.025

Earth canals and rivers with some stones and weeds 0.030

Canals and rivers with rough bases and much vegetation 0.040

Torrential rivers with beds of boulders and detritus 0.050

Channels  with very rough, heavy grasses and reeds 0.060