ETHICS ON GENETICS

Group Members
Jalalon, Joseph Angelus
Gurrea , Luijie
Loquellano, Ed Jerimeh
Nazareno, Jake
Munez, Christian June
Ong, Michael
Jacob, Kingsely
Lo, Tom Mychelle
Jainudin, Elman
Macanip, Rex
Kintanar, John Emmanuel

Whats inside?
I. Review on Genetics
II. Genetics Timeline
III. Review on the Principles of Bioethics
IV. Ethical Issues on Genetics
V. Application on Ethical Theories

Human Genetics
-is the scientific study of inherited human variation.
Heredity
-is biological process where a parent passes certain genes onto their children or
offspring

The building blocks of DNA are nucleotides.

Each nucleotide has a sugar , a phosphate and a nitrogen base ,
, or
There are 4 different nitrogen bases in DNA and they can vary from one nucleotide to
the next
The alternating bases provide the CODE

Gene- A part of DNA that codes for a protein

Inheritance
-All cells (apart from egg/sperm cells) have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

-One copy of each pair is inherited from the mother and the other from the father.

Sex Cells

-Sperm and egg cells only have half the number of chromosomes (23)
-At fertilization the nucleus of a sperm unites with the nucleus of an egg to produce a complete
set of chromosomes (46).

Some of Conditions caused by DNA changes

-Abnormal number of chromosomes

-Downs syndrome, Edwards syndrome,
-Deletion
-Cri Du chat, Williams syndrome
-Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
-Turner syndrome, Klinferlters syndrome
-Single Gene Mutations
-Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell anaemia

Genetic Profiling
-Take a sample of cells (blood, hair root)

-Extract the DNA from cells

-Cut up the DNA

-Separate the DNA fragments

-Analyze the DNA fragments

Genetic Testing for specific Conditions

-Take a sample (blood/amniotic fluid, mouth swab)

-Use staining of chromosomes to locate any chromosome abnormalities

-or use matching DNA sequences or antibodies to detect gene abnormalities

Summary of Genetic Profiling

-Parents pass on genetic material to their offspring.

-DNA carries this genetic information.
-Mutations can occur in DNA that cause debilitating conditions and these mutations can be
passed on to offspring.
-Techniques exist that can analyse the DNA sequences in a human.
-It is possible to identify genetically determined health problems or health risks in individuals
-There are ethical and social concerns in releasing this sensitive information to third parties.
Timeline on Genetics

5000 BC
Demonstrating some understanding of inheritance, humans worldwide begin to
selectively breed more useful varieties of livestock and crops, including wheat, maize, rice and
dates

400 BC
Greek philosophers contemplate the mechanisms of human inheritance. Aristotle
believes that traits acquired during life, such as injuries, can be passed to offspring. He also
develops the theory of pangenesis, which attempts to explain how these traits are transmitted
via particles called gemules to the reproductive cells

1859
Charles Darwin, himself a proponent of pangenesis, publishes On the Origin of Species
his explanation of evolution by natural selection. Darwin provides a plethora of evidence on how
valuable traits become more common in a population, but does not provide any explanation for
the mechanism of transmission of these traits

1866
Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel publishes his work on the patterns of inheritance in
pea plants. His meticulous studies mark the birth of modern genetics. Mendels findings escape
the notice of other researchers for over three decades

1882
Chromosomes are discovered by German biologist Walter Fleming, and named with the
Greek prefix meaning colour because they become stained when cells are dyed

1902
Mendels research is rediscovered by botanists in 1900. US and German cell biologists
then independently notice the link between Mendels units of inheritance and chromosomes.
They conclude that hereditary information is contained within chromosomes

1905
Sex chromosomes are discovered following work on butterflies and beetles

1910
US scientist Thomas Hunt Morgan is the first to discover a sex-linked trait, while
studying the fruit fly Drosophila. The trait for eye colour, on the X chromosome, is also the first
gene to be traced to a specific chromosome

1925
Studies show that X-rays can induce mutations in the genetic material

1944
A trio of US geneticists revisit work from the 1920s and prove that, in bacteria, DNA is
the hereditary material, and not protein as was previously suspected
1978
Genetically modified bacteria produce the hormone insulin

1983
The gene for an inherited disorder (Huntingtons disease) is mapped to a chromosome for the
first time

1990
The international Human Genome Project begins, with the goal of sequencing the entire human
genetic code
Gene therapy is used successfully for the first time, to treat a four-year-old girl with the rare
hereditary immune disorder adenosine deaminase deficiency

1994
FlavrSavr tomatoes, genetically modified to have a long shelf-life is the first GM product to go
on sale in the US. GM tomato puree goes in sale in the UK in 1996

1996
Bakers yeast is the first (non-viral) genome to be completed, followed by the
worm Caenorhabditis elegans in 1998 and then the plant Arabidopsis and fruit fly Drosophila in
2000

2000
Completion of the draft human genome is jointly announced by US firm Celera Genomics and
the Human Genome Project (an international public consortium). The full sequence
comprising 30,000 to 40,000 genes is completed in 2003

2003
A tropical fish that fluoresces bright red becomes the first genetically modified pet to go on sale
in the US

Major Ethical Issues:

1. Genetic Testing
This refers to biochemical studies or chromosomal analysis for purposes of detecting
genetically-cause diseases. Ethical issue: Privacy of the people with such DNA disorders. Some
are even prohibited to marry and have offspring when diagnosed with some DNA abnormalities.

2. Prenatal diagnosis
Malformation or deformity of the fetus in utero is detected as early as fifth month or
sixteenth week of pregnancy, onwards. Moral issue: There is no law regulating abortion for
those babies detected with abnormality which, at the moment, no treatment yet. So parents
would opt out to terminate pregnancy.
-Questions of the value of mentally or physically challenged people in society, and
whether Eugenic solutions are appropriate.
-How to ensure that information about testing options is given in a non-directive and supportive
way.
-That parents are well informed if they have to consider abortion vs. continuing a pregnancy.
3. Genetic screening
Goes hand in hand with genetic testing

4. Genetic Control/ Designer Babies

A designer baby is a human embryo that has been genetically modified, usually
following guidelines set by the parent or scientist, to produce desirable traits. This is done using
various methods, such as gene therapy or PGD. This technology is the subject of ethical debate,
bringing up the concept of genetically modified "superhumans" to replace modern humans

-If the process is not done carefully, the embryo could be accidentally terminated.
-Furthermore, the technology used is not 100% safe yet. It is only in the experimental stages at
this point.
-Parents may use this technology for superficial purposes; such as purposely seeking out a
blonde haired, blue eyed baby for appearance concerns only.
-Could create a gap in society. Designer babies would most likely be better looking, smarter,
etc. This could create classes between designer and non designer babies

-Geneticists are not perfect people and cannot 100% properly evaluate every gene. It is more
than likely mistakes will be made.
-Individuality will be slighted. Because most people will seek out good-looking, intelligent babies
with other optimum characteristics, everyone will be relatively similar.
-The procedure is not cheap, and not everyone would be able to afford it. Could create
prejudice between Designer and non designer children. Could cause the non-designer
children to miss opportunities because jobs among other things are more likely to take the
optimum candidate for something.
-The ability to change as humans will falter.

5. In vitro fertilization
There are three elements to consider with in vitro fertilization. First, the paramount
concern needs to be the well-being and best interests of the child, even though he or she may
be an embryo at the time. Second, some people think a child will solve their marital problems.
Although couples seeking in vitro fertilization should not be subjected to more scrutiny than
couples conceiving in the traditional way, the stresses and uncertainties of in vitro fertilization
can further strain a marriage. Clinic staff members should be sensitive to this issue as a way of
helping to avoid complications later. Third, how we resolve the status and fate of the frozen
embryo and who has disposition over it surely will reflect how we consider abortion rights. For
example, if the standards of Roe vs Wade were applied, one could argue that the woman
should have total disposition over the frozen embryo. On the other hand, if the father receives a
say in the matter, what impact would this have? Given the nature of our society and the
tenuous state of marriage, the problem of disposing frozen embryos is a critical one that has no
satisfactory solution. Finally, there is the stress factor. Although this is not an issue of direct
ethical concern, it is related to the necessity of the couple receiving accurate information. If the
couple receives an incorrect impression of a clinic's success rates, they may be exposed
unnecessarily to further stress and frustration.

6. Embryo transfer
7. Human Cloning
Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. The term is
generally used to refer to artificial human cloning, which is the reproduction of
human cells and tissue. It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical
twins.

Ethical question: The issue of a unique being of an individual.

8. Sperm and zygote banking

9. Surrogacy

While there are many religious organizations that frown upon the process of surrogacy,
this concept is oftentimes the only option for some individuals to start a family. It is for this
reason that some highly controversial and key ethical issues be addressed.

Attachment with the Gestational Mother In a surrogate situation, the gestational mother is the
woman who carries the baby to term. This can be a very taxing process both physically and
emotionally and unique in that after the surrogate mother physically carries the baby
throughout the pregnancy, she needs to physically and emotionally detach herself from the
child once it is born.

Involvement with the Gestational Mother Because the gestational mother will not likely be the
child's primary caretaker, there could be legal questions that arise in terms of what if any
involvement she will have with the child once born.

Identity of the Child There are also ethical considerations that are brought to mind in terms of
informing the child of his or her surrogate mother, as doing so may have an effect on the child's
self-identity.

10. Organic transplant and sex organ transplantation

Clinical organ transplantation has been recognized as one of the most gripping medical
advances of the century as it provides a way of giving the gift of life to patients with terminal
failure of vital organs, which requires the participation of other fellow human beings and of
society by donating organs from deceased or living individuals. The increasing incidence of vital
organ failure and the inadequate supply of organs, especially from cadavers, has created a wide
gap between organ supply and organ demand, which has resulted in very long waiting times to
receive an organ as well as an increasing number of deaths while waiting. These events have
raised many ethical, moral and societal issues regarding supply, the methods of organ
allocation, the use of living donors as volunteers including minors. It has also led to the practice
of organ sale by entrepreneurs for financial gains in some parts the world through exploitation
of the poor, for the benefit of the wealthy. The current advances in immunology and tissue
engineering and the use of animal organs, xenotransplantation, while offering very promising
solutions to many of these problems, also raise additional ethical and medical issues which must
be considered by the medical profession as well as society. This review deals with the ethical
and moral issues generated by the current advances in organ transplantation, the problem of
organ supply versus organ demand and the appropriate allocation of available organs. It deals
with the risks and benefits of organ donation from living donors, the appropriate and acceptable
methods to increase organ donation from the deceased through the adoption of the principle of
'presumed consent', the right methods of providing acceptable appreciation and compensation
for the family of the deceased as well as volunteer and altruistic donors, and the duties and
responsibilities of the medical profession and society to help fellow humans. The review also
deals with the appropriate and ethically acceptable ways of utilizing the recent advances of
stem cell transplantation from adult versus fetal donors, tissue engineering and the use of
organs from animals or xenotransplantation. Data provided in support of the concept that
clinical organ and tissue transplantation can be more beneficial and life saving if everyone
involved in the process, including physicians and medical institutions, respect and consider the
best interests of the patients, as well as honor the ethical, moral and religious values of society
and are not tempted to seek personal fame or financial rewards.

Conclusions/What should we do?

1. Incorporate in education

2. Gene therapy and pre-implantation diagnosis for 6-8 cell embryos will be thoroughly
assimilated into obstetrics technologies. Indeed all that remains for such technologies to be
assimilated are a few technological advances.
How much should parents be able to use such technologies to design their offspring? What are
the moral objections to design of offspring that are most useful in initiating public conversation?

3. genetic issues are exceptional.

Genetic predictive information is different than cholesterol testing
But in general, the result of thinking about genetics by itself, rather than in the context of other
similar technologies, has been excessive spending on gene research while public health goes
unfunded.

4. suggestion is thus that in a future where public health genetics, parenting by genetic test,
and new reproductive technologies are part of our life, we must reconstitute our social
institutions so that it is possible to fund, discuss, and regulate genetics in the same way we
think about its competitors: environmental medicine, nutrition, and public health.