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1007/s42064-017-0009-2
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This paper presents the crucial method for obtaining our teams results in the 8th Global branch and bound
Trajectory Optimization Competition (GTOC8). Because the positions and velocities of optimization
spacecraft cannot be completely determined by one observation on one radio source, the symmetric observing
branch and bound method for sequence optimization of multi-asteroid exploration cannot configuration
be directly applied here. To overcome this difficulty, an optimization method for searching GTOC
the observing sequence based on nominal low-thrust trajectories of the symmetric observing low thrust
configuration is proposed. With the symmetric observing configuration, the normal vector of
the triangle plane formed by the three spacecraft rotates in the ecliptic plane periodically and
approximately points to the radio sources which are close to the ecliptic plane. All possible
observing opportunities are selected and ranked according to the nominal trajectories
designed by the symmetric observing configuration. First, the branch and bound method is Research Article
employed to find the optimal sequence of the radio source with thrice observations. Second, Received: 16 December 2016
this method is also used to find the optimal sequence of the left radio sources. The nominal Accepted: 20 June 2017
trajectories are then corrected for accurate observations. The performance index of our 2017 Tsinghua University
result is 128,286,317.0 km which ranks the second place in GTOC8. Press
B jiangfh@tsinghua.edu.cn
26 H. Yang, G. Tang, F. Jiang
levels of techniques The first level is about global First, the symmetric observing configuration and its
searching. One of the most popular approaches is nominal trajectories are further analyzed. Second, the
to approximate low-thrust trajectories by impulse algorithms for optimization of the observing sequence
trajectories and then search the optimal asteroid are given in detail.
sequence through the branch and bound method [5]. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In
Because impulse trajectories are not equivalent to Section 2, the problem of GTOC8 is briefly introduced.
low-thrust trajectories, fast methods for evaluating Section 3 presents and analyzes the symmetric observing
low-thrust trajectories are presented as well [6, 7]. configuration. In Section 4, the designed nominal
Additionally, there are studies about determining trajectories of the symmetric observing configuration is
optimal gravity assist sequences [8,11]. The second level introduced and analyzed. Section 5 presents the branch
is about low-thrust trajectory optimization. Amount and bound method for searching the optimal observing
sequence. Section 6 concludes the paper.
of powerful techniques have been proposed, such as
smoothing techniques [2, 4], parallel computation [3],
a shape-based trajectory technique [9], etc. However, 2 Background
two new features appear in the problem of GTOC8
compared with the previous GTOCs, leading the In this section, the problem of GTOC8 [1] is briefly
problem to be more complex. Three spacecraft need introduced. Three low-thrust propelled spacecraft are
to cooperate for observations. More importantly, the launched to formulate a series of triangles to observe
radio sources. The equation of motion of each spacecraft
directions of the radio sources cannot be used to
is
determine the position and/or velocity of any of the
r Tmax u
spacecraft. Although the problem of GTOC7 is also r + 3 = (1)
r m
about a multiple spacecraft mission [12], searching of
target sequences of each spacecraft can still be regarded where r is the position vector of the spacecraft in the
independently. Besides, the position and velocity of each Earth Mean Ecliptic and Equinox of J2000 frame,
spacecraft are equal to that of the target asteroid at each is the gravitational constant of the Earth, Tmax is the
maximal thrust magnitude, and m is the mass of the
rendezvous time.
spacecraft. The maximum magnitude of the thrust is
A symmetric observing configuration is found by the
0.1 N. The control variable consists of the unit vector of
authors during GTOC8. With this configuration, the
thrust direction and the engine thrust ratio u [0, 1].
observing direction rotates periodically in the ecliptic
The mass variation is computed by
plane, which is preferable for repetitive observations of
the radios close to the ecliptic plane. This configuration Tmax u
m = (2)
is also taken as an efficient tool by some other Isp g0
teams such as the team of State Key Laboratory where Isp is the specific impulse, and g0 is the standard
of Astronautic Dynamics and the team of Chinese acceleration of gravity at the sea level.
Academy of Sciences [13, 14]. These teams [13, 14] both The three spacecraft are launched from a 400-km
got excellent results. One of main differences between altitude circular orbit around the Earth. The whole
our method and their method is that the optimization mission is no more than 3 years.
The range of the spacecraft relative to the Earth must
of the observing sequence. In this paper, we take the
obey the following condition:
idea of using the branch and bound method to search
the optimal observing sequence. Different from the 6578.14 km 6 r 6 1,000,000.0 km (3)
application of the branch and bound method in sequence An observation is recorded when the normal direction
searching of the multiple asteroid rendezvous mission of the observing triangle is aligned with the direction
[5], the searching in the current paper is based on the of a radio source. The direction error must be less
pre-designed nominal trajectories so that no lambert than 0.1 deg. The time intervals between two adjacent
problems need to be solved. observations must be no less than 15 days.
Our method for GTOC8 has been briefly introduced The performance index J to be maximized is [1]:
in our previous conference paper [15]. Compared with X
P h 0.2 + cos2
J= (4)
that paper [15], this paper makes two contributions.
Optimization of observing sequence based on nominal trajectories of symmetric observing configuration 27
where P is the weighting factor, h is the smallest of the is shown in Fig. 2. As for this configuration, the following
three altitudes of the observing triangle, and is the four conditions are satisfied: (1) two of the three
declination of the observed radio sources. An altitude spacecraft, denoted as S1 and S2 , orbit symmetrically
of a triangle is the perpendicular distance from a vertex about the ecliptic plane; (2) the other one of the three
to the opposite side (or its extension) [1]. The observing spacecraft, denoted as S3 , stays in the ecliptic plane;
altitude h must be larger than 10,000 km for effective (3) the orbits are all circular with the same radius; (4)
observations. The weighting factor P takes on the values the arguments of latitude of S1 and S2 are the same (the
of 1, 3, 6, and 0 for repeat observations according to the ascending nodes are opposite) while the difference in the
rules. The most attractive case is to observe the same
radio source for three times and the three observing
altitudes satisfy h2 /h1 > 3 and h3 /h2 > 3.
(10)
or
2 = arctan 2 4sinsinicos, 2sin2 sini(cosi+1)
(11)
Because the difference between 1 and 2 keeps
, only the variation of 1 is analyzed herein. Both
directions will be considered in searching the optimal
sequence. Besides, the considered range for is from 0 Fig. 3 Periodicity of the observing direction with different
to 2 in the rest of this paper. If is less than zero, inclinations.
Optimization of observing sequence based on nominal trajectories of symmetric observing configuration 29
Table 1 State variables of spacecraft immediately after the Moon gravity assists
Spacecraft Epoch (MJD) x (km) y (km) z (km) vx (km) vy (km) vz (km) Mass (kg)
1 59077.839 52941.717 372202.105 0 0.672 0.900 0.028 1994.145
2 59077.839 52941.717 372202.105 0 0.672 0.900 0.028 1995.612
3 59090.705 54833.246 385500.332 0 0.876 0.653 0 1994.060
S2 are very close to the ecliptic plane. To achieve The nominal trajectories in each stage are presented
the final observing configuration as well as adjust the and analyzed below.
size of the configuration for obtaining desired observing Nominal trajectories in stage 1
altitudes, both circularization and adjustments of The designed nominal trajectories for stage 1 are
orbital inclination are essential. shown in Fig. 5. According to the figure, the semimajor
The designed nominal trajectories in our methods axis of each spacecrafts orbit increases and all orbits
belong to four stages. In the first stage, the orbits of are circularized during this stage.
the three spacecraft are circularized and adjusted to The history of the observing altitude and direction
construct the symmetric observing configuration. The for stage 1 are shown in Fig. 6. The reason that there
target radius is set to 0.99106 km. In the second stage, are two color lines in Fig. 6(b) is because has two
the inclinations of S1 and S2 are changed to 13 deg and solutions. This explanation also holds for the figures
the time spent on this stage is 2 orbital periods. In order in other stages. According to the figure, the observing
to achieve observations with high performance, a radio altitude and direction are not periodic in this stage.
source needs to be observed three times and the three This is because the symmetric observing configuration
observing altitudes should satisfy hmax /hmid > 3 and has not been constructed before this stage.
hmid /hmin > 3 [1]. The h for each i takes its maximum Nominal trajectories in stage 2
when = . The variation of h with respect to i when The designed nominal trajectories for stage 2 are
= is shown in Fig. 4. The inclination of 13 deg is shown in Fig. 7. According to the figure, both the
chosen to make the maximum observing height at the inclinations of S1 and S2 change during this stage and
last coast stage as about 1/3 of the largest observing then stay at the desired values.
height. The length of this period is approximate to The history of the observing altitude and direction for
those of the first stage and the last coast stage. The stage 2 are shown in Fig. 8. The first wave in Fig. 8(a)
reason that this ratio is not exactly 1/3 is to make the is not the same as other three waves because the
period of the third stage as integral multiples of the half inclination adjustment is conducted. After that, both
orbital period. In the third stage, the inclinations of S1 the observing altitude and direction becomes periodic.
and S2 are changed to 60 deg. In the fourth stage, all And the range of the observing direction is from 0 to
spacecraft coast until the mission ends. 2.
(a) (a)
(b) (b)
Fig. 6 History of the observing altitude and direction in stage 1. Fig. 8 History of the observing altitude and direction in stage 2.
Nominal trajectories in stage 3 The history of the observing altitude and direction
The designed nominal trajectories for stage 3 are for stage 3 are shown in Fig. 10. According to the
shown in Fig. 9. According to the figure, both the figure, the peaks of the wave increases. This is because of
inclinations of S1 and S2 change continuously during this the inclination adjustment. But, the observing direction
stage. is almost periodic. And the range of the observing
Optimization of observing sequence based on nominal trajectories of symmetric observing configuration 31
(b)
Fig. 10 History of the observing altitude and direction in stage 3.
direction is from 0 to 2.
Nominal trajectories in stage 4
The designed nominal trajectories for stage 4 are
shown in Fig. 11. According to the figure, all spacecraft
keep coasting during this stage. (a)
(b)
Fig. 11 Nominal trajectories in stage 4. Fig. 12 History of the observing altitude and direction in stage 4.
32 H. Yang, G. Tang, F. Jiang
trajectories. With these nominal trajectories, we are shown in Fig. 13, where the stars denote the
propose an algorithm to select all possible observing observing opportunities and the dashed lines represent
opportunities. After that, a global optimization method, the boundaries of the four stages.
the branch bound method, is employed for optimization As shown in the figure, the widths of stage 1,
of the observing sequence. stage 2, and stage 4 are almost the same. Moreover,
the maximum altitudes of these three stages satisfy
5.1 Selecting possible observing hmax /hmid > 3 and hmid /hmin > 3. We will search the
opportunities optimal sequence of the thrice observed radio sources in
The following algorithm is used for selecting possible these stages. Because the thrice observed radio sources
observing opportunities: dominate the performance index, we conducted this
Step 1 Initialize the discrete time points {t1 ,. . . , search first. After the optimal thrice observing sequence
tN } between ts and tf with the time interval of one day. has been determined, we conducted optimization of the
Step 2 Compute h and at the discrete time sequence with twice and once observed radio sources.
points.
5.2 Optimization of the sequence of the
Step 3 Find all observing possibilities with the
thrice observed radio sources
selected radio sources between tk and tk+1 (k = 1,. . . ,
N 1) based on . Use linear interpolations to obtain The branch and bound method is used for the
observing time points and h at these time points. optimization of the sequence with thrice observed radio
Step 4 Sort all possible observations according to sources. Because the observations with P = 6 dominate
observing time. the performance index, we conducted the searching
The time interval for the discrete time points is set in stage 4 first. The searching procedure is shown in
to 1 h. The positions of the three spacecraft at these Fig. 14. In this figure, PN k represents the number of
time points are calculated by a cubic spline method. the radio sources.
Because the declinations of the selected radio sources As illustrated in Fig. 14, we take last 30 points of the
are small, a radio source is regarded as observed if its observing opportunities in Fig. 13 as the starting point
right ascension is the same as that of the observing in the searching procedure. In this way, the observing
direction. The declination error will be corrected after opportunities near the last wave crest are all considered.
the sequence has been optimized. The observing time Besides, the opportunities with high observing altitude
and the observing altitude between two adjacent discrete are preferred. The points whose observing altitude h
time points are computed by the linear interpolation. is less than 7.0105 km are discarded, as indicated by
With the algorithm mentioned above, we select the dashed boxes in the figure. Then, we increase the
all the possible observing opportunities as well as sequence step by step. As for the point PN k , the points
the corresponding observing altitudes. The results from PN k1 to PN k50 are considered and the point
Fig. 13 History of the observing altitude and all possible observing opportunities.
Optimization of observing sequence based on nominal trajectories of symmetric observing configuration 33
1 with P = 1. The searching procedure is similar to that minor to the performance index, we introduce the
for stage 2. After the branch and bound searching, we approach briefly. First, radio sources that will be
obtain 1,384,288 observing sequences. Then, the best repeatedly observed twice (P = 1, 3) is searched. The
observing sequence is taken as the optimal observing searching procedure is similar to that for thrice
sequence. The result is shown in Table 4. The increment observations, but the searching area for P = 3 are in
to the performance index in this stage is small because stage 3 and stage 1 while searching area for P = 1 is
P = 1 and the observing altitudes are small. in stage 1. Only the radio sources which have not been
The distribution of the optimal observations with selected for thrice observation are considered. And the
three times is shown in Fig. 16. As the prediction stated selected radio sources in this section must satisfy the
in Section 4, the observing sequence in stage 4 has the constraint of time intervals. Second, all other radio
same appearing order as that in stage 2. sources that can be observed once (P = 1) is searched.
The result of the observing sequence with two
5.3 Optimization of the sequence with observations is listed in Table 5 and the result of the
twice and once observed radio sources observing sequence with one observation is listed in
After the optimal sequence with thrice observations Table 6. The increments due to twice observation and
is obtained, the branch and bound method is used once observation is much smaller compared with that of
for optimization of the sequence with twice and once the thrice observation. The total performance index is
observations. Because these observations contribute 126,298,367.8 km which is a little smaller than our final
Table 4 Optimal observing sequence with three times of observations
Observing sequence J (km) J (km)
223-199-193-206-200-212-207-220-214-224-201-213 679587.2 115798807.3
Table 5 Result of the observing sequence with two observations Table 7 Result of the observing sequences submitted
Observing sequence J (km) J (km) Category Number of points Radio source
204-209-190 4259296.0 120058103.3 223, 199, 193, 206, 200, 212,
Rsp136 12
207, 220, 214, 224, 201, 213
Table 6 Result of the observing sequence with one observation Rsp13 3 204, 209, 190
Rsp11 1 211
Observing sequence J (km) J (km)
Rsp1 6 198, 203, 195, 218, 205, 216
211-198-203-195-218-205-211-216 6240264.5 126298367.8
Rsp136 = radio sources observed exactly thrice with P =1, 3,
and 6.
result. This is because the observations designed by Rsp13 = radio sources observed exactly twice with P =1, 3.
the nominal trajectories are not accurate. After orbit Rsp11 = radio sources observed exactly twice with P = 1 both
times.
corrections for accurate observations, the performance
Rsp1 = radio sources observed exactly once with P = 1.
index will change.
The distribution of the optimal observations with one spacecraft for observing radio sources. With the
and two times is shown in Fig. 17. According to this observing configuration, the normal vector of the
figure, all these observations happen in stage 1 and stage triangle plane formed by the three spacecraft rotates in
3. the ecliptic plane periodically and approximately points
to the radio sources which are close to the ecliptic
5.4 Results with accurate observations
plane. The searching procedures using the branch and
After the observations are approximately designed, bound method based on nominal trajectories for optimal
orbit corrections are conducted to obtain accurate observing sequence is then proposed.
observations. The introduction on the orbit corrections The obtained optimal sequence has 50 observations
can be found in Ref. [15]. The trajectories of the three and 22 unique radio sources. Specifically, 12 radio
spacecraft for accurate observations are shown in Fig. sources observed exactly thrice with P = 1, 3, and
18. 6; 3 radio sources observed exactly twice with P =
The summary of the optimal observing sequence 1, 3; 1 radio source observed exactly twice with
submitted is shown in Table 7. The final performance both P = 1; and 6 radio sources observed exactly
index is J = 128 286 317.0 km. once with P = 1. The performance J of the optimized
low-thrust trajectories for accurate observations is
128,286,317.0 km. These results are exactly the same as
6 Conclusions that we submitted in GTOC8. The second place ranking
In this paper, the symmetric observing configuration is of our performance in GTOC8 implies advantage and
used for designing low-thrust trajectories of three effectiveness of our method.
Fig. 17 Distribution of the optimal observations with one and two times.
36 H. Yang, G. Tang, F. Jiang
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Acknowledgements esa.int/gtoc portal.
[13] Shen, H.-X., Huang, A.-Y., Zhang, Z.-B., Li, H.-N.
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Hongwei Yang received his Ph.D.
multiple asteroid tour missions. Journal of Guidance,
degree in aerospace engineering from
Control, and Dynamics, 2011, 34(6): 17091720.
Tsinghua University, China, in 2017,
[4] Jiang, F., Baoyin, H., Li, J. Practical techniques for
and he was a visiting Ph.D. student of
low-thrust trajectory optimization with homotopic
Rutgers University, USA, in 20152016.
approach. Journal of Guidance, Control, and
Dynamics, 2012, 35(1): 245258. His current research interests include
[5] Jiang, F., Chen, Y., Liu, Y., Baoyin, H., Li, J. GTOC5: dynamics and control near asteroids,
Results from the Tsinghua University. Acta Futura, interplanetary trajectory design, and
2014, 8: 3744. optimization. E-mail: yang.hw.thu@gmail.com.
[6] Casalino, L. Approximate optimization of low-thrust
transfers between low-eccentricity close orbits. Journal Gao Tang received his bachelor
of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 2014, 37(3): degree and master degree in aerospace
10031008. engineering from Tsinghua University,
[7] Gatto, G., Casalino, L. Fast evaluation and
China, in 2010 and 2012, respectively.
optimization of low-thrust transfers to multiple
He is currently pursuing his Ph.D.
targets. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics,
degree in the Department of Mechanical
2015, 38(8): 15251530.
[8] Yang, H., Li, J., Baoyin, H. Low-cost transfer between Engineering and Material Science at
asteroids with distant orbits using multiple gravity Duke University, USA. His current
assists. Advances in Space Research, 2015, 56(5): 837 research interests include dynamics and control in
Optimization of observing sequence based on nominal trajectories of symmetric observing configuration 37
robotics, interplanetary trajectory optimization, and current research interests include astrodynamics, spacecraft
global optimization methods. E-mail: gao.tang@duke.edu. formation flying, and interplanetary trajectory optimization.
E-mail: jiangfh@tsinghua.edu.cn.
Fanghua Jiang received his B.S. degree
in engineering mechanics and Ph.D.
degree in mechanics from Tsinghua
University, China, in 2004 and 2009,
respectively. Since 2009, he has worked
in the School of Aerospace Engineering
at Tsinghua University, China, including
two years of postdoctor, three years of
research assistant, and two years of associate professor up
to now. Currently, he is an AIAA senior member. His