Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IP = 90-94%
HP = 88-90%
Fossil
Reheat
LP = 90-91%
Saturation
LP = 87%
HP = 82% Line
LP = 85%
Nuclear Reheat
Nuclear Non-Reheat
1 Heat Balance 2
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies 15
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance 21
4 Thermal Kit 65
Steam turbine output = generator output + generator electrical losses + turbine generator mechanical losses.
Historically, turbines have been designed to have 5% margins above required rated steam flows and
pressure to provide for manufacturing tolerances and variations in flow coefficients.
Therefore, the steam flow is 5% greater than that required for rated output with rated steam pressure (normal
pressure).
Under VWO-NP (VWO, normal pressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 104% of
rated.
The pressure margin is included to operate safely and continuously at 105% of rated pressure (overpressure)
with VWO.
Under VWO-OP (VWO, overpressure) condition, the turbine generator output is approximately 109% of rated
and the main steam flow is 110% to 111% of rated.
Recent trends indicate that some manufacturers are not including all of the 5% steam flow margin. The
designer may want to include only a part of the steam flow margin with consideration of the full over-pressure
operation margins.
The designers should specify that the turbine be capable of operation at VWO-OP because operators
typically attempt to operate at those conditions.
The designer needs to design the steam generator and balance of plant equipment to support the VWO-OP
conditions if he has included them in the establishment of the steam turbine generator rating.
Designing for the VWO-OP condition is recommended even if not included in the rating definition, because
significant output increase can be achieved at little cost by being capable of operating at VWO-OP.
Main Steam
Control V/V
Front
HP IP LP Gen Exciter
Standard
Ventilation
Cold V/V
Reheat
Reheat
Stop and
Reheater
Intercept
V/V Condenser
Hot Reheat
Heat Balance
Fossil, 700 MW, 3500 psig/1000F/1000F
Heat Balance
Fossil, 500 MW, 2400 psig/1000F/1000F
Heat Balance
Nuclear, 1000 MW
Heat Balance
Cycle performance is represented in the heat balance diagram which shows the steam/condensate flows,
pressures, temperatures, and enthalpies. These parameters are used to determine equipment design
conditions.
A complete heat balance provides enough information to balance the energy distribution.
Heat balance diagram also indicates ELEP and UEEP, generator losses and net generator output.
On the basis of this information, the engineer can perform an energy balance for the major equipment
associated with the turbine, feedwater, condensate, and heat rejection systems.
A number of heat balance computer programs are commercially available. However, it also can be performed
by hand calculation.
Hand calculation, which is time consuming caused by iteration, is instructive because it permits the engineer
to gain an understanding of the interrelationships of the various equipment.
99
86
51 99
2 1
HP IP LP Generator
3
5 4 6
Condenser
2.0 in.Hga
3%P 6
5 86
20 2
3%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 20
21 21
Make Up
SSR
6%P
4
51
54
52
52 54
1. The boiler feed pump suction conditions will be the temperature and pressure of the deaerator. Boiler feed
pump discharge pressure is 125% of the turbine throttle pressure.
2. The boiler feed pump efficiencies will vary with load as follows:
Condition BFP Efficiency
VWO-OP, VWO-NP, and rated load 84%
75% of rated 83%
50% of rated 67%
25% of rated 40%
3. For a turbine cycle with a motor-driven boiler feed pump, the variable speed coupling efficiency will vary with
load as follows:
Regenerative/Reheat Cycles
1. The reheater flow is approximately 90% of the throttle flow.
2. The BFPT extraction flow from an IP to LP turbine crossover is 4% to 6% of the throttle flow.
3. The turbine exhaust flow is 65% to 75% of the throttle flow, with the remaining flow being taken for heating
the feedwater and driving the BFPT.
a. For the low pressure (LP) heaters and deaerator, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow
for each 14F temperature rise.
b. For the high pressure (HP) heaters, the extraction flow is approximately 1% of throttle flow for each 10F
temperature rise.
5. If a heat balance is available for other than the desired load, ratio the extractions by the ratio of the throttle
flows for a first guess. However, these may differ up to 30% from the final calculations.
1 Heat Balance
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance
4 Thermal Kit
% %
46 0.88 in.Hga
2 42 40
1 120C
1.15
250 bar/540C
41 130C
39 1.25
T
TH 3
qin
QH
qin wturbine
qin
W
QL 2
wpump
TL 1 4
qout
W QH QL Q s
th 1 L
QH QH QH
. ( 100% ,
).
Stage Efficiency
h p1
1
h1 h2
st
h1 h2 s
Useful Energy
(Stage Work)
Available Energy
p2
2
b
2s a Stage Loss
89.1%
91.2% 180 psia
Saturation 1378.2 h
Line
1367.1 h
Pressure drop in the IP
Fossil Reheat 1364.6 h exhaust hood, the cross-over
pipe, or the LP turbine inlet
Nuclear Reheat
1361.0 h
Nuclear Non-Reheat
s s
Blade profile loss increases with blade length. However, the amount of secondary loss is not changed,
although blade length increases. This is same for the leakage loss. Therefore, stage efficiency increases with
blade length(height).
For this reason, the efficiency of HP turbine is lower than that of IP turbine.
LP turbine has longer blades, but its efficiency is lower than IP turbine. This is because the last several
stages of LP turbine are operated in the wet steam region. Typically, every 1% of wetness gives a 1% loss in
isentropic efficiency.
The efficiency of nuclear HP turbine is lower than that of fossil HP turbine because of moisture loss. This fact
is same for LP turbines.
Nuclear LP turbine uses moisture removal buckets to reduce the moisture loss as well as water droplet
erosion.
The turbine section efficiencies may have different values because the losses occurred at the interface are
included or not.
1 Heat Balance
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance
4 Thermal Kit
1. Superheating [1/3]
2 2
1 4 1 4
s s
[Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Nuclear Power] [Ideal Rankine Cycle for a Typical Fossil Power]
The higher the equivalent cycle hot temperature, the greater the cycle efficiency.
The average temperature where heat is supplied in the boiler can be increased by superheating the
steam.
1. Superheating [2/3]
1. Superheating [3/3]
Evolution of Rankine Cycle
T
Ultra Supercritical
Supercritical
1960
1940s
Except for choked turbine exhaust conditions, the lower the turbine exhaust pressure, the higher the
cycle efficiency.
HR
KW
HR 60%
1
100 Throttle Flow Rate
KW = change of generator kW 70%
90%
T 100%
3
4.5
Condenser
Pressure
3.5 (in.Hga)
p4
2 p4
2.5
2 1 4
1
4
Turbine output, kW
a a b s
195
2 F-40.0"LSB D-11 steam turbine for GE 207FA,
1800 psia / 1050F / 1050F
Steam Turbine Output, MW
190
2 F-33.5"LSB
2 F-30.0"LSB
185
180
175
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Condenser Pressure, in.Hga
[Exercise 5.1]
2.5 in.Hga 700 MW, heat rate 7826 Btu/kWh.
4.5 in.Hga 7980 Btu/kWh
. .
[Solution 1]
.
HR
KW
HR
1
100
HR = {(79807826)/7826}100 = 1.97%
KW = 1.97/(1+1.97/100)= 1.93%
[Solution 2]
HR = Q/W Q = 700,000 kW 7826 Btu/kWh = 5,478.2106 Btu/hr
W = Q/HR = 686,491 kW
W = {(700,000686,491)/700,000}100 = 1.93%
The casing becomes quite thick as the steam pressure increases, and consequently steam turbines exhibit
large thermal inertia. Therefore, steam turbine must be warmed up and cooled down slowly to minimize the
differential expansion between the rotating blades and the stationary parts. Large steam turbine can take
over ten hours to warm up.
T 3
Tmax, USC
USC
3 3
Tmax, subcritical
Subcritical
Critical
Point
2
2
2
1 4
Normally, the manufacturing companies indicate the guaranteed and expected performance of steam
turbines.
In the guaranteed performance the steam turbine is specified to produce a certain number of kilowatts while
operating at rated steam conditions, 3.5 in.Hga exhaust pressure, 0% cycle make-up, and other cycle
feedwater heating conditions.
To assure that the steam turbine will pass the guaranteed throttle flow, the turbine is frequently designed for
a steam flow rate larger than the guaranteed value.
This new value is sometimes called the expected steam flow and is usually around 105% of the guaranteed
value. For this reason, the actual output of the turbine is expected to be larger than the guaranteed value.
The turbine is guaranteed to be safe for continuous operation with valve wide open.
Furthermore, the turbine is also capable of operating continuously with VWO and at the same time at 105%
of rated initial pressure.
Under these conditions the expected steam flow would become maximum (approximately 110% of the
guaranteed value) and thus the expected turbine output.
VWO MGR NR 75 50 30
Constant Pressure Operation Sliding Pressure Operation
4. Reheating [1/6]
qRH
T
3 5 3
Turbine
Steam
qH generator qRH
HP LP G
4 qH
Reheater 4
wT
A wT 5
B 6
2 Condenser
wP 2 1
Pump
1 qL 4 6
wP qL
The steam from boiler flows to the HP turbine where it expands and is exhausted back to the boiler for
reheating.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved by reheating on the right hand side of the T-s diagram.
An improvement in cycle efficiency from a single reheat is only 2-3%. Although this is not dramatic, it is a
useful gain which can be obtained without major modification to the plant.
4. Reheating [2/6]
[Exercise 5.2]
.
4. Reheating [3/6]
h D
A
A-B-C: Nonreheat
A-B: HP Turbine
B B-D: Reheater
D-E: IP and LP Turbine
4%
E
8%
C 12%
16%
4. Reheating [4/6]
Schematic of Nuclear Power Plant
2 5
4
7
3 6 G
1
14 8
11 10
13 12 9
4. Reheating [5/6]
Moisture Separator Reheater
To From
Feedwater Main
Heaters Steam
Steam
Main
Dryers
Electrical LP Turbines
Generator Generator
Exciter HP Turbine
Main Steam
To Main
Transformer Condensate
Pump
4. Reheating [6/6]
Ideal Saturated-Steam Rankine Cycle with MSR (Nuclear)
3 6
It is clear that the equivalent Carnot cycle
temperature is this case is lower than for the
initial cycle. Thus, such steam reheat does not 4
improve the thermal efficiency. 5
2 4-5: Steam separator
5-6: Reheater
T
4
Turbine
3
4 G
Boiler
5
2
3 2
1 1 5 5 Condenser
1
Pump
a b c d s
If the liquid heating could be eliminated from the boiler, the average temperature for heat addition would be
increased greatly and equal to the maximum cycle temperature.
In the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, the water circulates around the turbine casing and flows in the
direction opposite to that of the steam flow in the turbine.
Because of the temperature difference, heat is transferred to the water from the steam. However, it can be
considered that this is a reversible heat transfer process, that is, at each point the temperature of steam is
only infinitesimally higher than the temperature of water.
At the end of the heating process the water enters the boiler at the saturation temperature.
Since the decrease of entropy in the steam expansion line is exactly equal to the increase of entropy in the
water heating process, the ideal regenerative Rankine cycle will have the same efficiency as the Carnot
cycle.
The boiler, in this case, would have no economizer, and the irreversibility during heat addition in the boiler
would decrease because of less temperature difference between the heating and heated fluids.
Instead, the turbine is furnished with the definite number of heaters to heat feedwater with extracted steam in
some stages.
This improves the cycle efficiency significantly, even though it remains lower than the Carnot cycle efficiency.
The heat input in the boiler decreases as the final feedwater temperature increases and the heat rejected in
the condenser getting smaller as the feedwater is heated higher using the extracted steam.
Reversible heat transfer and an infinite number of feedwater heaters would result in a cycle efficiency equal
to the Carnot cycle efficiency.
The greater the number of feedwater heaters used, the higher the cycle efficiency. This is because if a large
number of heaters is used, the process of feedwater heating is more reversible.
However, each additional heaters results in lower incremental heat rate improvement because of the
decreasing benefit of approaching an ideal regenerative cycle.
The economic benefit of additional heaters is limited because of the diminishing improvement in cycle
efficiency, increasing capital costs, and turbine physical arrangement limitations.
The amount of steam flow into condenser can be reduced dramatically by the employment of regenerative
Rankine cycle.
The LSB problems, such as water droplet erosion and longer active length, could be solved by the
regenerative Rankine cycle, which is made by steam extraction in many turbine stages.
Regenerative Rankine cycle also diminish the influence of the LP turbine, which has worst performance.
If HARP is involved in the cycle, the percentage of reheat flow to main steam flow is 75 to 80% instead of 85
to 92% as with the earlier designs without HARP.
When HARP is included in the cycle, the cycle efficiency is improved because feedwater temperature
becomes higher.
No. of Feedwater
Cycle HARP Heat Rate Benefit
Heaters
7 No Base Case
Single Reheat 8 No +0.2%
(4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F) 8 Yes +0.6%
9 Yes +0.7%
8 No Base Case
Double Reheat 9 No +0.3%
(4500 psi, 1100F/ 1100F/1100F) 9 Yes +0.2%
10 Yes +0.5%
6. LSB
Turbine output, MW
Change, %
0
reheater to the IP turbine intercept valves.
10%P
3%P
Reheater
99
86
51 99
2 1
HP IP LP Generator
3
5 4 6
Condenser
2.0 in.Hga
3%P 6
5 86
20 2
3%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 6%P 20
21 21
Make Up
SSR
6%P
4
51
54
52
52 54
The extraction line pressure drop occurs between the turbine stage and the reheater shell.
For extractions not at turbine section exhausts (HP exhaust and IP exhaust), 6% of the turbine stage
pressure is a typical design pressure drop.
Three percent is the drop across the extraction nozzle, and 3% is for the extraction piping and valves.
(Extraction nozzle pressures are typically 2% to 3% lower than the shell pressure. Heater operating
pressures are typically 3% to 5% lower than the nozzle pressure.)
For extractions at the turbine exhaust section, no extraction nozzle loss occurs and the total pressure drop is
3%.
The higher the extraction line pressure drop, the worse the cycle heat rate.
For a 2% increase in extraction line pressure drop for all the heaters (from 6% to 8%), the change in output
and heat rate would be approximately 0.09% poorer.
9. Makeup Flow
The makeup is necessary to offset the steam losses in the cycle and losses in the boiler associated with
boiler blowdown and steam soot blowing.
Typical amounts of the steam used for makeup are from 1% to 3% of the throttle flow.
Consideration should also be given to process extractions that involve less than 100% return of condensate.
The makeup water is typically supplied to the condenser hot well, increasing the total flow through the
heaters and pumps, and therefore must be heated in the feedwater cycle on the way to the boiler.
This additional flow results in higher feedwater heater thermal duties and therefore higher extraction flows,
and higher pump power requirements.
The effect of makeup on net turbine heat rate is approximately 0.4% higher per percent makeup. The effect
of makeup on output is approximately 0.2% lower per percent makeup.
These values are based on boiler blowdown at saturated conditions at the boiler drum pressure.
Air
Air Heater Preheater
Furnace Steam
Gas Out
Coil
Air In
The combustion air is heated by flue gas leaving the boiler prior to entering the boiler in order to improve
boiler efficiency by lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Preheating of the combustion air prior to air heater is used to keep the flue gas exit temperature above its
dew point temperature.
The water dew point occurs at approximately 120F, and the flue gas dew point varies with the quantity of
sulfur trioxide in the flue gas. The acid dew point occurs at a higher temperature than the water dew point.
If the flue gas temperature falls below the dew point temperature, sulfuric acid which can damage the air
heater and flue gas duct is formed.
LP extraction steam or hot water from the turbine cycle is often used as the preheating source. These
heating sources are readily available and minimize the impact on the turbine cycle because the
thermodynamic availability of the supply source is low.
The air preheater steam supply is often supplied from the deaerator extraction point which is normally the
IP/LP turbine crossover point.
If the air preheater has steam coils, crossover steam is used directly and condenses in the preheater.
If the air preheater use hot water, saturated water from the deaerator is supplied to the air preheater.
The condensate is either pumped back to the deaerator, returned to the condenser, or returned to an
intermediate LP feedwater heater point such as flash tank (
, ).
Condenser are normally specified to provide condensate at the condenser saturation temperature (0F
subcooling).
When subcooling occurs, the duty on the first feedwater heat increases, causing the extraction flow to the
heater to increase.
This decreases the turbine output and increases the turbine heat rate.
.024
.023
Heat Rate Increase, %
One method used to control the main steam and reheat steam temperatures is desuperheating by the spray
water into steam.
The source of spray water is typically boiler feed pump discharge for main steam spray, and an interstage
bleed off the boiler feed pump for reheat spray.
Alternatively, the spray water is taken from after the final feedwater heater.
Both main steam and reheat steam spray flows have an adverse effect on the turbine heat rate when the
spray water is taken from the boiler feed pump discharge.
The reason for this, in the case of main steam spray, is that the spray flow evaporates in the boiler and
becomes part of main steam flow. However, it bypasses the HP feedwater heaters, thus makes the cycle
less regenerative (using only five feedwater heaters).
In the case of reheat spray, the effect on heat rate is worse because cycle becomes less regenerative and
reheat spray flow bypasses the HP turbine and expands only through the reheat turbine section; thus, for the
steam flow that is reheat spray, the cycle is nonreheat.
.7
.6
desuperheating flow, %
.5
Correction for 1%
.2
.1
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Throttle flow, %
Feedwater heaters may need to be removed from service due to tube leaks.
Removing the top heater(s) from service eliminates turbine extraction for these heaters and increases steam
flow through the remaining sections of the turbine.
For a given throttle flow, turbine output increases because of the increased steam flow and cycle heat input
increases because of the lower final boiler feedwater temperature.
The turbine and cycle heat rates are poorer when removing the top heaters from service.
Some power plants are designed for removal of the top feedwater heaters to increase net plant output.
In this case, the boiler has higher heating duty because the boiler produces the steam having same throttle
steam conditions with maximum continuous rating under the condition with the lower final feedwater
temperature.
The turbine would need to be designed to accommodate the higher HP turbine exhaust pressure, increased
shaft power requirements in the IP and LP turbines, increased electric power generation, and increased
steam flow in the LP turbine last stage.
If the turbine specification requires increased output with removal of top heaters, the manufacturer may have
to select a larger last stage blade than optimal.
For existing units, the steam loading limit on LSB may prohibit increased output.
The engineer or operator should check with the turbine manufacturers literature or contact the manufacturer
directly for limitations on operation with heater removed from service.
[ Effect on turbine cycle performance with removal of top heater from service]
Case
Parameter
(500 MW, 7 feedwater heaters) Heater 7 out of
All heaters in service
service
HP turbine output, kW 151,400 142,823
IP and LP turbine output, kW 379,583 416,512
Generator and mechanical losses, kW 8,707 9,206
Net turbine output, kW 522,316 550,129
Net turbine heat rate, Btu/kWh 8,001 8,136
Final feedwater temperature, F 482 413
Turbine cycle heat input, MBtu/h 4,179 4,476
Turbine cycle heat rejection, MBtu/h 2,373 2,574
Steam loading on LSB, lb/h/ft2 14,233 15,459
When the heater removed from service, the HP turbine output decreases because turbine expansion
is reduced as a result of higher exhaust pressure caused by the greater cold reheat flow.
However, the output of the IP and LP turbine increases significantly because of increased steam flow.
A closed feedwater is a heater where the feedwater and the heating steam do not directly mix.
Open feedwater heaters (deaerators) directly mix the feedwater and the heating steam.
A closed feedwater heater may consist of three zones: the desuperheating zone, the condensing zone, and
the drain cooling zone.
All closed heaters have a condensing zone where the feedwater is heated by the condensation of the
heating steam.
Feedwater heaters that receive highly superheated steam require a desuperheating zone to reduce the
steam temperature to approximately 50F above saturation temperature before it enters the condensing
zone.
Temperature
The feedwater heater performance is
(Negative) TTD
determined by DCA (drain cooler approach)
and TTD (terminal temperature difference).
DCA
The DCA is the difference between the Feedwater Outlet
temperature of the drains leaving the heater Extraction Steam Inlet
and the temperature of the feedwater entering
the heater. Feedwater Inlet Extraction
Steam Outlet
The TTD is the difference between the
saturation temperature at the operating Travel Distance
pressure of the condensing zone and the
temperature of the feedwater leaving the [ Temperature profile for a closed feedwater heater ]
heater.
By decreasing the DCA of a heater, cycle efficiency is improved while the heater surface area is increased,
resulting in higher capital cost.
The practical minimum DCA for an internal drain cooler is 10F. But, the minimum practical limit is 5F for an
external drain cooler.
The heater may have a negative TTD when the temperature of the feedwater leaving the heater is higher
than the saturation temperature of the condensing zone because of the desuperheating zone.
If the desuperheating zone of the heater is removed, the feedwater temperature leaving the heater would be
less than the saturation temperature, resulting in a positive TTD.
The practical lower limit of TTD on a heater without a desuperheating zone is +2F.
The negative TTD limit for a heater with a desuperheating zone depends on the amount of superheat in the
extraction steam entering the heater.
The lower the TTD and DCA, the higher the cycle efficiency and the larger the heater surface area.
The more efficient cycle results in a lower heat rate and reduced fuel consumption, while the larger surface
area of a heater results in a higher capital cost.
1.0010
1.0005
Net turbine heat rate
Heater 6
correction factor
1.0000
0.9995
Heater 7
0.9990
TTD varied independently from
0.9985
base for each heater
0.9980
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
TTD, F
1.0015
1.0010
Net turbine heat rate
correction factor
1.0005
1.0000
0.9995
0.9990
TTD for LP heaters 1,2,3, and 4
0.9985 varied as a group from base
0.9980
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TTD, F
1.00025
1.00020
Net turbine heat rate
correction factor
1.00015
1.00010
The cost basis of technological improvements must be known to make an economic evaluation in todays
competitive marketplace.
One open literature investigated that the ranking of several technology improvement steps for better plant
efficiency. From least cost to highest cost per efficiency improvement, million US$ / % net LHV efficiency,
these were.
1 Heat Balance
2 Steam Turbine Section Efficiencies
3 Factors Affecting Cycle Performance
4 Thermal Kit
Data is provided based on a GE steam turbine having output of 412 MW and main
steam condition of 2,400 psig/1,000F/,1000F. The turbine is a reheat, tandem
compound, four-flow with 26LSB.
The turbine thermal kit is provided by the turbine manufacturer and consists of numerous characteristic
curves those are used to determine the steam turbine performance for various steam cycle conditions.
These curves are used to develop computer programs or to perform hand calculation of steam turbine
performance.
In addition, the turbine thermal kit includes correction curves that can be used to adjust actual turbine test
data to design or guaranteed turbine performance conditions.
These correction curves facilitate the comparison of actual performance to guaranteed performance.
The turbine manufacturer should supply a complete set of these curves to permit the adjustment of all cycle
parameters that may vary between guaranteed conditions and actual operating conditions.
These correction curves should be obtained and their use understood prior to conducting the performance
test.
In addition, turbine test procedures should be developed and agreement reached on their use prior to testing.
These procedures should illustrate methods of adjustment to reference conditions.
This information can be used to estimate changes in unit performance at off-design conditions.
These estimations can be performed by hand. However, some calculations can be lengthy, and if several
conditions are being evaluated, a detailed computer model is typically used with this information to predict
the performance of the actual turbine purchased.
3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
These lines are developed based on throttle, governing TT Exit from Governing
stage, and reheat conditions to determine the steam Stage
p1
enthalpy at the various extraction points on the turbine.
p1
Parallel Expansion
These lines are used in conjunction with a heat balance Line
and the extraction stage shell pressure curves or constants AE Partial Flow
to establish the extraction pressure at which to read the Expansion Line
expansion line enthalpy for a given extraction point in the Design Flow
AE
turbine. Expansion Line
ELEP
3. Expansion Lines
h p0 p1
T0
1 p2
2
p3
3 p4
Available Energy
4 p5
5 p6
3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
Heat rate
the HP turbine bowl conditions to the exhaust
conditions of the first stage. Mean of Valve Loop Basis
The throttling pressure drop reduces the available energy of the steam as the throttled admission steam
expands across the control stage.
Depending on the steam turbine manufacturer, curves of heat rate effect due to control valve position are
provided in the thermal kit.
3. Expansion Lines
HP Turbine
An alternative method of representing turbine heat rate impact due to turbine valve losses at part load is by a
mean of valve loop method.
This method is an approximation of the heat rate impact illustrated on the valve loop basis curve and
represents a mean of the turbine heat rate and passes through the valve loop curve.
For units operating with constant throttle pressure in partial arc admission mode, the pressure ratio through
the control stage is not constant.
As a result of the variation in pressure ratio, the available energy across the stage and the control stage
efficiency vary with throttle steam flow and conditions.
Therefore, expansion lines at different flow conditions for the control stage are not parallel to one another.
However, HP turbine stages downstream of the control stage operate with essentially constant pressure ratio,
and their expansion efficiency is essentially constant.
Therefore, at lower steam flows, the expansion line of the HP turbine stage group downstream of the control
stage is typically described as a straight line that is drawn parallel to the VWO expansion line.
3. Expansion Lines
Reheat Turbine
The expansion line for the reheat turbine (IP and LP Pressure Drop Through
turbines) typically includes a 2% pressure drop between sm sIV pIV p Intercept Valves, 2%
B
the reheat stop valve inlet and IP turbine bowl to account
hIV
for the pressure drop across the stop/intercept valves. hm TIV
Expansion Line
AE
The steam then expands through the IP turbine to LP
turbine.
3. Expansion Lines
Reheat Turbine
ELEP is plotted at the turbine back pressure used as the basis of the heat balance and represents a
complete expansion of the steam to the condenser pressure.
However, the steam leaving the LP turbine never actually reaches ELEP steam conditions because there is
exhaust loss occurring in the LP exhaust hood.
The actual exhaust condition, referred to as UEEP, is calculated as the sum of the ELEP and the exhaust
loss.
Since the stages upstream are unaffected by the exhaust loss, the expansion line describing the steam
condition in the IP and LP turbine stages is drawn to the LP turbine ELEP.
This permits determination of the steam condition for the reheat turbine extractions.
However, the expansion line for the LP turbine exhibits a curvature or varying slope. This variation in the
expansion line represents efficiency degradation caused by moisture loss.
5. HP Turbine ELEPs
1300
The curve is provided as a quick
reference for the leaving 1290
enthalpy of the steam exhausting
the HP turbine.
1280
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Intercept Valve Pressure 100 psia
The HP turbine efficiency curve
discussed previously provides a This curve assumes a pressure drop of 10 percent from high pressure
turbine exhaust to intercept valve. These high pressure expansion line
more versatile method for
end points cannot be used for other pressure drops.
determining expected HP turbine
exhaust conditions.
94
The reheat turbine internal
efficiency curves are plotted 93
Reheat Temp., F
efficiency, %
950
because it relates to steam 900
flow. 91 850
800
90
The turbine efficiency is 750
applied to the available energy 89
700
between the intercept valve
pressure and mixed bowl
88
enthalpy and a reference LP 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
turbine exhaust pressure of
1.5 in.Hga. Intercept valve pressure, 100 psia
1070
990
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Intercept Valve Pressure, 100 psia
These ELEPs are for heat balance calculations in which
grand leakage steam is used in the feedwater heating cycle.
To obtain the enthalpy of the steam entering the condenser,
read the curve at 1.5 in.Hga and correct to the desired
exhaust pressure, and correct for exhaust loss.
40
Gross Hood
20
2 23 65.5 32.9
3 26 72 41.1
34
4 30 85 55.6
5 33.5 90.5 66.1
30 Van = Annulus velocity (fps)
m = Condenser flow (lb/hr)
= Saturated dry specific volume (ft3/lb)
26 1 Aan = Annulus area (ft2)
Y = Percent moisture at ELEP
22 ELEP = Expansion line end point at actual
exhaust pressure (Btu/lb)
UEEP = Used energy end point (Btu/lb)
18
(1) Read the exhaust loss at the annulus velocity obtained from
the following expression:
14
Van = m(1-0.01Y) / 3600Aan
(2) The enthalpy of steam entering the condenser is the quantity
10 obtained from the following expression:
UEEP = ELEP + (Exhaust loss)(0.87)(1-0.01Y)(1-0.0065Y)
6
(3) This exhaust loss includes the loss in internal efficiency
which occurs at light flows as obtained in tests.
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Annulus Velocity, ft/s
7
The generator losses are a function of
generator kVA (not kW).
5
Therefore, if generator losses at a
kW
power factor other than design is 4
required, the curve should be read at
desired output (in kilowatts) multiplied 3
by the rated power factor divided by
the desired power factor. 2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Generator Output, 1,000 kVA
Generator losses do not include the
511,000 kVA at 45 psig H2 pressure
turbine generator fixed or mechanical
Conductor cooled 3600 rpm
losses.
Note:
Generator losses assume rated hydrogen pressure at all loads.
Generator loss at reduced hydrogen pressure (P) = Loss at rated hydrogen pressure
The mechanical losses should be 11.2(Prated P).
Use generator reactive capability curve to determine generator capability at reduced
accounted for separately and do not hydrogen pressure.
vary with unit load. Turbine generator mechanical losses are not included in the generator loss curve.
If hydrogen and stator liquid coolers are located in the condensate line, the loss
transferred to the coolers is 474 kW les than the generator loss at all loads.
2000
Pressure, psia
following equation should be used to
determine an equivalent throttle flow before
entering the curve. 1000
500
0
m th _ corrected m th _ actual actual 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
design Flow, lbs/hr x 1,000
th _ corrected
m corrected turbine throttle flow, lb/hr
m th _ actual actual turbine throttle flow, lb/hr
actual actual throttle steam specific volume, ft3/lb
design design throttle steam specific volume, ft3/lb
Correction Curves
There are five typical correction curves as follows:
The correction curves typically found in a thermal kit are intended to give approximate output and heat rate.
The correction curves are often provided for correction turbine test date to guaranteed conditions.
2 100
3. These correction factors are not guaranteed.
3
Change in Heat Rate, %
Rated Load 4
2
5 Poorer, %
Load Load
Load 1
Load 6 Rated Load +5
-5 Rated Load
Change in initial Load
1
pressure, % Load
2
Better, %
The curve allows for the correction of turbine output and heat rate for changes in throttle pressure.
The curve is developed based on holding a constant control valve opening while varying the turbine throttle
pressure.
A similar curve is provided in the ASME PTC(Power Test Code) 6.1, Interim Alternative Test Procedure for
Steam Turbines.
The manufacturer may provide a curve specifically developed for the turbine.
Increased throttle pressure at constant valve opening increases the mass flow to the turbine, which
increases the output of the unit.
The increased throttle pressure improves the turbine cycle efficiency as a result of increased available
energy.
Increasing the throttle temperature results in an increased specific volume, a decreased mass flow, and
decreased output.
The increase in throttle temperature increases the available energy to the turbine, increases the turbine cycle
efficiency, and reduces heat rate.
extraction flow to the LP heater, thus reduced both The percent change in kW load for various exhaust pressures is
equal to (minus percent increase in heat rate) 100/(100 +
exhaust flow and turbine output. percent increase in heat rate)
These factors give change in net turbine heat rate.
However, these effects are offset by the increased available energy. Therefore, output and efficiency typically
improve with reduced exhaust pressure.
However, as back pressure continues to decrease, the turbine may become choked.
Below the choking pressure, the turbine no longer benefits from increased available energy.
The turbine used in the thermal kit becomes choked at approximately 2.0 in.Hga for the maximum flow
condition.
As turbine exhaust flow decreases, the turbine becomes choked at lower exhaust pressures.
The point at which the turbine becomes choked depends on turbine design, exhaust flow, and exhaust
pressure.
18
16 6F32"
14
Power Gain, MW
12
4F38"
10
8 Choking
4F32"
6
4
4F30"
2
0
0 2 12 16 19 C
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: 2015.02.11 (Ver.5)
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