Nano-Filtration Membrane

Brief history, Synthesis, Mode of separation mechanism,

application and membrane fouling

5/15/2017
SCME, NUST

Ovaid Mehmood
MS Student Chemical Engineering
Submit to Dr. Arshad Hussain
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1. History of Nano-Filtration Membrane and Application

The history of separation dated quite a long time and new and advance processes with the passage
of time replace the old and conventional processes. Similarly the processes execute through
membrane became gaining success and fulfil the requirement of consumer and show better
productivity compare to conventional process and more advancement brought into the fabrication
of different types of membrane according to the type of requirement, pore morphology, mode of
separation and different gradient established across the membrane to carry out the separation.
Micro filtration become the pioneer membrane having pore size in range of 0.1 to 0.001 m and
separate suspended particles from feed, then ultrafiltration being anisotropic morphology and pore
size 1-10 nm employed for removal of colloidal particles and macro molecule. After the
development made by Loeb-Souriirjan to synthesize a thin selective film and supported on thick
film of symmetric morphology from same material named RO membrane and used for the
purification of waste water and also in medical field for kidney diseases treatment and declared
remarkable achievement in the progress for separation and purification processes through the
implementation of membrane. Then beginning of 1970s a special class of membrane developed
having properties intermediate between UF and RO membrane and placed under the category of
pressure drive membrane, soon it gained importance because of utilizing less energy than RO but
show significant separation properties regarding water purification. This class of membrane
termed as Nano-Filtration membrane because of diameter of pore lie in nanometer [1].

Nano-Filtration membrane distinct from UF and RO membrane on the basis of morphology of

sieve opening of 5-2 angstrom and MWCO around 190 to 2100 Dalton. The most promising
features differentiate from UF and RO is NF membrane carry either positive, negative charge on
its surface and the former ones are overall neutral. So the mode of separation through NF
membrane is still under an extensive discussion and direct by following principles:

On the basis of molecular sieving (steric hindrance)

Donnan Exclusion Principle
Dielectric potential [2].

Initially the NF membrane synthesis from cellulose acetate polymer and follow the renowned
Loeb-Sourirajan method of phase inversion technology same for RO membrane procedure. But as
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the application increased NF lose its uniqueness because of not tolerating chemical and physical
stability during process. Later on new material and new method adopt for the fabrication of NF
membranes and term as second generation membrane. These include the formation of composite
membranes and use the UF microporpus membrane as support for dense top layer and form by
interfacial polymerization technique. More ever there is another method for synthesis of NF
membrane by three thin layer by the incorporation of different selective material top layer and
paced on bottom layer of microporous support and as more than one material involve in the
synthesis of membrane this membrane are now categorized in composite membrane, support by
microporpus intermediate layer and finally bottom layer of polyester polymer. The benefit of this
type of membrane is each layer is produced independent of other and then combine together
according to the requirement [3-5].

2. Global Market and share of NF in membrane Technology

Since its inception in 1980 efforts are being made by researcher and scientist to bring more
advancement in the synthesis and reliability of NF membrane and with the passage of time more
and more applications are being add in the context of NF membrane. as the various threat recognize
by international community and the world health organization and the environmental specialist the
need to develop membrane base specialist unit is more and more the necessary to provide a clean
water to the community and in this scenario more emphasis given to recycle the water from
different industrial and other resources in an energy efficient way and for this purpose NF
membrane emerges as the leading player in the purification of waste water treatment and
purification purposes. And in recent estimate by the Global Market and Technology for
Nanofiltration publicized that the demand for NF will exponentially rise globally and estimate to
grow to US$ 446 million till 2018-2019. In addition the market stake on NF is increase
approximately two-third around US$ 334-336 million in 2014 than just US$ 72 million in 2007[6-
7]. This all increase in demand speculate for NF is because of the everlasting installation of waste
water treatment plan, desalination plant and purification of brackish plant into portable water,
require the NF membrane unit fir their processing. Furthermore NF gain importance in food
industry and especially in pharmaceuticals and personal products and in petrochemical industry.
More focus is given to pharmaceutical industry as it will gain share up to US$ 23 million by
2019[8].
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3. Membrane Material and Synthesis Procedure

Mostly NF membrane are polymeric material but of ceramic and composite membrane of polymer
and ceramic are more common now and depend on the requirement of consumer. Basically NF
membrane are classified as either tight or loose NF membrane on the basis of their fabricated
material and fabrication procedure [9-11].

3.1. Interfacial Polymerization Technique for NF Membrane Formulation

The procedure for synthesize NF membrane from interfacial polymerization Technique is by

developing a thin dense layer on the micropores support. The methodology adopt to formulate this
dense layer is by incorporating the micropores support membrane mostly polysulfone with a
reactive polymer polyamide and then immersed this support into the reaction mixture of di acid
hexane and due to polymerization reaction occurs at the interphase a dense thin cross link layer of
polymer form on the surface of micropores polysulfone membrane, this technique is termed as
interfacial polymerization membrane. the membrane produced by IP method have more selectivity
and also have better permeability and thickness of thin layer is just 40-50 nm [12-14].

By the introduction of additives in the form of inorganic salt of calcium chloride dissolve form in
aqueous solution in IP formulation processes lead to enhanced complexation between the calcium
ion and carbonyl group of polymer during the synthesis of loose nano-filtration membrane and it
result in the increase in permeability of water during feed water pass through the solution [15].

3.2. Incorporation of Nanomaterial in the fabrication of NF Membrane

In recent time nanomaterial be given much acceptance due to their exceptional characteristics and
usage in photoemission, antimicrobial and as catalyst. Nanomaterial also gain importance in
membrane formulation as they enhance permeability, affinity with water and mechanical strength
also with selectivity. The most frequently use nanoparticles are: titanium dioxide, silica, zinc oxide
and silver oxide. The nanoparticle add in the formulation of composite NF membrane is titanium
oxide and syndicate with polyethyleneimine-nanoparticle hybrid active layer over
mineralization. In the formulation of Polyethylenimine-silica the addition of tetraethoxysilane act
as inorganic precursor and in the formulation of Polyethylenimine-titania addition of tetra-n-butyl
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titanate act as inorganic precursor [16]. These result in the improved mechanical and thermal
strengths.

3.3. Plasma Treatment

To increase the affinity of membrane surface with the water and also its wettability ionic group or
polar molecule should be introduced just on the surface of the polymer not in the bulk and only
the surface physical and chemical properties would be altered and rest of the bulk properties remain
same. This all achieve by a technology called Plasma Treatment. The polar compound used for
incorporation in to the surface of the membrane mainly nitrogen comprising plasma which
provides the improved in the hydrophilicity characteristics in polymeric structure & reduced
fouling tendency of membrane [17].

A combination of plasma with graft polymerization involved in synthesis of highly electropositive

nano-filtration membrane take place with the aid of grafting of AMPS on the micro porous
polysulfone UF membrane. This result in the enduring adjustment of the PSF surface by the graft
monomer onto plasma treated polymer [18].

Figure 1: Simplified diagram for plasma treatment process [19]

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3.4. Ultra-violet/ photo-grafting

To produce positively charged NF membrane by incorporating methacrylatoethyl trimethyl

ammonium chloride (DMC) into the Poly sulfone membrane famous for Ultrafiltration application
by using UV/graft polymerization technique and result in improved fluxes and selectivity [20].
In order to remove different chemicals e.g. dyes, contaminants traces of heavy metal particles from
the waste water of different textiles a special type of positively charged NF membrane is used and
it also fabricate by uv grating of sulfonated polyphenylenesulfone (SPPSU)[21]. By photo-grafting
the ultrafiltration cardo polyetherketone membrane also transform in to the NF membrane. The
procedure is first exposed the UF membrane in UV irradiation then the co-polymerization of the
monomer which also soluble in water on cardo polyetherketone membrane [22].

3.5. Electron Beam Irradiation

Use of irradiation for creating the active site and achieve required infiltration into the polymer
matrix is highly appreciable technique. As this technique also eliminate the addition of additives.
The reduction of pores size is achieved by the creation of crosslinking in polymeric chains due to
electron beam irradiation as it introduce variation in main polymeric chain and alter morphology
of pores.

Figure 2: Radicals of Electron Beam irradiated nylon-66 combine intramolecularly to form cross link [23]

The membrane surface and deep inside bulk properties are modify by the irradiation and it result
in the enhanced flux and solute elimination characteristics in the membrane. It is observed that the
refusal of large and uncharged organic particle is more as compare to salt particles [23].
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Figure 3: SEM photomicrographs of the top surface (a1) and the cross section (b1) of nylon-66
membrane at dose 0 kGy, respectively.

3.6. Nano-Filtration Spiral Wound Module

As the application increases of nano-filtration then it was the need of time to develop such module
which cover excessively large area in a confined module and then spiral and hollow fiber module
were introduced for commercial application. The NF required the pressure gradient for its
operation although the magnitude of pressure is comparatively less than that of RO operations. In
the fabrication of module optimize flow rate is desired and try at best to reduce the concentration
polarization and fouling in the industrial application of module. For this purpose spiral wound
module received much more appreciation and acceptance for packaging large area and cost
effectiveness. In spiral wound module the feed is applied at two contiguous membrane film and
are parted by turbulent spacer. This spacer create turbulence and due to this activity flow rate varies
and prevent and minimize the fouling and concentration polarization on membrane module [96].

Figure 4: Spiral wound module and ladder type spacer

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4. Transport Mechanism through Nano-Filtration Membrane

Due to distinctive properties of nano-filtration membrane it acquire a place in the middle of
ultrafiltration & reverse osmosis membrane and because of processes it counters also have the
unique mechanism of mode of separation of the desired solute and the rejection of particular
components. The NF membrane separates the solute by three different procedures:
Size base exclusion
Donnan effect
Dielectric exclusion
Transport effect

On the basis of feed and the membrane employed for encounter that particular type of feed will
govern the transport of solvent, permeating of solute and the rejection of particular components on
the basis of any one of the above mention mechanism. Most often the sieving and the electric
potential gradient effect prevail in the separation of processes.
On the basis of molecular weight the separation govern is called Sieving exclusion, size base
exclusion and steric hindrance effect. If the mass in gram of permeating component is greater than
to the MWCO of separating unit (membrane) then permeating molecule will be prevented to pass
through the membrane and if mass in gram of desired component is lesser then thin film which
allow solute to pass through it then it would permeate through the membrane. This is the quite
easily understandable phenomena for the permeating molecule on the basis of their size. Even
though the neutral molecule and their interaction with uncharged membrane also describe by
sieving effect and their transference through membrane is gradient of pressure and diffusion
through the membrane matrix [24-25].

If the top layer is having charged surface the species to permeate it also ionized and this transport
through membrane is according to the Donnan Principle [26].

NF membrane has properties of both the charged and size based exclusion so the NF membrane
retain multivalent complex ion and permeate the uncharged solutes [27].

The ionized group incorporates during the synthesis of membrane and these ions dissociate into
ionizable group within the pores and surface of membrane and give rise of development of charged
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on membrane surface [28-30]. When a charged particle interact with the pores and if the pores and
particle have similar charges then these ions are repelled by the pores surface of membrane to
establish the electrical neutral condition and the corresponding number of counter ion retained by
the membrane and result in the rejection of salt. Monovalent ion experienced less refusal than
divalent or multivalent ion due to more interaction with the charged surface of membrane [31-32].

The Donnan effect is reliant on a number of factors, e.g.:

Concentration of solute particle present in feed
Permanent charged surface of membrane or pores
Valence of the species having same charge as that on membrane surface
Valence of the species as opposite charge as that on membrane surface [33]
The charged species incorporate during the fabrication of the membrane either have acidic or basic
properties and these properties are prone to power of hydrogen in desired feed. Because of
amphoteric characteristics of film at precise pH isoelectric point may established. NF membrane
although being charged at surface but their capacity to exchange ions through their surface is not
as much precise to declare their separation mechanism totally ion exchange based, in addition
some polar species also adsorbed with inside of pores geometry in applied feed, alter membrane
ionic characteristics[34].

When the feed solution is pass through the narrowed pore structure of the NF membrane the solute
particle experience the resistive forces and the solvent can pass freely through the pores. The
resistance experienced by the solutes molecule is because of the nature of pores structure either
pores are surround of any charged species incorporate onto the surface of the polymer or in bulk
of membrane. This hindrance to solute molecule can be articulated as a combination of convective
and diffusive element and matter the overall transport phenomena. This is all due to the dense pore
size or called as atomic size dimension and have Donnan and dielectric exclusion principles also
ruled the permeation of particles from the NF membrane and still have undefined and insignificant
discussion for the true mechanism of separation through NF membranes[35].

5. Mathematic Modeling for Nano-filtration Process

= +

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As nano-filtration have properties in between ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis membrane and
place under the category of pressure driven membrane. But the transport of solute through NF
membrane is not only through sieve exclusion principle rather Donnan exclusion and solution-
diffusion mechanism also plays equal and vital role in the contribution of transport mechanism.
The fundamental equation describe the flow pattern of solute through NF membrane by Extended
Nernst-Planck Equation.

J = ion flux based on membrane area [mol m-2 s-1]

D p = Hindered Diffusivity [m2 s-1]
c = ion concentration in membrane [mol/m3]
x = distance from membrane [m]
z = valence of ion
R = gas constant [J mol-1 K-1 ]
T absolute temperature [K]
F = Faraday Constant [C mol-1]
K c = Hindrance factor for conversion
= potential difference
V = solvent velocity [ms-1]

Now in Nernst Planck Equation the terminology on right hand side of equation govern the transport
of solute by diffusion, electric potential gradient and through convention respectively. Now from
this equation the forecast of the refutation of solute is according to the function of feed
concentration, ionic potential, convection and solution-diffusion. This equation also be useful in
determine the pore morphology, presence of any charge on surface or bulk of membrane and finally
the membrane thickness.

The mechanism of solute transport through the membrane is as follow:

1) Initially diffusion of solute particle from feed into the membrane surface
2) Then sorption of particle on the dense surface of membrane
3) After sorption on the basis of selectivity specific particle diffuse into the matrix of
membrane
4) And on the next end these diffused particle desorb from the surface of membrane
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5) And then introduced again onto the bulk of solution on the permeating phase

The rate determining and slowest step for mass transfer are 1, 2 and 3. Following are the models
governed the elimination of solute particles from the NF-membrane.

The transport of solute is better explained by the combination of Extended Nernst Plancks
equation and Donnan Exclusion principle through nano-filtration membrane [36-38].
6. Characterization of Nano-filtration Membrane

As the film surface having charges and dielectric gradient for flow of charged particles through
film take place and despite of this phenomena still NF membranes have pores and enough proof
present to justify the presence of pores on NF membrane [39]. And to comprehend the concept of
steric hindrance, the morphology of pores should be study first. This categorization can be
accomplished by a range of procedures:

The scattering of nano size holes over the film measured by adsorption and desorption gas
technique through Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Method [40-42].
Atomic-Force Theory expressively illustrate the surface of the nano-filtration membrane,
scattering of pore size, surface characterization and particle linkage very accurately [43-
46].
The indication of the rejection of the solute having no charge on their surface give
indication of the alternate way of the pore size diameter and other characteristics [47-49].
RSI Reverse Surface Impregnation combined with Transmission Electron Microscopy
to measure morphology of pores and their scattering on membrane surface [50].

The all above mention procedures if applied properly then give the best evidence regarding the
morphology of pore and transport of solute through them. But always recommend a combination
of any of these methodologies. Similarly the calculation of charge features of nano-filtration
membranes is second most influential factor contribute in the transport of solute. And vary by the
way of interaction of solute, their concentration and Ph of solution.

7. Nano-Filtration Membrane Application

NF membranes have diverse application especially in the area of treatment of polluted water from
different sources, moreover in food industry, in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology NF also meet
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the requirement of the consumer and provide satisfactory and convincing results. The major
purpose of installing NF membrane module worldwide is the purification of ground water, waste
water, desalination but in recent time some exceptional application as removal of heavy metals,
persistent organic pollutant and hormones and organic compounds also include in the library of
NF membrane application section. Further NF membrane also installed for the separation of
amphoteric organic compound [51-52].

7.1. Separation of solutes on the basis of sieve and electrostatic effect

The NF membrane separate the dissolved organic and inorganic molecules, pharmaceutical and
personal care products (PPCPS), hormones, pesticides and industrial effluent which always present
in the water bodies along with hardening causing sulphate and chlorides salts of calcium and
magnesium from water. The parting is achieved on the basis of sieve and electrostatic effect. The
sieve phenomena is dominant where the mass in gram of desired component greater to extreme
Molecular Weight cut-off. Second hand if the permeating solute molecular weight range is in
between the MWCO then both sieving and electrostatic effect will govern the separation. For the
separation of inorganic solutes with small molecular weight electrostatic effect show dominancy
in their release from the feed through membrane. In the case multivalent ion solution the rejection
of ion from NF membrane is not the same as in the case of monovalent salt solution because of
varying affinity towards the charged ion and the membrane ionic species [53-55].

7.2. Ground Water

Ground water present mainly in underground rocks, cracks, in spaces in sand rocks and soil. This
reserve of water is primarily a considerable resources for domestic purpose but it contains salts of
calcium, magnesium sulphate, nitrates and chlorides and microorganism and therefore must be
purified before reach at consumer end. The best solution for the separation of these salts is
forcefully pass through the NF membranes and the retention of multivalent ion is reported around
90% and of monovalent ion is approximately 65-75%[56-60]. Sombekke et al. Analysis the result
by relating the efficiency of NF membrane and granular activated carbon for softening of ground
water and concluded that NF membranes were good in purifying water as it also removed
microorganism and other organic matter. In addition the elimination of insecticides and micro-
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pollutants from NF membranes also examined by scientist and demonstrate that around 90%
separation was achieved by NF membranes [60].

In addition exclusion of negatively halogen ion and aluminum and hardness causing radicals also
removed from the NF membranes and the cancer causing heavy metals Arsenic and traces of
radioactive element also efficiently remove from the NF membranes employed in different parts
of world and examined by a team of researchers [61-63].

More prevalent research is underway in pesticides removal from ground water by NF membranes.
The pesticides are percolate from surface into the aquifer and dissolve in ground water aquifer.
These pesticides are not those mention in above paragraph these are having new compounds called
Pesticides Transformation Products (PTPs) and detect in ground water, so their removal is
necessary from ground water and used NF99HF membrane but the desired results was not achieved
so employed Low Pressure RO membrane to get the desired results[64-69].

7.3. Surface Water

Treatment of water especially surface water is the first priority of NF membranes, to remove the
pollutants, surfactant, and microorganisms. As NF membranes classified under high pressure
driven membrane but Fang et al. produced NF Hollow Fiber Membrane and operates unlikely at
low pressure and attempt to remove hardness from surface water. Membrane possess the following
characteristics of water permeability of around 17.1 L/m2 of dense selective layer MWCO of 500
Da. The elimination of magnesium chlorides and sulphate (1000 ppm) and (1000 ppm)
respectively achieved by both steric and Donnan exclusion mode of transport and achieved 97%
and 81% rejection operate at 2 bar pressure. In second experiment approximately 3000 to 31000
ppm feed containing dissolved salt of Mg+2 and Ca+2 allowed to pass through the NF Hollow fiber
membranes and observed the 89-91% of retention of these ions and suggest the installation of these
module at commercial scale [70].

In recent times the shortage of water might be overcome by the recycling of waste water by
properly treating it through NF membrane technology and provide water up to the standards for
drinking purpose. Though its pressure driven requiring extensive energy process. Efforts are being
made by researchers to operate the NF plant at reduce energy level and installed these plants in
arid areas and recycle the waste water again and again through NF membranes. A comparative
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study of treated water from NF and water treatment plant and found that magnificently amazing
result of removal of color and turbidity approximately 99.9%, DOC 92-93%, ions metals and non-
metals 97% and 75-100% respectively. These surprising results propose the installation of NF
membrane unit for commercial scale applications [71-72].

7.4. Diafiltration and concentration of neutral solutes in salts aqueous

solutions
The installation of NF unit for purifying and eliminating impurities from food product is made
essential because to avoid any contamination of products and achieve the maximum purity required
in food items. In the dairy industry NF membranes used to separate the monovalent ion from the
whey as they impart negative sensoric sensitivity to consumer while the divalent ion presence is
whey subsidizes positive effect to the product [73].
7.5. Separation and purification of amphoteric solutions
In order to separate the solution having both the characteristics of acid and base and this complex
solution is to pass through membrane then the separation of the permeate and the retentate is
depend on the isoelectric point in membrane surface as well as molecular weight of solute
molecule. In case of separation through sieving effect the pH value of solution must be equal to
that of isoelectric point. If not then the electrostatic characteristics of amphoteric solute come under
the influence of electrostatic forces and it reinforce the rejection of solute. A real time application
of this phenomena is the segregation of building block of protein i.e. amino acid and peptides.
Isoelectric point at which the amino acid no longer separate under the influence of external electric
field or electric potential gradient so each amino acid have its unique isoelectric point and
therefore it is possible to use membrane to separate variety of amino acid from a solution on the
basis of isoelectric point. A researcher Wang et al. did research on elimination of levo-
phenylalanine & levo-aspartic acid from a mixture by passing through the feed from industrial
scale Nano-filtration membrane at varying pH and found that the membrane show rejection of
levo-phenylalanine and levo-aspartic acid at diverse ph. By adjusting the Ph range of 6-8 special
type of NF membrane show more refusal for levo-aspartic acid roughly 89-91% but permeate levo-
phenylalanine. At industrial scale Ph of solution is maintained 6-8 and NF membrane would
permeate L-phenylalanine and reject L-Asp hence membrane deliver better result in comparison
to separation by using resin through ion exchange process, and membrane is being highly selective
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for L-Phe, energy efficient, cost effective and reliable technology for the production pf Levo-
phenylalanine enzyme[74-79].

7.6. Waste Water

NF membrane are exclusively employed to eliminate PPCP in to the streams coming out from the
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in water treatment plants. As NF membranes accomplished
this task by synergistically with sieving and Donnan exclusion phenomena, a comparative study
was made by Lin et al. of RO and special type of NF-90 and NF-270 membrane for the exclusion
of major six PPCPs compounds devoid of bringing the concept of varying Ph of the solution hence
the complete separation is governed on the b the differences on molecular weight basis from RO
membrane. But when the electrostatic potential bring under consideration along with the size
exclusion by varying the Ph of the solution then NF membrane perform more efficiently in
elimination of the PPCPs compounds, finally electrostatic repulsion show its dominancy over size
base exclusion phenomena[80].

The NF membrane module also installed for the removal of dairy products from the waste water
stream. The dairy product constituents the lipids molecule which cause concentration polarization
when adsorbed in the pores and similarly comparatively small molecules of lactose and calcium
ion also cause reduced in flux and permeability. A model experimentation was done by the team
of researcher Luo et al. by applying high shear rate and improved pressure result in improved flux
and permeability values through NF-270 rotating disk membrane module. By applying 40 bar
transmembrane pressure and extraordinary shear rate substantial rise in permeate flux observe and
also optimize the energy requirement of this process. After this successful model plant testing of
separation of dairy product from water commercial plant also established and more or less
analogous result were obtained. Therefore Rotating disk membrane module seems to be an
appropriate technology for the treatment of dairy waste devoid of using the conventional technique
for the purification of waste water polluted from dairy product [81].

7.7. Desalination

Desalination technology aim for the exclusion of excess salt & undesired components present in
feed streams taking from sea and oceans and make it useful for the human and animal consumption
and also resolve the water scarcity problems. Now in recent times membrane based process are
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employed for the desalination process which are highly energy efficient and cost effective and
meet the water purification standard. Nano-filtration and asymmetric RO film are excessively
being employed for the exclusion of unwanted salt from sea water and with more research and
advancement in producing the more selective dense NF membrane, it will be speculated that soon
it substitute RO membranes in desalination process and might be incorporated with alternate
process for enhanced performance [82].

The most convincing reason for replacement of reverse osmosis membrane by nano-filtration
membrane for the purification of sea and brackish water is because of later is operating at lower
pressure than the former ones, hence optimize energy for its operation in proper way. To estimate
the capability of NF-membrane in response to exposed them for desalination purpose is find out
by conducting a bench scale test. The calculation of water flux and the refusal of in from NF
membrane, define the overall rejection of boron, bromide and iodide ion from the NF-membrane
as these are the most essential ions that should be separated from sea water, in addition the decline
in flux due to membrane fouling and concentration polarization also study under critical flux
control analysis in nano-filtration membrane. These were the main objective of bench scale test
and the following are the results draw after performing this test.

Special type of NF-90 and NE-90 membrane although not designed for desalination application
were successfully convert the desalination water into the portable water and maintained the Total
dissolved Solid level below 400 mg/L. moreover the membrane selectivity for Na+ and Cl- point
out the membrane capability to desalinate sea water effectively[83].

7.8. Pharmaceutical and biotechnological applications

A special class of NF membrane develop by the combination of 25% -27% PES and the NF-270
to retain or purification of active pharmaceutical ingredient API during the synthesis of medicine
from the cancer causing impurities or commonly called Genotoxic Impurities GTI. The strategy
adopt is cross flow model for this purpose and accomplish more than 80-82% retention of API
substances.

Organophilic nano-filtration ONF is a developing innovation in the field of separation of organic

solvents and implement for the separation of active pharmaceutical ingredient, but under practice
at laboratory scale so far. A team of researcher Szekely et al. conversed the elimination of
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Genotoxic impurities from approximately nine to ten active pharmaceutical ingredient exemplary
chemicals. The recommended Organophilic nano-filtration membrane for the exclusion of GTI
from API post-treatment solution is used as an alternative solution for the recovery of API and
succeed more than 81-82% production.

7.9. Non-water Application

The feed mixture normally encountered in industries constituents of many components and having
deviation from ideal behavior mixture. The organo solvent NF membrane so far also restrict to
deal with the two-component mixture. Efforts are being made to organize the two or more different
kind of membrane in a single module from UF to RO and then initially perform experiment on
two-component system and carefully observe the following characteristics: flow ability of feed,
surface tension, joined diffusion and the relative sorption of varying component into the membrane
matrix [84].

8. Fouling prevention and control:

Efforts are being made by researcher and membrane specialist to reduce or minimize fouling but
it is inevitable and despite of all efforts fouling is uncontrollable and have adverse effect in overall
efficiency of processing system by curtailing production and additional efforts are being made to
decrease fouling. Although different procedures are bring adopt to avert and alleviate fouling.
Principally by taking precautionary measurement before the feed selection, membrane unit,
polymeric material for membrane synthesis selection, designing and formulation of module and
cleaning process fouling might be minimized [85].

By carefully analysis of feed water characteristics such as: Ph, ionic strength, percentage of organic
material, BOD ,COD, silt index density & salt composition and concentration can forecast the
probability of fouling of membrane [86]. This characteristics paved a way for guiding the
membrane experts and researcher to optimize the membrane material, membrane formulation and
module design and even the operating pressure and conditions select the best membrane according
to their requirement [87].
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Figure 5: concentration Polarization [97]

Best and most appreciated approach to minimize fouling by feed water is pre-treatment, before
directing NF membrane plant. Mostly the conventional processes are mostly employed for pre-
treatment of feed, such as sedimentation, introduction of chemical (alum) producing positive
charge and attract negative charge particle and coagulate them by settled down these particles, by
slow mixing the suspended solids in feed water so that these particles make coalesce and form
large particles called flocs and remove from water, introduction of ozone in water to remove the
organic matter from feed water and also used activated carbon filtration to remove the
contamination as these contaminants adsorbed on the carbon surface. So after flowing water
through these steps then the probability of fouling will reduce considerably [88].

A proper selection of membrane is made by analyzing the membrane characteristics as zeta

potential, contact angle are either the cause of membrane fouling or contributing in membrane
fouling in treatment of house hold waste water treatment [89].

A comprehensive study should be done to examine the feed properties and the selection of
membrane to achieve the desired requirement prior to the installation of membrane unit. So that
membrane must have the capability to resist fouling during execution. To reduce the effect of
severe fouling cause by concentration polarization following are the technique should be executed.
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With the help of pulse pump the Pulsating flow is induced which in turn increase the flux
of solute.
Use of purge gas
Introduction of spacer which cause turbulence and reduced concentration polarization
The flow of feed should be reverse after suitable of time
Use of low frequency ultraviolet irradiation[90-93]

Figure 6: Typical protocol used in fouling studies [98]

9. Future Prospect in NF Membrane Technology

Nano-filtration has a distinctive position between the UF and RO membrane and because of its
peculiar position and characteristics, have multiple application and exclusively in purification of
polluted water, desalination & decontamination the brackish water & now with more advancement
in the membrane properties NF now widely used in personal product and pharmaceutical products
and also in food products industries to accomplish the desired requirement. But still more room is
always present to bring more innovation and advancement required to increase the productivity of
processes through nano-filtration.

Now by bringing advancement of technology in the fabrication of NF membrane, TFC &

TFNC become latest innovation in the NF membrane synthesis through interfacial
polymerization process. Although on lab scale, production of NF membrane by plasma grafting,
ultra violet and photo grafting, track etching and electron beam irradiation achieved a satisfactory
level for NF membrane synthesis. But on commercial scale these technique have some restriction,
but in parallel the concept of composite and nano composite particles gaining more and more
19

attention for the synthesis of NF membrane. Now membrane fabricate from these nano particles is
under extensive research to find out their role in structure of final membrane, pores geometry and
dimension and result of the transport of permeating particles through the membrane. Least but not
last the selectivity of membrane has major influence on the efficiency of membrane so role of
nanoparticle in terms of selectivity is also a hot topic for research.

Fouling a retardency in the membrane efficiency and process and despite of all efforts to reduce
it, still fouling is inevitable. Various mechanism have been studying of the cause and minimize the
fouling, recently a modeling for the refutation of solute particle will predict and provide a close
picture of the factors contribute for fouling. This grouping might suggest an improved evaluation
of the reason and treatment to reduce fouling [94].

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