CottON intro

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of cotton
plants of the genus Gossypiumin the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. Under
natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds.[clarification needed]

The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the
Americas, Africa, and India. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico,
followed by Australia and Africa.[1] Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New
Worlds.

The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use
of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated from
5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and the Indus Valley Civilization in Indian
subcontinent between 6000 BC and 5000 BC. Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the
invention of thecotton gin that lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it
is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today.

Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually,
accounting for 2.5% of the world's arable land. China is the world's largest producer of cotton, but
most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many
years.[2] In the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately
0.48 cubic meters (17 cubic feet) and weigh 226.8 kilograms (500 pounds).[3]

USES OF COTTON

Cotton is known for its versatility, performance and natural comfort. Its used to make all
kinds of clothes and homewares as well as for industrial purposes like tarpaulins, tents,
hotel sheets and army uniforms.

Cotton fibre can be woven or knitted into fabrics such as velvet, corduroy, chambray, velour, jersey
and flannel. In addition to textile products like underwear, socks and t-shirts, cotton is also used in
fishnets, coffee filters, book binding and archival paper. Cotton is a food AND a fibre crop. Cotton
seed is fed to cattle and crushed to make oil. This cottonseed oil is used for cooking and in products
like soap, margarine, emulsifiers, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastics.

Linters are the very short fibres that remain on the cottonseed after ginning. They are used to
produce goods such as bandages, swabs, bank notes, cotton buds and x-rays.

After scouring and bleaching, cotton is 99% cellulose. Cellulose is a macromolecule a polymer
made up of a long chain of glucose molecules linked by C-1 to C-4 oxygen bridges with elimination
of water (glycoside bonds). The anhydroglucose units are linked together as beta-cellobiose;
 therefore, anhydro-beta-cellobiose is the repeating unit of the polymer chain (see Figure 5 ). The
number of repeat units linked together to form the cellulose polymer is referred to as the degree of
polymerization.

Cotton, as a natural cellulose fiber, has a lot of

characteristics, such as:

Comfortable Soft hand.

Good absorbency.
Color retention.
Prints well.
Machine-washable.
Dry-cleanable.
Good strength.
Drapes well.

Wool intro

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals,
including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut frommuskoxen, angora from rabbits, and
other types of wool from camelids.[1]

Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it is elastic, and it grows
in staples (clusters).[2]

Characteristics[edit]

Wool's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to
each other, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other
textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific heat
coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples,
as Bedouins and Tuaregsuse wool clothes for insulation.

Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on
the surface of wool fibers hook together.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may
have up to 100 crimps per inch, while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as one or two.
In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind intoyarn. On sheep, the
hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to
breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or
other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth ofScotland.
Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one-third of its
own weight in water.[3] Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white
color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and
random mixes.

Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate
of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or
drip;[4] it forms a char which is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic
gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets.[5] Wool carpets are specified
for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for
firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[5]

Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic.[

Uses

In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths,
carpeting, felt, wool insulation (also see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and
it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined
their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.

Wool has also been traditionally used to cover cloth diapers.[citation needed] Wool fiber exteriors are
hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this
makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments
remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly
antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for
covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.

Initial studies of woolen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more
readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers.[34]

Merino wool has been used in baby sleep products such as swaddle baby wrap blankets and infant
sleeping bags.

As an animal protein, it can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen
Structure

The principal component of hair is a protein molecule called keratin. All protein molecules consist
of long chains of small molecular units, the amino acids, of which there are 20 different kinds. Each
keratin molecule in hair consists of many hundreds of amino acid units, arranged in an irregular
order, although not a random one by analogy, the letters in this sentence are in an irregular order,
but the sentence has meaning. The order in keratin determines how the molecules fit together,
giving the hair strength and flexibility.
The long chains of keratin could be compacted, called the alpha-form (shown left) or stretched out,
called the beta-form (shown right). Using his X-ray analysis, Astbury showed that the elasticity or
stretchiness of wool fibres was due to the compacted alpha-keratin protein fibres unfolding into the
more extended beta-form.

Dna intro

Deoxyribonucleic acid ( i/diksirabonjklik, -klek/;[1] DNA) is a molecule that carries

the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all
known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and
complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one of the three major types
of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of
twobiopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are
known aspolynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides.[2] Each
nucleotide is composed of anitrogen-containing nucleobase
either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)as well as
a sugarcalled deoxyribose and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a
chain by covalent bondsbetween the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next,
resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T,
and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide
strands to make double-stranded DNA. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is
estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[3] In comparison, the total mass of
the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).[4]

STRUCTURE

DNA is made up of six smaller molecules -- a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate
molecule and four different nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine). Using
research from many sources, including chemically accurate models, Watson and Crick discovered
how these six subunits were arranged to make the the structure of DNA. The model is called a
double helix because two long strands twist around each other like a twisted ladder. The rails of the
ladder are made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The steps of the ladder are made of
two bases joined together with either two or three weak hydrogen bonds.

The basic building block of DNA is called a NUCLEOTIDE. A nucleotide is made up of one sugar
molecule, one phosphate molecule and one of the four bases. Here is the structural formula for the
four nucleotides of DNA. Note that the purine bases (adenine and guanine) have a double ring
structure while the pyrimidine bases (thymine and cytosine) have only a single ring. This was
important to Watson and Crick because it helped them figure out how the double helix was formed.

These pictures show a ball and stick model of two DNA nucleotides. Gray balls are carbon atoms,
blue balls are nitrogen, red balls are oxygen and the pink ball is phosphorous. Nucleotide (purine)
CytosBase Pairs
The nucleotides of DNA line up so that the sugar and phosphate molecules make two long
backbones like the handrails of a ladder. To make the rungs of the ladder, two bases join together,
between the sugar molecules on the two handrails. The phosphate molecules do not have any
"rungs" between them. THERE IS ONLY ONE WAY THE BASES CAN PAIR UP ON THE RUNGS OF
THE DNA LADDER. An adenine molecule only pairs with a thymine. A cytosine only pairs with a
guanine. They can pair in either order on a rung, giving four possible combinations of bases --A-T or
and CG or G-C

Believe it or not, it is this chain of base pairs that makes up the code that controls what everything
looks like. (See How DNA Works to learn how.) Below is a picture showing how the bases pair. You
will see that a purine with two rings always pairs with a pyrimidine with one ring. In this way the
width of the DNA molecule stays the same. The dotted lines represent weak hydrogen bonds. These
form between parts of the molecules that have weak positive and negative charges. Because the
hydrogen bonds are weak, they are able to break apart more easily than the rest of the DNA
molecule. This is important when DNA reproduces itself and when it does its main work of
controlling traits that determine what an organism looks like.

USES

DNA carries the genetic code and this is what is read by the protein synthesis mechanism when it
makes new proteins.

The relationship between DNA and proteins is vital for living organisms. A protein is an abundant
and complex molecule found in the body. These may be important for forming the body structure
(Structural proteins), messengers, enzymes, hormones etc

Proteins

Proteins (/protinz/ or /proti.nz/) are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of

one or more long chains of amino acidresidues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within
living organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication,responding to stimuli,
and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another
primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of
their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specificthree-dimensional
structure that determines its activity.

A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long
polypeptide. Short polypeptides, containing less than 20-30 residues, are rarely considered to be
proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid
residues are bonded together by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues.
Structure

Most proteins fold into unique 3-dimensional structures. The shape into which a protein naturally
folds is known as its native conformation.[12] Although many proteins can fold unassisted, simply
through the chemical properties of their amino acids, others require the aid of
molecular chaperones to fold into their native states.[13] Biochemists often refer to four distinct
aspects of a protein's structure:[14]

Primary structure: the amino acid sequence. A protein is a polyamide.

Secondary structure: regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The
most common examples are the -helix, -sheet and turns. Because secondary structures are
local, many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein
molecule.
Tertiary structure: the overall shape of a single protein molecule; the spatial relationship of the
secondary structures to one another. Tertiary structure is generally stabilized by nonlocal
interactions, most commonly the formation of ahydrophobic core, but also through salt bridges,
hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and even posttranslational modifications. The term "tertiary
structure" is often used as synonymous with the term fold. The tertiary structure is what
controls the basic function of the protein.
Quaternary structure: the structure formed by several protein molecules (polypeptide chains),
usually called protein subunits in this context, which function as a single protein complex.

Characteristics of Proteins

Proteins are organic substances, they are made up of nitrogen and also, oxygen, carbon an d
hydrogen.
Proteins are the most important biomolecules, they are the fundamental constituent of the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Proteins are the structural elements of body tissues.
Proteins are made up of amino acids.
Proteins gives heat and energy to the body and also aid in building and repair.
Only small amounts of proteins are stored in the body as they can be used up quickly on
demand.
Proteins are considered as the bricks, they make up bones, muscles, hair and other parts of
the body.
Proteins like enzymes are functional elements that take part in metabolic reactions.
Antibodies, blood haemoglobin are also made of proteins.
Proteins have a molecular weight of 5 to 300 kilo-daltons.
Uses

Hormones. Many of the hormones such as insulin and progesterone are proteins.

Oxygen transport. Hemoglobin, a blood protein, carries oxygen to the cells.

Cellular repair. Heat shock proteins help rebuild our cells after stress.

Binding and transport of nutrients. Transferrin, metallothionine, ceruloplasmin and

other transport proteins bind to minerals and other things, and carry them
throughout the body.

Movement. Muscle protein (such as myoglobin) is responsible for our ability to

move.

Holding genetic information. Proteins such as RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) in the nuclei of our cells are responsible for the genetic
code.

Structural proteins. Proteins are also essential for the body structure. Bone consists
of a protein matrix that fills with calcium and other minerals. Other structural
proteins include collagen, cartilage, elastin and keratin that form the skin and other
structures.

Enzymes. All enzymes are proteins. Thousands of enzymes facilitate every chemical
reaction in the body.

Conversion to fuel. Proteins may also be converted to sugar or fat to be used as fuel
for the body. This is not ideal, but it does occur in some people.

SILK

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of
silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons.[1] The
best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberrysilkworm Bombyx
mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the
triangular prism-like structure of the silk fibre, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at
different angles, thus producing different colors.

Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for
textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other types of silk, which differ at the
molecular level.[2] Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoingcomplete
metamorphosis, but some adult insects such as webspinners also produce silk, and some insects
such as raspy cricketsproduce silk throughout their lives.[3] Silk production also occurs
in Hymenoptera (bees, wasps,
and ants), silverfish, mayflies, thrips,leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges.[2] Other
types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such asspiders (see spider silk).

USES

Silk's absorbency makes it comfortable to wear in warm weather and while active. Its low
conductivity keeps warm air close to the skin during cold weather. It is often used for clothing such
as shirts, ties, blouses, formal dresses, high fashion clothes, lining, lingerie, pajamas,robes,
dress suits, sun dresses and Eastern folk costumes. For practical use, silk is excellent as clothing
that protects from many bitinginsects that would ordinarily pierce clothing, such
as mosquitoes and horseflies. Silk's attractive lustre and drape makes it suitable for
many furnishing applications. It is used for upholstery, wall coverings, window treatments (if
blended with another fiber), rugs, bedding and wall hangings.[citation needed] While on the decline now,
due to artificial fibers, silk has had many industrial and commercial uses, such as inparachutes,
bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillery gunpowder bags.[citation needed]

Fabrics that are often made from silk include charmeuse, habutai, chiffon, taffeta, crepe de
chine, dupioni, noil, tussah, and shantung, among others.

A special manufacturing process removes the outer irritant sericin coating of the silk, which makes
it suitable as non-absorbable surgical sutures. This process has also recently led to the introduction
of specialist silk underclothing for people with eczema where it can significantly reduce
it.[44][45] New uses and manufacturing techniques have been found for silk for making everything
from disposable cups to drug delivery systems and holograms.[46] To produce 1 kg of silk, 104 kg of
mulberry leaves must be eaten by 3000 silkworms. It takes about 5000 silkworms to make a pure
silk kimono.[47]:104 The production of silk is called sericulture. The major silk producers
are China (54%) and India (14%).[48] Other statistics:[49]

STRUCTURE

Natural silk is one of the strongest textile fibres, and this can be accounted for by the stretched-out
molecular form. Silk (78% protein) is much stiffer than wool in spite of both being proteins made
from amino acids chains. Silk fibres have fine draping qualities and are naturally crease-resistant
and bring about a warm feel to the skin.

Of the 3-4000 metres of fibre in a cocoon, laid out as a figure of eight by the movement of the head
of the pupae, less that one third is generally usable with much of the remainder being processed
separately.

Silk emitted by the silkworm consists of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin, fibroin being the
structural center of the silk, and serecin being the sticky material surrounding it. Fibroin is largely
made up of the amino acids Gly-Ser-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala and forms beta pleated sheets, -keratin.
 R = H, glycine; R = CH3, alanine; R = CH2OH, serine

Hydrogen bonds form between chains, and side chains form above and below the plane of the
hydrogen bond network.

The amino acid compositions of the silk proteins are shown below. B. mori silk fibroin contains a
high proportion of three -amino acids, glycine (G; Gly, 45%, R=H), alanine (A; Ala, 29%, R=CH3),
and serine (S; Ser, 12%, R=CH2OH), in the approximate molar ratio of 3:2:1, respectively. Tyrosine,
valine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, etc. make up the remaining 13%.

Characteristics
1. Composition:

The chief constituents of silk are 'fibroin', the protein substance, consisting of two filaments, each of
which is called a 'bring' held together by 'sericin' a gummy substance that gives the bake (cultivated
cocoon) a rather uneven surface.

2. Strength:

Silk is the strongest natural fiber. The continuous length of the filaments in thrown yarns provides a
factor of strength above what is possible with short natural fibers.

3. Elasticity:

Silk is an elastic fiber; however its elasticity varies, as expected of a natural fiber. It may be
stretched from 1/7 to 1/5 its original length before breaking.

4. Resilience:

Silk fabrics retain their shape and resist wrinkling rather well.

5. Heat conductivity:

Silk is a non-conductor of heat. Because it prevents body heat from radiating outward. Silk has a
pliability and suppleness that give an excellent capability.

6. Absorbency:

Silk fiber has the good absorptive properties, which can generally absorb about 11 percent of its
weight in moisture, but the range varies as much as 30 percent.
7. Effect of Moisture and Friction:

This fiber is not affected by moisture. It does not shrink or stretch when wet. Friction may spoil the
smooth, soft texture of the fiber and therefore, washing silk fabrics should be avoided.

8. Reaction to Bleaches:

Strong bleaches containing hypochlorite i.e. javelin water has a harmful effect on silk. Other mild
oxidizing bleaches may be used with normal caution.

9. Shrinkage:

Smooth-surfaced silk fabrics have only a normal shrinkage, which is easily restored by ironing.

10. Effect of Heat:

Silk is somewhat sensitive to heat.