Petroleum reservoir rock may be composed can range from very loose and

unconsolidated sand to a very hard and dense sandstone, limestone, or dolomite

The grains may be bonded together with a number of materials, the most common
of which are silica, calcite, or clay.
Two main categories of core analysis tests that are:

- Routine core analysis tests

Porosity

Permeability

Saturation

- Special tests
Overburden pressure

Capillary pressure

Relative permeability

Wettability

Surface and interfacial tension

To provide an understanding of:
The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
The difference between original (primary) and induced
(secondary) porosity
The difference between total and effective porosity
Laboratory methods of porosity determination
Determination of porosity from well logs
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume of a
material (rock) that is occupied by pores (voids ).
Porosity is an intensive property describing the fluid storage
capacity of rock
Porosity is a static property it can be measured in the
absence of flow
 Rock matrix is the grains of sandstone,
limestone, dolomite, and/or shale that do not
make up the supporting structure.
Matrix is the non-pore space

Pore space is filled with fluids.

water
oil
natural gas
Rock matrix Pore space
Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas
 Vma is often showed as Vg (grain volume)

Vb = Vg + Vp
 IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
The three major rock types are sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
rocks. Their classification is based on their origins.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles derived from igneous,

metamorphic or other sedimentary rocks by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary rocks provide the hydrocarbon source rocks and most of the oil
and gas reservoir rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed from molten material which is either ejected from
the earth during volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows, and ash falls), or which
crystallizes from a magma that is injected into existing rock and cools
slowly, giving rise rocks such as granites. Igneous rocks are of minor
importance for oil exploration. Rarely, hydrocarbon is produced from
fractured igneous rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any of the three rock types to
high temperatures and pressures, that alter the character of the existing
rock. Common examples of metamorphic rocks are marble derived from
limestone and slate derived from shale. Due to the high temperature and
pressures there is very little organic matter or hydrocarbons in
metamorphic rocks.
 Clastics

Carbonates

Evaporites
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers

4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Matrix
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
 COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
matrix CONSISTS OF QUARTZ, FELDSPAR, CEMENT AND CLAY

PORE
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY
Developed at deposition
Typified by: Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates, AND Intercrystalline and fenestral
pores of carbonates
Usually more uniform than induced porosity

SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY

Developed by geologic processes after deposition
(diagenetic processes)
Examples: Grain dissolution in sandstones or
carbonates, Vugs and solution cavities in
carbonates, Fracture development in some
sandstones, shales, and carbonates
PRIMARY
Particle sphericity and angularity
Packing
Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
Overburden stress (compaction)
Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
 In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples of porosity.
For now, it is useful to note these effects:

Porosity increases as angularity of particles increases.

Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases. In contrast, porosity

decreases as the volume of interstitial and cementing material increases.

Porosity decreases as the compaction increases (greater depth generally

means higher overburden stresses, higher compaction forces, and lower
porosity)

Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but to understand their affect
on effective porosity requires careful study of cores and special logging
measurements.
 ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
OF CLASTIC GRAINS
Porosity

High

Low

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Angular
ROUNDNESS

Porosity
 GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%
 Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

Matrix volume =
4 r3
3 volume
Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix
 Pore Volume
Porosity
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume Matrix Volume

Bulk Volume

8 r3 4 / 3 r3
1 47.6%
8r 3
2 3
RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %
 Sorting (variable grain sizes)

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%
 Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

SORTING
TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation

Change of Packing
 PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)

Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

(Distinct) (Indistinct) Deposits
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
POROSITY

Cementing materials

Overburden stress (compaction)

Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

 Caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its elastic limit-it
cracks
The forces cauing it to break are in a constant direction. Hence
all the fractures are also aligned.
Important source of permeability in low porosity carbonate
reservoirs.
Classed either being vertical or horizontal. But can also appear
in any angle. Can penetrate from oil column down into the
water, as it have very high permeability, can cause production
problems.
 Defined as non-connected pore space
Do not contribute to the producible fluid total.
Caused by dissolution of soluble material such as shell
fragments after rock has been formed
Have irregular shapes.
Not connected to each other in any producible manner and
hence do not contribute to formation productivity.
 Fractures Vugs
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
 DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
1. Primary and secondary matrix porosity system
2. Fracture porosity system

FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
PORE

PORE

(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons

Pore Throats Restrict

Flow through pores

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Pore

Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids

Quartz Micropores Contain

Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
Irreducible Water

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity

Photo by R.L. Kugler

 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Photo by R.L. Kugler
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
 CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains
 Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug

Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective

(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)

CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)

Moldic Isolated pores

Pore
Low effective porosity

Calcite Low permeability

Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light

Blue areas are pores.
Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores Combination pore system

Moldic pores formed through

dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)

Connected pores

Moldic High effective porosity

Pore
High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
 Some void spaces become isolated due to excessive
cementation thus many void spaces are interconnected
cementation, thus many void spaces are interconnected and
others are isolated.
This leads to the following classification:
1) Absolute (total) porosity
2) Effective porosity
 Absolute porosity is the ratio between the total pore volume
(interconnected pores and isolated ones) and the bulk volume:

Effective porosity is the ratio between the interconnected pore

volume and the bulk volume:
 Effective porosity indicates the percentage of the total volume
of reservoir rock where the void space is connected by flow
channels.
 If the porosity of a rock sample was determined by saturating
the rock sample 100% with a fluid of known density and then
determining, by weighing, the increased weight due to the
saturating fluid, what would this yield?
 If the porosity of a rock sample was determined by saturating
the rock sample 100% with a fluid of known density and then
determining, by weighing, the increased weight due to the
saturating fluid, what would this yield?

Effective porosity measurement

 If the rock sample were crushed with a mortar and pestle to
determine the actual volume of the solids in the core sample,
what would this yield?
 If the rock sample were crushed with a mortar and pestle to
determine the actual volume of the solids in the core sample,
what would this yield?

Absolute porosity measurement

 Isolated Void Space
This sandstone would not be an acceptable reservoir rock,
regardless of the value of its porosity and the hydrocarbon
saturations, because each void is isolated from the other void
spaces.
This sandstone has
a high absolute porosity
but a zero effective porosity
 Interconnected Void Space
This sandstone would be an acceptable
reservoir rock because of the interconnected
pore spaces and hydrocarbon saturation.
This sandstone has a high
absolute porosity and
a high effective porosity
 Total porosity, t = Total Pore Volume
Effective porosity, e = Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Space

Bulk Volume
Effective porosity of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
 Very clean sandstones : e t

Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: t e

Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: e < t
1. Core samples (measure two of: Vb, Vp, or Vm)
- RCA
-SCAL
2. Openhole wireline logs
MATRIX DENSITIES (M) OF TYPICAL PURE
COMPONENTS OF RESERVOIR ROCK
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
Known or assumed matrix density
Accurate only if matrix density is known and not assumed
Core samples are often mixtures of several components with varying
matrix densities, so density must be measured
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

Assumed matrix (grain) density
Displacement method
Boyles Law

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM
DISPLACEMENT METHOD

Reduce sample to particle size

Measure matrix volume of particles by
Volumetric method
Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement)
CALCULATE THE POROSITY OF A CORE SAMPLE
USING THE DISPLACEMENT METHOD AND MATRIX
VOLUME
The core sample from previous example was stripped of the
paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a container
with liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7
cm3. Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is
this effective porosity or total porosity? (It is total porosity)

Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3

Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3

Vp Vb Vma = 9.9 cm3 7.7 cm3 = 0.22 or 22%
Porosity
Vb Vb 9.9 cm3
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

Assumed matrix (grain) density
Displacement method
Boyles Law (Gas Expansion)

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

Involves compression of gas into pores

Uses Boyles law

p1 V1 p2 V2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA

Initial conditions, with volumes of 2 cells known

Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air) from second cell

Open valve
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
Initial conditions
P1

V1 Core

Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
P1 Final conditions
P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA

Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2 - Matrix Volume of Core

Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2

Vm = Vt - Vf
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
Displacement method - Very accurate when
core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities

Neither method requires a prior knowledge of

core properties
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)
3. Pore volume (Vp)
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)

Vp = Wsat - Wdry
fluid

2. Boyles Law:
(Gas expansion)

p1 V1 p2 V2
 PORE VOLUME FROM
SATURATION METHOD
Measures the difference between the weight of a core sample
saturated with a single fluid and the dry weight of the core

Pore volume,

Wsat Wdry
Vp
f
ARCHIMEDES METHOD OF
CALCULATING
POROSITY A CORE SAMPLE

Using the gravimetric method with the following data,

calculate the pore and bulk volumes and the porosity. Is
this porosity total or effective?

Dry weight of sample, Wdry = 427.3 g

Weight of sample saturated with water, Wsat = 448.6 g

Density of water (f ) = 1.0 g/cm3

Weight of saturated sample submerged in water, Wsub =

269.6 g
ARCHIMEDES METHOD OF CALCULATING
POROSITY A CORE SAMPLE

Wsat Wdry = 448.6 427.3 g

Vp = f = 21.3 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Wsat Wsub 448.6 269.6 g

Vb = f = = 179.0 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Vp
Porosity
21.3 cm3
= = 0.12 or 12%
179.0 cm3
Vb
 APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF PORE VOLUME
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Saturation (Archimedes) method
Accurate in better quality rocks if effective pore
spaces can be completely saturated
In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the
core (e.g., swelling clays)
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Wsat - Wdry
Vp = fluid

2. Boyles Law:
(Gas expansion)
p1 V1 p2 V2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
Initial conditions

P1

V1 Core

Valve
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

Final conditions
P1

P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
 SUMMARY

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
 use in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
 In case of large variation in the porosity vertically and no or small
variation horizontally or parallel to the planes, then the arithmetic
average or thickness-weighted average porosity is used:

Due to the change in sedimentation or depositional conditions Due

to the change in sedimentation or depositional conditions can
cause porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different
from that in another area, so the areal-weighted average or the
volume-weight average can be used:
CORES
Allow direct measurement of reservoir
properties
Used to correlate indirect measurements, such
as wireline/LWD logs
Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
Used to predict borehole stability
Used to estimate probability of formation
failure and sand production
 SOME KEY FORMULAS

Vp Vb Vma
Porosity
Vb Vb
V V V
b m p

V (V )
p b

V (1 )(V )
m b

m ( )(V )
 Definition: Fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by
a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water).

Is an intensive property
 all saturation values are based on pore volume and not on the
gross reservoir volume.

By definition, the sum of the saturations is 100%,

 Fundamental relationships
- Pore volume is occupied by fluids ( water, oil, and/or gas)

- For two phase case, only one of the two saturations is

independent, the other must make the sum of saturations
equal to unity (1)
- For three phase case, only two saturations are independent.
 Fundamental relationships
- Mass of fluids in the pore volume is comprised of water, oil
and/or gas.

- At laboratory condition it is often assumed that gas density is

negligible
 Concepts: Typical petroleum accumulation scenario

- Pores initially saturated with water ( Sw=1)

- Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps due to lower density
than water (gravity force)
- Hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) distributed such that gravity
and capillary forces are in equilibrium
- minimum interstitial water saturation remains in HC
zone, even after accumulation occurs
a) Irreducible wetting phase saturation water wet, drainage
accumulation process
b) Residual non-wetting phase saturation oil wet, imbibition
accumulation process
 Methods for determination of reservoir fluid saturations.

- Direct Measurement
Core Analysis of samples obtained from formation of interest
in original state and measure saturations directly is ideal

- Indirect Measurement
Capillary Pressure Measurement
Well log analysis ( electrical conductivity primarily on water
saturation)
 Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores:

- Flushing of core by filtrate from drilling fluids (especially for

overbalanced drilling)
-water filtrate water based mud
- oil emulsion mud
- oil filtrate - oil based mud
- inverted oil emulsion mud
- gas filtrate - air drilling
- foam drilling
 Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores:

- Changes in pressure and temperature as core sample is

brought from bottomhole conditions to surface conditions
- Example: Oil zone at minimum interstitial water
saturation, water based drilling mud
 Application of core saturations: Water Based Mud
- Presence of oil zone
- Original oil/gas contact
- Original oil/water contact

Application of core saturations: Oil based mud

- Fairly accurate minimum interstitial water saturation
- Original oil/ water contact

Other Application of Core Saturations

- Correlation of indirect methods
 Connate (interstitial) water saturation, Swc
- reduces the amount of space available between oil and gas
- Not uniformly distributed throughout reservoir, varies with
permeability, lithology and height above free water level
- Define the maximum water saturation at which the water phase will
remain immobile.

Critical oil saturation, Soc

- For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a
certain value
- the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not
flow.
 Residual oil saturation, Sor
- During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous
media by water or gas injection (or encroachment), there will be some
remaining oil left that is quantitatively characterized by a saturation
value that is larger than the critical oil saturation
- Associated with the non wetting phase when it is being displaced by a
wetting phase.

Movable oil saturation, Som

- fraction of pore volume occupied by movable oil

Critical gas saturation, Sgc

- As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas
evolves from the oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas
increases as the reservoir pressure declines
gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain
saturation which gas begins to move
 Average saturation of each reservoir fluid is calculated from
the following equations:
 Factors affecting overburden stress:
a) Depth
b) Nature of the structure
c) Consolidation of formation
d) Geologic age
e) History of the rock

The weight of the overburden simply applies a

compressive force to the reservoir
The pressure in the rock pore spaces does not
normally approach the overburden pressure.
 Definition: The pressure difference between
overburden and internal pore pressure

During pressure depletion operations, the internal

pore pressure decreases and, therefore, the effective
overburden pressure increases

The increase of effective overburden pressure causes:

a) The bulk volume of the reservoir rock is reduced.
b) Sand grains within the pore spaces expand.
 Rock-matrix compressibility, cr
- defined as the fractional change in volume of the
solid rock material (grains) with a unit change in
pressure.
 Rock-bulk compressibility, cB
- Defined as the fractional change in volume of the
bulk volume of the rock with a unit change in
pressure.
 Pore compressibility, cp
- defined as the fractional change in pore volume of
the rock with a unit change in pressure
 In terms of porosity

The formation compressibility cf is the term

commonly used to describe the total
compressibility of the formation and is set
equal to cp
 Formation compressibility plays important role in
understanding reservoir performance.
As reservoir pressure decreases, external stresses (overburden
stress) tend to compact the rock and reduce pore volume. This
results in reduction in porosity which helps expel more fluid
out of res rock. It also can close out or reduce size of pores and
pore throats resulting in reduction in permeability. The
significance of this effect depends on value of formation
compressibility.
 Formation compressibility range from 3 106 to 25 106
psi1

Can also be written as:

 Geertsma (1957) suggested that the bulk
compressibility cB is related to the pore
compressibility cp as expressed:

Geertsma has stated that in a reservoir only

the vertical component of hydraulic stress is
constant and that the stress components in
the horizontal plane are characterized by the
boundary condition that there is no bulk
deformation in those directions.
 For those boundary conditions, he developed
the following approximation for sandstones:

The reduction in the pore volume due to

pressure decline can also be expressed in
terms of the changes in the reservoir
porosity
 By integrating:

Will obtain:
 Note that:

Using the expansion series and truncating

the series after two terms:
 Total reservoir compressibility ct in
transient flow equation and MBE:
 For undersaturated oil reservoirs, the
reservoir pressure is above the bubble- point
pressure, i.e., no initial gas cap:
 Hall (1953) correlated the pore
compressibility with porosity
 Hall (1953) correlated the pore
compressibility with porosity
 Newman (1973) to develop a correlation
between the formation compressibility and
porosity.
Formation compressibility vs Initial Porosity
 Yale et. al provided correlation to calculate
formation compressibility for various type of
sands.
Provide correlation for formation
compressibility which is function of
pressure.
As reservoir pressure decrease, formation
compressibility decreases.
 Unconsolidated sands, if formation pressure
reduced, grain particles due to overburden
pressure will be rearranged permanently. If
pressure of formation increased, formation
will not necessarily go back to its original
configurations.
 Overburden stress can be approximated by 1.0 psi/ft or integrating
density log
 Definition a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids

OR a measure of the fluid conductivity of the

particular material

Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a

porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
The rock permeability, k, is a very important
rock property because it controls the directional
movement and the flow rate of the reservoir
fluids in the formation.
 Definition a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids

OR a measure of the fluid conductivity of the

particular material

Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a

porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
The rock permeability, k, is a very important
rock property because it controls the directional
movement and the flow rate of the reservoir
fluids in the formation.
The quality of the reservoir, as it relates to
permeability can be classified as follows

k < 1 md poor
1 < k < 10 md fair
10 < k < 50 md moderate
50 < k < 250 md good
250 md < k very good

This scale changes with time, for example 30 years

ago k< 50 was considered poor.
Core analysis
Well test analysis (flow testing)
- RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well
tests
Production data
-production logging measures fluid flow into well
Log data
-MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated
via core analysis
 Examples, Typical Permeability-
Porosity Relationship

From Tiab
and
Donaldson,
1996
 A

h1-h2
q

A
h1

h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

Flow is Steady State

q = KA (h1-h2)/L
q
K is a constant of
proportionality
h1>h2 for downward
flow
 A

h1-h2
q

A
h1

h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

Flow is Steady State

q = KA (h1-h2)/L
q
K is a constant of
proportionality
h1>h2 for downward
flow
Independent of
direction of flow
 Water velocity is proportional to the manometric level, the flow
velocity is proportional to:

where z is the elevation in the gravitational field. (z accounts for

the inclined flow direction relative to horizontal flow.)

If sand filter is made longer, a reduced flow velocity is expected

and similarly if the water is replaced by a fluid of higher viscosity,
a reduced flow velocity is expected.
 It is an intrinsic property of a reservoir rock
that indicates the flow capacity of the
reservoir.
Reservoir engineers use permeability,
reservoir pressure, and a few other
parameters to estimate oil and gas
productivity.
Petrophysicists use core permeability values
to help calibrate permeability derived from
well log data.
 Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that
has since become one of the standard
mathematical tools of the petroleum
engineer.
If a horizontal linear flow of an
incompressible fluid is established through a
core sample of length L and a cross-section
of area A, then the governing fluid flow
equation is defined as
 Apparent velocity determined by dividing the flow
rate by the cross-sectional area across which fluid is
flowing.

q

A
Substituting the relationship, q/A, in place of and
solving for q results in:
Condition must exist during measurement of permeability:

a) Horizontal flow.
b) Incompressible fluid.
c) 100% fluid saturation in the porous medium.
d) Stationary flow current, i.e. constant cross-section in flow direction.
e) Laminar flow current (satisfied in most liquid flow cases).
f) No chemical exchange or - reactions between fluid and porous medium

Absolute permeability of rock

 Permeability is found by integrating the linear flow equation
where the permeability is experimentally determined using
the formula:

where the flow rate q and the pressure difference p are the
measured data. Permeability is found by plotting the
measured data as shown.
 A cylindrical core sample is properly cleaned and all remains
of hydrocarbons are removed from the pore space. The core is
saturated with water and then flushed horizontally. The core
length is 15cm, its diameter is 5 cm and the water viscosity is
1.0 cp.
 The average or representative permeability is k = 0.1 D or 100
mD
1. Measure inlet and outlet pressures (P1 and P2) at several
different flow rates
2. Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus the pressure
function (P1 - P2) / L
3. For laminar flow, data follow a straight line with slope of k/
4. At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is indicated by a
deviation from straight line
 By convention the unit for the permeability is called the Darcy.

The permeability is 1 Darcy if a fluid with viscosity of 1cp is flowing at a

rate of 1 cm3/s through a porous medium with a cross-section of 1cm2,
creating a pressure difference of 1 atm/cm.

It follows from these evaluations that,

Instead of the unit 1 Darcy, the 1/1000 fraction is used, which then is
called millidarcy (mD).
 Darcys K was determined to be a
combination of
k, permeability of the sand pack
(porous medium, e.g. reservoir rock)
, viscosity of the liquid
 Permeability is a derived dimension
From Darcys equation, the dimension of
permeability is length squared

q L L3 P T L 1 1
k ; 2 L2
A p T 1 1 L P

This is not the same as area, even though for
example, it is m2 in SI units

In Darcy and SI Units, this equation is coherent

Oilfield units are non-coherent, a unit conversion constant is
required
 Permeability is a derived dimension based on
Darcys Equation
k = (q L) / (A Dp)

The unit of permeability is the Darcy [d]

The oilfield unit is millidarcy [md]

The Darcy is defined from Darcys Equation, where:

q [cm3/s]
[cp]
L [cm]
A [cm2]
Dp [atm]
 Dry gas is usually used (air, N2, He) in permeability
determination because of its convenience,
availability, and to minimize fluid-rock reaction.

In dry gas, the gas volumetric flow rate q varies

with pressure because the gas is a highly
compressible fluid.

Measurement of the permeability should be

restricted to the low (laminar/viscous) flow rate
region, where the pressure remains proportional to
flow rate within the experimental error
 For high flow rates, Darcys equation is
inappropriate to describe the relationship of flow
rate and pressure drop.
 Considering mass flow of gas q,

where is the density of the gas at certain pressure

It follows from the perfect gas law (pV = nRT) that
 which when substituted into the Darcy equation equation
yields:

Taking into account the invariant quantity, q

 Finally obtains,

where p = (p1 + p2)/2 is a mean (average) pressure in the

core during the measurements.
 Combining the invariant mass flow; qr = qr and the
results generated from the perfect gas law; r p =r p

where q is the mean or average flow rate.

A gas permeability test has been carried out on a core sample,
1in in diameter and length. The core has been cleaned and dried
and mounted in a Hassler core holder
 The gas is injected and the pressure, p1 measured, at one end of the
core sample, while the gas rate, q2 is measured at the other end, at
atmospheric pressure, i.e., p2 = 1atm.

The gas permeability could be estimated

Given the pressure p1 and the gas rate q2, the mean pressure in the
core sample, p and the pressure drop across the core, Dp, are
calculated from the equation above. The gas permeability k is found as
a function of the mean core pressure.
Absolute gas permeability of the core sample is therefore found
as the asymptotic value of permeability, when p ! or more
conveniently, when 1/p ! 00

Taken from the table is plotted and the absolute permeability is

found kliquid = 3.0mD.
 1. Cut core plugs from whole core or use sample from
whole core
2. Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then dry the
core
3. Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates
4. Record inlet and outlet pressures for each
 Gas volumetric flow rate q varies with pressure because the
gas is a highly compressible fluid.

Assuming the used gases follow the ideal gas behavior (at low
pressures),
 Mean pressure, Pm expressed as:
 Gas flow rate is usually measured at base
(atmospheric) pressure Pb

Subsituting Darcys Law into above expression :

 Equation summarised:
 Routine core analysis is generally concerned
with plug samples drilled parallel to bedding
planes and, hence, parallel to direction of
flow in the reservoir. These yield horizontal
permeabilities (kh).

Measured permeability on plugs that are

drilled perpendicular to bedding planes are
referred to as vertical permeability (kv).
 Core sample may not be representative of
the reservoir rock because of reservoir
heterogeneity.
 Core recovery may be incomplete.
Permeability of the core may be altered
when it is cut, or when it is cleaned and
dried in preparation for analysis. This
problem is likely to occur when the rock
contains reactive clays.
 Sampling process may be biased. There is a
temptation to select the best parts of the
core for analysis.
a) Overburden pressure
- experiments have shown that the permeability is even more
dependent on the overburden pressure than the porosity
b) Interaction between the fluid and the porous medium
- To avoid this effect, gases (helium, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide
and air) are often used for permeability measurements.
- The use of gases introduce other problems, such as turbulent
flow behaviour, increased uncertainty in gas rate
measurements and at low pressure, the Klinkenberg effect.
 Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that
permeability measurements made with air
as the flowing fluid showed different results
from permeability measurements made with
a liquid as the flowing fluid
Klinkenberg postulated,that liquids had a
zero velocity at the sand grain surface, while
gases exhibited some finite velocity at the
sand grain surface.
 One of the conditions for the validity of
Darcys law the requirement of laminar flow,
i.e. that the fluid behaves "classically" with
respect to intermolecular interactions in the
gas.
At low gas pressure, in combination with
small (diameter) pore channels, this
condition is broken.
 At low p, gas molecules are often so far apart, that
they slip through the pore channels almost without
interactions (no friction loss) and hence, yield a
increased flow velocity or flow rate.
At higher pressures, the gas molecules are closer
together and interact more strongly as molecules in a
liquid.
Compared to laminar flow, at a constant pressure
difference, the Klinkenberg dominated flow will yield a
higher gas rate than laminar flow,
 The gases exhibited slippage at the sand
grain surface. This slippage resulted in a
higher flow rate for the gas at a given
pressure differential.

For a given porous medium as the mean

pressure increased the calculated
permeability decreased.
 Klinkenberg developed a method to correct gas
permeability measured at low mean flowing
pressure to equivalent liquid permeability.

A plot of measured permeability versus 1/Pm is

extrapolated to the point where 1/Pm = 0 (Pm =
infinity). This permeability approximates the liquid
permeability.
 Magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core
permeability and the type of the gas used in the experiment
 Slope Ac is a function of the following factors:

Absolute permeability k, i.e., permeability of medium to a

single phase completely filling the pores of the medium kL.
Type of the gas used in measuring the permeability, e.g., air.
Average radius of the rock capillaries.

Klinkenberg expressed the slope c by the following relationship:

 Magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core
permeability and the type of the gas used in the experiment
 In many cases, the reservoir contains
distinct layers, blocks, or concentric rings of
varying permeabilities.
Because smaller-scale heterogeneities
always exist, core permeabilities must be
averaged to represent the flow
characteristics of the entire reservoir or
individual reservoir layers (units).
 In many cases, the reservoir contains
distinct layers, blocks, or concentric rings of
varying permeabilities.
Because smaller-scale heterogeneities
always exist, core permeabilities must be
averaged to represent the flow
characteristics of the entire reservoir or
individual reservoir layers (units).
 Three simple permeability-averaging
techniques:
a) Weighted-average permeability
b) Harmonic-average permeability
c) Geometric-average permeability
a) Weighted-average permeability
to determine the average permeability of
layered-parallel beds with different
permeabilities
 Total flow rate from the entire system:

Total flow rate qt is equal to the sum of the flow rates through
each layer or:
 Combining the above expressions gives:

average absolute permeability for a parallel-layered system:

 If similar layered system with variable layers width:
b) Harmonic-Average Permeability
Permeability variations can occur laterally
in a reservoir as well as in the vicinity of a
well bore
 For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is
constant and the total pressure drop p is
equal to the sum of the pressure drops
across each bed, or
p = p1 + p2 + p3

Substituting for the pressure drop by

applying Darcys equation
 Canceling the identical terms and simplifying gives:

Expressed in a more generalized form to give

 In the radial system, the above averaging methodology can be
applied
 In the radial system, the above averaging methodology can be
applied
c) Geometric-Average Permeability
Warren and Price (1961) illustrated
experimentally that the most probable
behavior of a heterogeneous formation
approaches that of a uniform system having
a permeability that is equal to the geometric
average.
 If the thicknesses (hi) of all core samples are the same:
 It is possible to correlate connate water
content with the permeability of the sample
in a given reservoir and to a certain extent
between reservoirs.

Calhoun (1976) suggested that in an ideal

pore configuration of uniform structure, the
irreducible connate water would be
independent of permeability, lower
permeabilities being obtained merely by a
scaled reduction in particle size
 Experience indicates a general relationship
between reservoir porosity () and
irreducible water saturation (Swc) provided
the rock type and/or the grain size does not
vary over the zone of interest. This
relationship is defined by the equation

where C is a constant for a particular rock

type and/or grain size.
Several investigators suggest that the
constant C that describes the rock type can
be correlated with the absolute permeability
of the rock
a) The Timur Equation

- Timur (1968) proposed the following

expression for estimating the permeability
from connate water saturation and porosity:
b) The Morris-Biggs Equation
Morris and Biggs (1967) presented the
following two expressions for Estimating the
permeability if oil and gas reservoirs:
For an oil reservoir:

For a gas reservoir

 In a gas-oil systems, the direction of displacement is
particularly important, as the process can represent a
drainage process, such as gas drive (gas displacing oil
immiscibily) or an imbibition process, such as:
1. Movement of an oil zone into receding depleting gas cap.
2. Movement of an aquifer into receding depleting gas cap.

The relation is based on a definition of liquid saturation:

 Effective permeability is the permeability of
a rock to one fluid in a two phase system.

For example, the effective permeability of oil

in an oil-water system (Ko) will be less than
absolute permeability.

In the same rock and fluid system, the

effective permeability of water (Kw) could be
higher or lower than Ko.
Definition:
ratio of the effective permeability of a fluid at a given
saturation to some base permeability.

Base permeability is typically defined as absolute

permeability (Ka), air permeability (Kair),
or effective permeability to non-wetting phase at
irreducible wetting phase saturation, for
example Ko @ Sw = SWir.
Because the definition of base permeability varies,
the definition used must always be confirmed before
applying relative permeability data noted along
with tables and figures presenting relative
permeability data.
 Darcys Equation rearranged as Darcy velocity
(volumetric flux)
vs = q/A = (k/) (Dp/L)

This equation applies for any L, as L0

vs = q/A = -(k/) (dp/ds)

where,
vs Darcy velocity, (volumetric flux)
s distance along flow path (0s L), in the direction
of decreasing pressure (note negative sign)
The differential form is Darcys Law
Brine of = 1 Cp is flowing at a rate of 0.3
bbl/day under a 30 psi pressure differential into a core plug of
0.1 ft long and 0.0215 ft2 cross section. Calculate the absolute
penneability in oil field units.
Can you calculate in Darcy units ?
 An extenslon of the Darcy's law can be obtained for an inclined
reservoir) In this case the pressure difference (Pi - P2) is not the only
driving force in .the tilted reservoir as gravitational force also
contributes. Note that the gravitational force is always vertically
downward where as pressure could be at any direction In practice, we
introduce a new parameter
called fluid potential, The fluid potential at any point in the
reservoir is defined as :
 The generalized form of Darcys Law includes pressure
and gravity terms to account for horizontal or non-
horizontal flow
qs k dp g dz
vs
A ds c ds

The gravity term has dimension of pressure / length

Flow potential includes both pressure and gravity terms,

simplifying Darcys Law
q k d
vs
A ds
= p - gZ/c ; Z+; Z is elevation measured from a datum (+ve
below datum, and ve above datum)
has dimension of pressure
 = p - gZ/c
Z+
Z is elevation measured from a datum
has dimension of pressure
Oilfield Units
c = (144 in2/ft2)(32.17 lbmft/lbfs2)
LABORATORY DETERMATION
OF PERMEABILITY

Some slides in this section are from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
Some slides appear to have been obtained from unknown primary
sources that were not cited by NExT. Note that some slides have a notes section.
LABORATORY METHODS FOR
DETERMINING ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
1 or 1 1/2

Plug
Slab Taken for
Most Common Photography
Description
Archival
Full Diameter

Heterogeneous

Whole Core
Heterogeneous
WHOLE-CORE METHOD

Uses selected pieces from the full or whole

core
Core sizes 2 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches in diameter

Several inches to several feet long

Most applicable approach for very

heterogeneous formations.
Additional expense limits the practical number
of tests.
CORE PLUG METHOD
Most commonly applied method.
Uses small cylindrical core samples

3/4 inch to 1 1/2 inch diameter

1 to a few inches long

May not apply to heterogeneous formations.

 I IIa IIb

Different Unacceptable

Lithologies ~1 ft
kH ?
Require Or
Careful kH Full-
Suitable Diameter
Selection of kV kV

Suitable III IV V

Core Plugs kV
or Require Full kH Matrix
Whole-Core Diameter
`4 - 9
Only

Analyses Fracture
k and ?
Whole Core
Analysis
(2-3 ft)
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa C Sandstone,
Venezuela

Photo by W. Ayers
 LAB PROCEDURE FOR
MEASURING PERMEABILITY

Cut core plugs from whole core or use sample

from whole core
Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then
dry the core
Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates

Record inlet and outlet pressures for each rate

PERM PLUG METHOD
LIQUID FLOW

Measure inlet and outlet pressures (p1 and p2)

at several different flow rates
Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus
the pressure function (p1 - p2)/L
For laminar flow, data follow a straight line with
slope of k/
At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is
indicated by a deviation from straight line
through origin
LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY, LIQUID FLOW

Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow

q
A

k
Slope =

0
0 (p1 - p2)

L
ISSUES AFFECTING
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
OF PERMEABILITY
Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

Fluid-Rock Interactions

Pressure Changes

Rock Heterogeneities (Fractures)

Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)

CORE HANDLING PROCESSES AFFECT
PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS

Core Handling
Cleaning
Drying (Clay Damage)
Storage (Freezing)
Sampling
FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS
AFFECT MEASUREMENTS OF
PERMEABILITY
Fresh water may cause clay swelling, reducing
permeability
Tests may cause fines migration, plugging
pore throats and reducing permeability
Reservoir or synthetic reservoir fluids are
generally preferred
PRESSURES AFFECT
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
OF PERMEABILITY

Core alterations resulting from loss of

Confining Pressure during core recovery
Core testing may be conducted by applying a
range of net overburden pressures
CORE HETEROGENEITIES
AFFECT MEASUREMENTS OF
PERMEABILITY
Naturally-fractured reservoirs
Core plugs represent matrix permeability
Total system permeability (matrix + fractures) is higher

Core Mineralogy problems (Salts, Gypsum)

EXAMPLE CORE REPORT
 Factors Affecting
Permeability Determination

Non-Darcy Flow

Some figures in this section are from Fundamentals of Core Analysis, Core Laboratories, 1989.
Some slides in this section are from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
Some slides appear to have been obtained from unknown primary
sources that were not cited by NExT. Note that some slides have a notes section.
 Air Permeability Measurement
Measurement of permeability in the laboratory is most
commonly done with air
Convenient and inexpensive
Problem: low values of mean flowing pressure
downstream pressure, patm
upstream pressure, just a few psi higher than patm

At low mean flowing pressure, gas slippage occurs

Diameter of flow path through porous media approaches the mean
free path of gas molecules
mean free path is a function of molecule size
mean free path is a function of gas density
Increasing mean flowing pressure results in less slippage
as pmean, we obtain absolute (equivalent liquid) permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Gas Slippage
Liquid flow and gas flow at high mean flowing pressure is
laminar
Darcys Law is valid
flow velocity at walls is zero

At low mean flowing pressure gas slippage occurs

Non-Darcy flow is observed
flow at walls is not zero

Klinkenberg developed a method to correct gas permeability

measured at low mean flowing pressure to equivalent liquid
permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

As pmean, gas permeability approaches absolute

permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg correction for kair depends on mean flowing

pressure
correction ratio shown is for pmean = 1 atm
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

Klinkenberg correction for kair is more important for low

absolute permeability
NON-DARCY FLOW - HIGH FLOW RATES
In the field, gas wells exhibit non-Darcy flow at high flow
rates
At high flow velocity, inertial effects and turbulence become
important, and cause non-Darcy flow
inertial effect
 Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence
Recalling Darcys equation for gas flow, (zg )=Constant

k A Tsc 1 2
q g, sc
L T p sc

2z

p1 p 22 )
g
For laboratory flow experiments we can assume T=Tsc and z=1

q g, sc
k


A p12 p 22

)
g psc 2L
For Darcy flow, plotting (qg,sc psc)/A vs. (p12-p22)/(2L) results in
straight line.
line passes through origin [when qg,sc =0, then (p12-p22)=0]
slope = k/ g
behavior departs from straight line under turbulent flow conditions
(high flow velocity)
NON-DARCY FLOW - TURBULENCE

Darcy Non-Darcy
flow flow

q psc
A

k
Slope =

0
0 (p12- p22)

2L
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation

Forchheimer proposed a flow equation to account for the

non-linear effect of turbulence by adding a second order
term
2
dp g q g qg
g
ds k A A

Note that unit corrections factors would be required for non-coherent

unit systems.
As flow rate decreases, we approach Darcys Law (2nd order term
approaches zero)
 Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Plot

Based on Forchheimers Equation a plotting

method was developed to determine absolute
permeability even with Non-Darcy effects
(1/kgas) vs. qg,sc
kgas determined from Darcys Law (incorrectly assuming Darcy
flow) and is a function of qg,sc
intercept = (1/kabs); absolute permeability
(1/kgas), (1/md)

Slope = [(bg,sc)/(gA)]

Intercept = [1/kabs]

qg,sc
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation
Non-Darcy Coefficient, b, is an empirically determined
function of absolute permeability
For Travis Peak (Texas)

NOB=Net
Overburden
Conversion Factors
for
Oilfield Units
 Need for Unit Conversions
Petroleum Engineers must be able to work with various
unit systems
International scope of industry
Unit systems used varies geographically
Team members may not all be located in same geographical location
Joint ventures between companies
Particular units may be required at your location
Legislated units for reporting and regulatory compliance
Company protocol
 Oilfield Units
Oilfield units are non-coherent
Newtons 2nd Law (F=ma)
SI: Force (Newton) is a derived unit to make equation coherent
USCS: Mass (slugs) is a derived unit to make equation coherent
AES, Oilfield Units: A unit conversion constant required (F=ma/gc )
Darcys Law
Darcy units: Permeability is a derived unit to make equation coherent
SI: coherent (permeability unit is m2 )
Oilfield Units: A unit conversion constant is required
The constant may include geometry terms (integrated form)
For gas flow, the constant may include standard temperature and pressure,
even for Darcy and SI units
q C k d
vs
A ds
 Learning Objectives
Deriving unit conversion constants
Given
A physical relationship expressed as an equation, using coherent units or
with a correct conversion constant supplied
and appropriate unit conversion factors between unit systems
Find
The required unit conversion constant (including its units) to express the
equation in a different unit system

Correctly apply Darcy Equations for incompressible fluid

and real gas, using oilfield units
 Darcys Law - Darcy Units
Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid

q
kA
p)
L

where,
q cm3/s
k darcies
Acm2
Dp atm
cp
L cm

The Darcy a derived unit of permeability, defined to make this

equation coherent (in Darcy units)
 Darcys Law - Oilfield Units
Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid

q
CkA
p)
L
where,
q bbl/D
k millidarcies
Aft2
Dp psia
cp
L ft

The approach demonstrated will be to convert each term back to

Darcy units, restoring the coherent equation, then collecting the
conversion factors to obtain the oilfield unit constant, C
 Darcys Law - Oilfield Units
q [cm3/s] = q [bbl/D] 5.61458 [ft3/bbl] (30.48)3 [cm3/ft3] (1/86400) [D/s]
= 1.84013 [(cm3/s)/(bbl/D)] q [bbl/D]

k [d] = k [md] (1/1000) [d/md]

A [cm2] = A [ft2] (30.48)2 [cm2/ft2]

Dp [atm] = Dp [psia] (1/14.6959) [atm/psia]

L [cm] = L [ft] 30.48 [cm/ft]

k[md] 0.001[d/md ] A[ft 2 ] 929.03[cm 2 /ft 2 ]

q[bbl/D] 1.84013[(cm /s)/(bbl/D )]
3

[cp] L[ft] 30.48[cm/ft]

p[psia] 0.068046[a tm/psia] )

 Darcys Law - Oilfield Units
Collecting the constants and canceling

0.001127 k[md] A[ft 2 ]

q[bbl/D] p[psia] )
[cp] L[ft]

The unit of the constant is defined from the above equation

[bbl/D] [cp] [ft]
C 0.0011271
[md][ft 2 ][psia]

We were able to cancel leaving the units of C as shown above because,

[cm3 /s] [cp] [cm]
1[d] 1
[cm2 ][atm]
Some figures were taken from Amyx, Bass and Whiting, Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering (1960).
 If permeability is not a constant function of space
(heterogeneity), we can calculate the average permeability
Common, simple flow cases are considered here
Linear, Parallel (cores, horizontal permeability)
Linear, Serial (cores, vertical permeability)
Radial, Parallel (reservoirs, horizontal layers)
Radial, Serial (reservoir, damage or stimulation)

Average permeability should represent the correct flow

capacity
For a specified flow rate, average permeability results in same
pressure drop (and vice versa)
Review Integral Averages (Self Study, e.g. Average Velocity)
 q k dp
Review, Darcys Law: vs
horizontal flow (=p) A ds
kA
q ds dp

L p2
A kA
q L 2 q ds dp
1 0
p1

q
kA
p1 p2 )
L
 We can determine how x p(x)
pressure varies along kA
the flow path, p(x), by q ds dp
considering an arbitrary 0
p1
point, 0x L q x
Integral from 0x p(x) p1
kA
OR, equivalently
L p2
kA
We
A
q could alsoLintegrate
2
q ds dp
xL 1 x
p(x)
q (L x)
p(x) p2
kA
 Pressure profile is a
linear function for
homogeneous properties
slope depends on flow rate p1

p(x)

p
A
p2
q L 2
1

0
0 x L
x
 There are three simple permeability-averaging techniques that
are commonly used to determine an appropriate average
permeability to represent
an equivalent homogeneous system. These are:
Weighted-average permeability
Harmonic-average permeability
Geometric-average permeability
 Permeability varies across several
horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
Discrete changes in permeability

h h1 h 2 h 3 h i
Same pressure drop for each layer

p1 - p2 p p1 p2 p3
Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers

q q1 q 2 q 3 q i
Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

kwh
q p ; A w h
L
 Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q p p p p
L L L L

Rearranging,

k
k i hi
h
Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers
 Permeability varies across several
vertical layers (k1,k2,k3)
Discrete changes in permeability

L L1 L2 L3 Li
Same flow rate passes through each layer

q q1 q 2 q3
Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers

p1 p2 p1 p2 p3 pi
Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop

q L
p1 - p2 ; A wh
kwh
 Substituting,
q L q L1 q L2 q L3
p1 - p2
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h

Rearranging, L
k
Li
k p1
i

If k1>k2>k3, then k
p
Linear pressure profile in each layer p2

0
0 L
x
 q k dp
Review, Darcys Law: vs
horizontal flow (=p) A ds
q k
dr dp
2 rh
rw pw
1 2 kh
q q dr dp
re
r pe

q
2 kh
p e p w )
rw re
ln(re /rw )
 We can determine how rw
1 2 kh
pw

pressure varies along q dr dp

the flow path, p(r), by r
r p(r)
considering an arbitrary
point, rwr re q ln(r/rw )
p(r) p w
Integral from r rw 2 k h
OR OR, equivalently
r p(r)
Integral from rer 1 2 kh
q dr dp
re
r pe

q ln(re /r)
p(r) p e
2 k h
 Pressure profile is a
linear function of ln(r)
for homogeneous
properties pe
slope depends on flow rate
p(r)

p
pw
q

0
rw r re
ln(r)

rw re
 Permeability varies across several
(3) horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
Discrete changes in permeability

h h1 h 2 h 3 h i
Same pressure drop for each layer

pe - pw p p1 p2 p3
Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers

q q1 q 2 q 3 q i
Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

2 k h
q p
ln(re /rw )
 Substituting,
2 k h
q p
ln(re /rw )
2 k1 h1 2 k 2 h 2 2 k 3 h 3
p p p
ln(re /rw ) ln(re /rw ) ln(re /rw )
Rearranging,

k
k i hi
h

Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

 R1 of this
figure is
r2 of
Permeability varies across two vertical equations
concentric cylindrical layers
[k(rwrr2) = k1, k(r2rre = k2]
Discrete changes in permeability

re rw r1 r2 ri
Same flow rate passes through each layer

q q1 q 2
Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers

pe p w p1 p2 pi
Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop

q ln(re /rw )
pe - p w
2 k h
 Substituting (rw=r1, r2 ,re=r3),
q ln(re /rw ) q ln(r2 /rw ) q ln(re /r2 )
pe - p w
2 k h 2 k1 h 2 k 2 h
Rearranging,
ln(re /rw )
k
(ln(ri 1/ri )

All Layers ki
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct
formation segments that are connected in series. Each
segment has the same formation thickness. The length and
permeability of each section of the five bed reservoir are given
below: