Introduction to Logic

PHIL 170

Eric Pacuit

University of Maryland, College Park

pacuit.org
epacuit@umd.edu

September 16, 2015

Announcements

I No problem sets this week.

I Read chapter 3.

I Quiz due Sunday, 11.59pm. (Lots of questions, so start the quiz

early!).

I Answer the Did I get it? and Learn by doing questions

(currently, only 51 out of 217 students have been working on this
part of the course...)

Eric Pacuit 1
Recap

I An argument is valid if it is impossible that the premises are all true

and the conclusions is false.

I Atomic formulae correspond to sentences that, from the point of

view of sentential logic, have no logically relevant internal structure.

I Logical connectives connect formulae in order to create new and

more complex formulae. We start with four logical connectives:
conjunction, disjunction, the conditional, and negation.

I Conjunction (&), disjunction () and negation ()

Eric Pacuit 2
Conditional, I

If Ann had coffee, then Bob had tea.

[Ann had coffee]1 and [Bob had tea]2 .

C Ann had coffee.
T Bob had tea.
C and T .

C & T.

Eric Pacuit 3
Conditional, I

If Ann had coffee, then Bob had tea.

If [Ann had coffee]1 , then [Bob had tea]2 .

C Ann had coffee.
T Bob had tea.
C and T .

C & T.

Eric Pacuit 3
Conditional, I

If Ann had coffee, then Bob had tea.

If [Ann had coffee]1 , then [Bob had tea]2 .

C Ann had coffee.
T Bob had tea.
If C , then T .

C T.

Eric Pacuit 3
Conditional, I

If Ann had coffee, then Bob had tea.

If [Ann had coffee]1 , then [Bob had tea]2 .

C Ann had coffee.
T Bob had tea.
If C , then T .

C T

Eric Pacuit 3
Conditional, II

I If John ran, then Mary laughed.

I If John ran, Mary laughed.

I Mary laughed, provided that John ran.

I Given that John ran, Mary laughed.

I Mary laughed if John ran.

I John ran only if Mary laughed.

Eric Pacuit 4
Conditional, II

I If John ran, then Mary laughed. (J M)

I If John ran, Mary laughed. (J M)

I Mary laughed, provided that John ran. (J M)

I Given that John ran, Mary laughed. (J M)

I Mary laughed if John ran. (J M)

I John ran only if Mary laughed. (J M)

Eric Pacuit 4
Modus Ponens

P
PQ
Q

Eric Pacuit 5
Exclusive Disjunction

Eric will have steak or fish.

Eric Pacuit 6
Exclusive Disjunction

Eric will have steak or fish.

Either Eric will have steak, or Eric will have fish (but not both).

Eric Pacuit 6
Exclusive Disjunction

Eric will have steak or fish.

Either Eric will have steak, or Eric will have fish (but not both).

Either Eric will have steak, or Eric will have fish (but it is not the case
that Eric will have steak and Eric will have fish).

Eric Pacuit 6
Exclusive Disjunction

Eric will have steak or fish.

Either Eric will have steak, or Eric will have fish (but not both).

Either Eric will have steak, or Eric will have fish (but it is not the case
that Eric will have steak and Eric will have fish).

(S F ) & (S & F )

Eric Pacuit 6
Unless

John will pick up Henry at the airport, unless Mary does it.

Eric Pacuit 7
Unless

John will pick up Henry at the airport, unless Mary does it.

If Mary doesnt pick up Henry at the airport, then John will pick up
Henry at the airport.

Eric Pacuit 7
Unless

John will pick up Henry at the airport, unless Mary does it.

If Mary doesnt pick up Henry at the airport, then John will pick up
Henry at the airport.

M J

Eric Pacuit 7
Practice
1. I will graduate this semester only if I pass intro logic.
2. Although it is raining, I plan to go jogging this afternoon.
3. Ann and Bob are Republicans, but they both hate Nixon.
4. If Ann will go only if Bob does not go, then either we will cancel the
trip or we will not invite Jay
5. Both Ann and Bob will go to the beach this weekend, provided that
neither of them is sick.
6. If I study too hard I will not enjoy college, but at the same time I
will not enjoy college if I flunk out.
7. Neither Ann nor Bob is able to attend the meeting.
8. I will not graduatate if I dont pass both Logic and Philosophy.
9. Unless logic is easy, I will pass only if I study.
Eric Pacuit 8
Practice, I
I will graduate this semester only if I pass intro logic.
If I will graduate this semester (G ), then I will pass intro logic (P).

G P

Eric Pacuit 9
Practice, I
I will graduate this semester only if I pass intro logic.
If I will graduate this semester (G ), then I will pass intro logic (P).

G P
Although it is raining, I plan to go jogging this afternoon.
It is raining this afternoon (R) and I plan to go jogging this afternoon (J).

R&J

Eric Pacuit 9
Practice, I
I will graduate this semester only if I pass intro logic.
If I will graduate this semester (G ), then I will pass intro logic (P).

G P
Although it is raining, I plan to go jogging this afternoon.
It is raining this afternoon (R) and I plan to go jogging this afternoon (J).

R&J
Ann and Bob are Republicans, but they both hate Nixon.
Ann is a Republican (A) and Bob is a Republican (B); and
Ann hates Nixon (H) and Bob hates Nixon (N).

(A & B) & (H & N)

Eric Pacuit 9
Practice, II
If Ann will go only if Bob does not go, then either we will cancel the trip
or we will not invite Jay
If it is the case that, if Ann will go on the trip (A), then Bob will not go
on the trip (B), then either we will cancel the trip (C )
or we will not invite Bob (I ).

(A B) (C I )

Eric Pacuit 10
Practice, II
If Ann will go only if Bob does not go, then either we will cancel the trip
or we will not invite Jay
If it is the case that, if Ann will go on the trip (A), then Bob will not go
on the trip (B), then either we will cancel the trip (C )
or we will not invite Bob (I ).

(A B) (C I )
Both Ann and Bob will go to the beach this weekend, provided that
neither of them is sick.
If Ann is not sick (S) and Bob is not sick (T ),
then Ann will go to the beach (A) and Bob will go to the beach (B).

(S & T ) (J & K )

Eric Pacuit 10
Practice, III

If I study too hard I will not enjoy college, but at the same time I will not
enjoy college if I flunk out.
If I study too hard (S), then I will not enjoy college (E ),
and if I flunk out of college (F ), then I will not enjoy college (E ).

(S E ) & (F E )

Eric Pacuit 11
Practice, III

If I study too hard I will not enjoy college, but at the same time I will not
enjoy college if I flunk out.
If I study too hard (S), then I will not enjoy college (E ),
and if I flunk out of college (F ), then I will not enjoy college (E ).

(S E ) & (F E )

Neither Ann nor Bob is able to attend the meeting.

Ann is not able to attend the meeting (A) and Bob is not able to attend
the meeting (B).

A & B (or: (A B) )

Eric Pacuit 11
Practice, IV

I will not graduatate if I dont pass both Logic and Philosophy.

If it is not the case that I pass logic (L) and I pass Philosophy (P),
then I will not graduate (G ).

(L & P) G

Eric Pacuit 12
Practice, IV

I will not graduatate if I dont pass both Logic and Philosophy.

If it is not the case that I pass logic (L) and I pass Philosophy (P),
then I will not graduate (G ).

(L & P) G

Unless logic is easy, I will pass only if I study.

If logic is not easy (E ), then it is the case that
if I pass logic (P), then I study for the exams (S).

E (P S)

Eric Pacuit 12
Expressions

Basic Expressions
I The capital letters we use to symbolize atomic sentences, called
atomic formulae or occasionally sentential letters: A, B, C , and so
on (possibly with numeric subscripts).
I The symbols for the logical connectives: & , , , and
I The parentheses used to disambiguate the scope of the connectives:
( and ).

Eric Pacuit 13
Expressions

Basic Expressions
I The capital letters we use to symbolize atomic sentences, called
atomic formulae or occasionally sentential letters: A, B, C , and so
on (possibly with numeric subscripts).
I The symbols for the logical connectives: & , , , and
I The parentheses used to disambiguate the scope of the connectives:
( and ).

Expressions of Sentential Logic

Any finite sequence or string of basic expressions is an expression of
sentential logic.

Eric Pacuit 13
Formulae

1. Every atomic formula is a formula of sentential logic.

2. If is a formula of sentential logic, then so is .

3. If and are formulae of sentential logic, then so are each of the

following:
a. ( & )
b. ( )
c. ( )

4. An expression of sentential logic is a formula only if it can be

constructed by one or more applications of the first three rules.

Eric Pacuit 14
 Expressions: A&B, A&B, (A , AB, . . .

Formulae: A, A, A&B, A&B, (A A), A B,

(A & B) (C D), . . .

Eric Pacuit 15
 Why are A & B, A&B, (A , and AB expressions?

Eric Pacuit 16
 Why are A & B, A&B, (A , and AB expressions?

Answer: Because they are strings of atomic formulae and logical

connectives.

Eric Pacuit 16
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

Eric Pacuit 17
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

I Since B and D are formula, so is B and D

Eric Pacuit 17
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

I Since B and D are formula, so is B and D

I Since A and B are formulae then so is A & B

Eric Pacuit 17
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

I Since B and D are formula, so is B and D

I Since A and B are formulae then so is A & B

I Since C and D are formulae, then so is C D

Eric Pacuit 17
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

I Since B and D are formula, so is B and D

I Since A and B are formulae then so is A & B

I Since C and D are formulae, then so is C D

I Since A & B is a formula, then so is (A & B)

Eric Pacuit 17
 Why is (A & B) (C D) a formula?

I A, B, C and D are all formulae (since they are atomic formulae)

I Since B and D are formula, so is B and D

I Since A and B are formulae then so is A & B

I Since C and D are formulae, then so is C D

I Since A & B is a formula, then so is (A & B)

I Since (A & B) and C D are formulae, then so is

(A & B) (C D)

Eric Pacuit 17
 He has an Ace if he does not have a Knight or a Spade.

(K S) A

Eric Pacuit 18
 (K S) A

(K S) A

(K S)

K S

Eric Pacuit 19
 (K S) A

(K S) A

(K S)

K S

Eric Pacuit 19
 (K S) A

(K S) A

(K S)

K S

Eric Pacuit 19
 (K S) A

(K S) A

(K S)

K S

Eric Pacuit 19
 (K S) A

(K S) A

(K S)

K S

Eric Pacuit 19
 (K S) A ( K S) A

(K S) A ( K S) A

(K S) K S

K S K

Eric Pacuit 20
 (K S) A ( K S) A

(K S) A ( K S) A

(K S) K S

K S K

Eric Pacuit 20
 Draw the parse tree for (A & B) (C D).

Eric Pacuit 21
 (A & B) (C D)

(A & B) (C D)

(A & B) C D

A B D

B
Eric Pacuit 22
 A&BC

Eric Pacuit 23
 A&B C A & BC

A&B C A B C

A B B C

Eric Pacuit 23
 (A & B) C

(A & B) C

A B

Eric Pacuit 23
Find the parse trees

A&B&C

A&BC

A C

A & B C

A & B C

Eric Pacuit 23
Fun problems to think about...

Imagine you have been transported to the mysterious Island of Knights

and Knaves where every inhabitant is either a knight or a knave. Every
knight always tells the truth and every knave always lies.

You stop for gas and the attendant says, Either I am a knight or I am
not a knight. What is he?

Suppose that you see a tall person and a short person. Suppose that you
are given the following information: The tall one is a knave and/or the
short one is a knight. What can you conclude about the two people?

Eric Pacuit 24
Fun problems to think about...

There are three suspects for a murder: Adams, Brown and Clark. Adams
says I didnt do it. The victim was an old acquaintance of Browns. But
Clark hated him. Brown states I didnt do it. I didnt even know the
guy. Besides I was out of town all that week. Clark says I didnt do it.
I saw both Adams and Brown downtown with the victim that day. One
of them must have done it. Assume that the two innocent men are
telling the truth, but that the guilty man might not be. Who did it?

Eric Pacuit 25
Fun problems to think about...

An advertisement for a tennis magazine states, If Im not playing tennis,

Im watching tennis. And if Im not watching tennis, Im reading about
tennis. We can assume that the speaker cannot do more than one of
these activities at a time. What is the speaker doing?

Eric Pacuit 26