Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011.

School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

The Context of New Leadership A Story Beyond Numbers

Jasna Kovacevic, PhD. Student

School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

jasna.kovacevic@efsa.unsa.ba

Abstract
Multidisciplinary nature of leadership often had led researchers to slippery grounds. Exposed to biases,
researchers are witnessing inconsistent and contradictory results of their studies mainly due to the presence of
contextual contingencies which are complex but an essential part of leadership process. While traditional
quantitative research is being criticized for oversimplifying the context of leadership, qualitative research is
considered neglected due to pressure to quantify data from the studies. Both methodologies have pros and
cons in social sciences. The purpose of this review is to analyze one qualitative and two qualitative-quantitative
studies in the field of New Leadership approach, aiming to acknowledge and accent the need for a more
integrated qualitative-quantitative research design. It is presumed how integrated research will enable
researchers to thoroughly collect, analyze and interpret data in an unbiased and scholarly manner.
Furthermore, advantages of integrated research design will be outlined, reflecting on the results of analyzed
studies.

Keywords: charismatic leadership, ethical leadership, integrated research design, transformational

leadership, triangulation

1. Introduction
As a multidisciplinary and complex phenomena, leadership sets many invisible obstacles to
researchers in this field. It is dynamic, non-universal and influenced by contextual forces
which differ from organization to organization, from culture to culture.

Whether using qualitative and/or quantitative research methodology, multidisciplinary

nature of leadership often leads researchers to slippery grounds. If not being systematic,
objective and thorough in their studies, researchers are exposing themselves to biases.
Contextual contingencies in leadership such as culture, social and ethical norms and
situational factors belong to categories which cannot be solely quantified and expressed as
numerical data. Therefore, deductive approaches to leadership research cannot tackle with
complex nature of leadership science. Denzin and Lincoln (2000:3) suggest that qualitative
research involves an interpretive and naturalistic approach which is more suitable for
leadership, where researchers observe and study leadership phenomena in a natural setting
in the meanings people bring to it.

In a recent decade, qualitative research gained popularity among leadership scholars

especially among those focused on New Leadership paradigm, which encompasses theories
of transformational, charismatic, ethical and visionary leadership. Nevertheless, quantitative
methodology still remains dominant in leadership research. Lowe and Gardner (2000)
recognized this trend and analyzed the nature and content of 188 published articles in

Jasna Kovacevic 1
Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

Leadership Quarterly in a ten-year period. Their research proved how context in both social
and temporal form has been understudied which is consistent with their findings regarding
methodologies used. A summary on research designs used showed a healthy mix of
quantitative and qualitative methods (71% of quantitative studies, 39% of qualitative
studies and 13% of mixed studies). This indicates how contextual dimension of leadership
has been neglected due to the pressure to quantify data from the studies conducted with
an aim to test hypotheses with statistical rigorous methods (Srnka and Koeszegi, 2007).
These authors provided a valuable insight into integrated research design and they proposed
a blueprint and guideline for its implementation, since well defined and described
instructions for this type of research is missing. They also highlight the necessity to reconcile
these contradictory demands of theory development and application of rigorous research
techniques. Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies have their limitations in social
sciences. Therefore, mixed methods or integrated research design should be used more
frequently to understand complex phenomena in social sciences. Srnka and Koeszegi (2007)
suggest that there are two types of mixed designs: two studies design and integrated design.
Two studies design encompasses separate collecting of the data and analysis of qualitative
and quantitative data on the same issue. This research design has already been embraced
among scholars in social sciences. On the other hand, integrated research design starts with
one type of data (qualitative or quantitative) and afterwards, qualitative and quantitative
analyses are combined within one research process. Authors note how systematic
qualitative-quantitative studies have only been conducted in niches of business research
and they identify several reasons for the lack of qualitative-quantitative research:

Incommensurability of research paradigm;

Lack of rigor in qualitative research;

Missing guidance for systematic combined qualitative-quantitative research.

Nevertheless, New Leadership scholars continue to emphasize the importance of mixed-

method design to better understand the multiple levels of leadership. Ospina (2004) notes
that these researchers tend to embrace post-positivism and use qualitative research to
complement or extend quantitative findings. New Leadership scholars are quite aware how
answers to their questions are dependent upon the adopted research design (Endrissat,
Mueller and Fontana, 2006).

In this review, the author will focus on one qualitative study and two mixed qualitative-
quantitative studies in New Leadership theories. Articles analyzed in this field are as follows:

Trevino, L.K., Brown, M. And Pincus Hartman, L. (2003): A Qualitative Investigation of

Perceived Executive Ethical Leadership: Perceptions from Inside and Outside the
Executive Suite, Human Relations 56 (1): 5-37 cited 188 times;

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Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

Kan, M.M. and Parry, K.W. (2004): Identifying Paradox: A Grounded Theory of
Leadership in Overcoming Resistance to Change, The Leadership Quarterly 15, pp.
467-491 cited 52 times and

Ehrhart, M.G. and Klein, K.J. (2001): Predicting Followers' Preferences for Charismatic
leadership: The Influence of Follower Values and Personality, The Leadership
Quarterly 12, pp. 153 179 cited 118 times.

These theories are purposely selected in order to make a statement, since they are
abundant with contextual contingencies which are difficult to quantify without adding
qualitative dimension. Or if they are solely quantified in some aspects, conclusions drawn
from quantitative studies produce limited knowledge on leadership.

2. A Story Beyond Numbers

Dachler (1988) notes how facts in social sciences are not given and objectively observed
but rather a result of a social construction. Individual's perception of social environment is
influenced by his/her subjectivity, cultural background and affiliation to various subcultures.
Cantor and Mischel (1979) note how leadership can be seen as a fuzzy category.
Therefore, leadership can be observed as an abstraction since there is no universal
definition of what leadership really is (Bass, 1990). However, Northouse (2001) defines two
focal points of leadership: a) it is an interactive relationship process and b) within this
interaction, mutual goals are achieved by influence and emotions.

Initially proposed by Burns (1978), transformational leadership can be observed as moral

leadership because it inspires and empowers followers to achieve mutual goals for a
collective purpose. Furthermore, these leaders are persistent in raising the consciousness of
followers by appealing to moral virtues. Transformational and ethical leadership ought to be
separated due to existing differences in theoretical assumptions. In that manner, Brown and
Trevino (2006) argue how transformational and ethical leadership share key similarities such
as altruism, ethical decision-making, integrity and role modeling, but also show key
differences where ethical leaders emphasize ethical standards and moral management
which is a trait of transactional leadership. Ehrhart and Klein (2001) summarize how
charismatic leadership and the related concepts of transformational and inspirational
leadership gained popularity in recent decades. Charismatic leadership encompasses
charisma which is best described by Klein and House (1995). Authors note how charisma
cannot be attributed to either the leader or follower, but resides in the relationship
between a leader who has charismatic qualities and those of his or her followers who are
open to charisma, within a charisma-conductive environment.

In their study on perceived executive ethical leadership, Trevino, Brown and Hartman (2003)
inductively investigated ethical dimension of executive leadership. Authors posited how
qualitative methodology is appropriate since empirical research is at an early stage, the

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Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

phenomenon is complex and ethical leadership is likely to have a symbolic and subjective
component. On the other hand, study by Kan and Parry (2004) was based on mixed
research design specifically the grounded theory approach. Authors note how this method
was well suited to enhancing knowledge of leadership by providing a holistic understanding
of the leadership process. Similarly, Ehrhart and Klein (2001) posited how the mixed
research design they used in their study offered more important strengths and findings.

Trevino et. al (2003) argue how qualitative research they conducted yielded a broad and
deeper understanding of executive ethical leadership, which is considered to be complex
and relatively new phenomenon. Qualitative research in this study helped authors to
generate theoretical assumptions which can be later used to develop more complex and
precise quantitative measures in order to investigate relations between identified categories
in this research, such as: people-orientation, visible ethical actions and traits, ethical
standards and accountability, broad ethical awareness, decision-making processes and
response to specific probe questions. Moreover, authors used the contrast principle
recommended in qualitative research and theory development. This principle enabled
authors to identify relevant new category of leadership which they termed as ethically
neutral successful leadership defined as a self-centered leader who lacks ethical awareness
and cares mostly about himself or herself and the organization's bottom line rather than
other people. The identification of this category of leadership would be impossible by solely
using traditional quantitative research. Although this research made great contribution to
New Leadership theory, it also faced following drawbacks: senior executives were difficult to
contact, interviews with these managers were shortened in comparison to interviews with
ethics officers, authors were unable to return to these executives for follow-up interviews
and the analysis of the data was time-consuming.

Kan and Parry (2004) observed resistance to change in hospital among nurses in the light of
transformational leadership theory. They found how grounded theory method was the best
methodology in order to develop a theory of leadership explaining the process by which
nurse leaders lead nurses through organizational changes to attain positive outcomes for
nursing and for their clients...the importance of the grounded theory approach in the
presented study was that it incorporated the complexities of the organization under
investigation without discarding, ignoring, or assuming away relevant variables. In their
research, authors triangulated data in order to generate more complex and explanatory
insights into how the process operates. Important highlight of this study from a
methodological point of view was the conflict of results related to qualitative and
quantitative data. Authors used broadly used Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
containing 45 items identifying and measuring leadership behaviors in the context of
transformational and transactional leadership. The analysis of MLQ questionnaires showed
that nurse leadership was as good as displayed in industry generally. Contrarily, qualitative
research indicated that nurse leadership is greatly lacking. These contradictions in results
motivated authors to extend their analysis and interpretation. Overall, this study contributed

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Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

theoretically and methodologically to leadership science. Theoretically, grounded theory

method contributed in emergence of theoretical propositions, while methodologically this
paper outlined how quantitative and qualitative research can add greater value to leadership
research by taking in consideration its complexity and dynamics.

Ehrhart and Klein (2001) pioneered in exploring and investigating followers' preferences for
charismatic leadership. The bulk of research on charismatic leadership conducted prior to
their study observed the traits and behaviors of charismatic leaders. However, the influence
of followers in charismatic relationships has been neglected. Taking in consideration
understudied followers' perceptions of charismatic leaders, they mixed qualitative and
quantitative methodology aiming to systematically investigate this phenomenon. This
research design helped authors to set foundation for research of followers and their
behavior in organizations. However, their research has some limitations. Firstly, participants
of the study were undergraduate college students and not full-time employees. In the first
phase of research participants completed a survey containing the predictor measures. In
second phase which was organized approximately one month after, behavior of participants
was observed in an experiment-like study where participants have read descriptions of
charismatic leaders. Secondly, this indicates that participants may have been less engaged in
the study than they would have been had they interacted with actors portraying the leaders.
They posited how this might be the restraint of the research. Still, this study grounded some
serious notions on followers' perceptions. In the conclusion of their article, authors
encourage future research in order to investigate followers' perception in a more detailed
manner.

Analysis of these three articles aims to show how leadership draws on variety of scientific
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, physiology, philosophy, etc and it
cannot be observed in a vacuum. It is a good example of multidisciplinary scientific field
where mixed research methodology such as triangulation should be encouraged.
Triangulation which is classified as a two studies design by Srnka and Koeszegi (2007) has
already been exploited by leadership scholars, since it derives multiple benefits. Thurmond
(2001) writes how triangulation is the combination of two or more data sources,
investigators, methodological approaches, theoretical perspectives or analytical methods
within the same study. Jick (1979) emphasizes the benefits of triangulation which can
include:

Increasing confidence in research data;

Creating innovative ways of understanding a phenomena;

Revealing unique findings;

Challenging or integrating theories and

Providing clearer understanding of the problem.

Jasna Kovacevic 5
Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

Triangulation of research is just one side of the story. Bryman (2004) notes how leadership
researchers combine the use of quantitative and qualitative research for a variety of
purposes:

Triangulation (mutual reinforcement of data by employing quantitative and

qualitative methodologies);

Preparation (qualitative research is conducted in order to prepare quantitative

research);

Expansion and complementarities (methodologies are frequently combined so that

one set of data is employed to expand upon the other set);

Different issues (examination of different research questions);

General patterns plus meaning (quantitative data are employed to provide general
patterns, while qualitative data provide insights into meanings of behavior).

3. Conclusion
Contextual contingencies in leadership are often too abstract and prone to subjectivity of
both participants and researchers. This indicates how quantitative research which is based
on simplification of reality may lead to distortion of what reality really represents.

Research by Trevino et. al (2003) is a good example of well structured and organized
qualitative study which can be easily combined with quantitative research. Authors
generated abstract notions from interviews and later qualitatively categorized these
abstractions into meaningful variables (people-orientation, visible ethical actions and traits,
ethical standards and accountability, broad ethical awareness, decision-making processes
and response to specific probe questions) which can be easily quantified. The authors
created solid theoretical foundation for other researchers in the field to explore and
measure ethics of executives. This leads the author of the review to presume how well
structured and unbiased qualitative research design can be easily integrated with
quantitative research. Studies by Kan and Parry (2004) and Ehrhart and Klein (2001) favor
this presumption. Moreover, both studies acknowledge the need for integration of
qualitative and quantitative research, in order to add greater value to research in social
sciences and provide objective and unbiased theories.

After the insight in these three studies and articles on research methodologies used to
corroborate the need for integrated research design, author of this review feels obligated to
emphasize how researchers must first and foremost understand the nature of the problem
and its complexity before endeavoring in a particular research methodology.

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Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

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Brown, M.E. and Trevino, L.K. (2006): Ethical Leadership: A Review and Future Directions,
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Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row

Bryman, A. (2004): Qualitative Research on Leadership: A Critical But Appreciative Review,

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Cantor, N. And Mischel, W. (1979): Prototypes in Person Perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.).

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Doctoral Program PhD. In Business, 2011. School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo

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