Professional Documents
Culture Documents
x
Velocity Jh
Space U
Contact E uations Grasp/Contact Kinematics
(2ontana)l (Ken & Roth)
Early 1990s
Figure 3: The role of the hand and grasp Jacobians.
G p s g p l i t y Touch Sensors
Mcasurcs (Li ashy) (Allen, Howe, Maekawa ) For the fingers, r is the vector of joint torques and 9 is
the vector of joint velocities. For the contacts, f, is the
Late 1990s vector of contact forces and xc is the vector of contact
Phase Based Grasp Gaiting (Leveroni) point, velocities. For the object, the result,ant, force
Manipulation (Hyde)
Mani ulatiodExploration vector and the vector of object velocities are shown.
Grasp Force of UAnown Ob ects
Optimizations (Buss) (Allen, Bicchi, dkamura, Pai)
I
1
2000 I
I
These individual Jacobians are brought together t o
form the hand Jacobian.
Figure 1: An abridged time line of the development, of
robotic dexterous manipulation.
o o r
Typically the fingertip forces are represented in a
coordinate frame at, the instantaneous cont.act point, on
.JF ...
1 ftiz
256
Relative velocities Velocities of contact
of contact points on frames on objects
each of the two objects ( I and 2) and spin
:A
vx:
I
V..
WY
Contact
Equations
I
j :) il
i*
257
2.3 Internal and External Forces regrasps is kriown as a yrusp yuit. 111 planning, it is
also important to realize that, a new grasp cannot
With three or more fingers, there arc generally morc always be found if the object is moved locally until a
than enough cont,act,sto manipulate the object, while finger reaches a workspace limit; often a regrasp must
resisting external forces and moments on it. The re- occur before the limit is reached.
dundancy results in internal forces that lie in the null
space of the grasp map, G [32, 48, 511. These internal 3.2 Grasp Optimizations and Quality
forces are typically used to keep the normal compo- Measures
nents of the contact forces large enough to prevent
slipping, independent of producing thc required extcr-
nal force and moment, (including inertial forces). The Manipulators used for dexterous manipulation typ-
analisis and opt,imization of grasqp forces has received ically have kinematic redundancy. In addition, there
extensive treatment in the literature, as discussed fur- are usually multiple choices for contact locations that
ther in the next section. will achieve force closure on an object. Furthermore,
for each choice of contact locations, there are many so-
liitions for applying contact forces that will sat,isfy the
external force requirements while providing sufficient
3 Dexterous Grasp and Motion internal forces t o prevent slipping.
Planning Therefore, there can be an infinite number of possi-
ble grasps for a manipulation. The task of picking the
In dexterous motion planning, there are two main best grasp has resulted in a rich area of research.
objectives t o consider: There are many different ways t o choose the optimal
contact, locations, contact forces, and finger poses for a
planning thc motion of the object t o achieve a particular manipulator, object and task combination.
desired configuration or accomplish a ta.sk, which
In order to choose the best grasp, a metric can be
includes planning the contact locations and mo-
used t o measure the quality of a given grasp, which
tions of the fingers;
will often depend on task requirements. An example of
analyzing the grasp and choosing an optimal set such a measure was developed by Li and Sastry [28],
of cont,act forces. who separated the task requirements into two parts:
wrench (or force) requirement and twist (or motion)
This discussion overlaps with grasp planning and op- requirement. Each is represented by task ellipsoids,
t,imization work reviewed in the Contact and Grasp whose axes indicate the relative magnitude require-
Symposium [25]. ments for the elements of the wrench or twist vec-
tor. Another measure of grasp quality is calculated by
3.1 Grasp Planning for Desired Object treating the fingerslobject combination as a parallel-
Motion chain mechanism and evaluating the manzpulabilzty of
the object with respect to the palm [22]. A cornparison
In this section we address methods for finding a se- of such grasp measures with the considerations that af-
quence of local motions and regrasps that will result in fect human grasp choice is provided in [6]. More recent
a final desired object motion. Solutions to this prob- work has considered the dynamic stability of the grasp
lem are found using robot hand kinematics, reachabil- with respect to external disturbances [49].
ity analysis and regraspinglgaiting. While researchers have formulated good conceptual
Given a desired object motion, one must first deter- quality measures for grasps, using these mcasurcs for
mine whether the fingers can move the object wittholit automatic grasp choice remains difficult. Marly suc-
regrasping. This can be accomplished by a reachabil- cessful optimization techniques have been developed
ity analysis [22]. Using the range of possible manipula- for specifying contact forces given known contact, loca-
tions for a given hand and object, a workspace can be tions and task requirements [ll]. Some of these are ef-
constructed that is a function of the hand and object ficient enough for real time computation [5]. Searching
and whether the contacts are rolling or sliding. for the optimal contact locations is inherently more dif-
The range of motion that can be imparted to an ficult, because the quality measure is typically a non-
object without regrasping is limited by the finger convex (and non-linear) function over thc search space
joints, interferences among the finger links and the and tliiis standard ronvpx optimization techniqiies can
object, and the limited range of contact locations not be used. There have been attempts a t contact
that can achieve a stable grasp. For motion planning, location synt#hesis,but no algorithm has been widely
one useful approach is t o construct a grasp map, a adopted. (Early investigations of this problem can be
graphical representation of all stable grasps, that found in [17] and [35].) Some of the more successful au-
can be consulted t o determine whether regrasping tonomous contact location choice systems are knowl-
is needed [27]. A sequence of finger motions and edge based [26, 431.
High-Level Task planning, discrete event formed using Jacobians and a Lagrange or Newton-
systems, grasp choice Euler dynamics formulation, an operational space dy-
Mid-Level Phases, transitions, event detec- namic model of the system is created:
tion
Low-Level Operational space dynamics, co- A(x)X + P(X,X ) + p(x) = F, (4)
operative object impedance con-
where A(.) is the mass matrix, p(x,X) is the term
trol, kinematics, forces
for centxifiigal and Coriolis forces, p(x) is the term for
Table 2: Levels of Control for Dexterous Manipulation gravity, and F is the operational space force.
Using this framework, a control structure can be
chosen for dynamic decoupling and motion control.
4 Dynamics and Control Frameworks For example, a basic PD (proportional-derivative) con-
troller of the form
Like legged locomotion, dexterous manipulation has
the characteristics of a hybrid discrete/continuous sys-
tem. The control of dexterous manipulation can be
F = -k,(X-X,) (5)
decomposed into three main levels, as shown in Table
2. High-level control includes tasklmotion planning
and grasp choice, which have been reviewed already. may be used to move the operat(iona1 point, to a goal
Mid-level control includes manipulation phases (for ex- position xg when no particular trajectory is required.
ample whether the fingers are operating independently In dexterous manipulation it is often less impor-
or cooperatively) piinctuated by discret,e events such tant to follow a precise trajectory than it is t o re-
as making or breaking contact. The low level concerns spond gracefully to disturbances such as unexpected
the dynamics and control formulation for each phase. contacts with the environrnent. Impedance control
[lo], in which we specify the apparent mass, stiffness
4.1 Mid-Level Control and damping of the grasped object,, has therefore been
a popular control law.
Research in neurophysiology has shown that hu- The control block diagram in Figure 7 shows a
mans grasping and manipulating objects receive sig- control framework using object impedance control for
nals from specialized skin cells that trigger shifts be- rolling manipulation. This diagram shows the path of
tween phases (e.g., approach, grasp, lift) of a information from commands, through control laws, to
manipulation task [HI. A similar approach can be application on the dexterous hand [14]. Many exten-
applied t o the middle level of control for robotic dex- sions are possible. For example, explicit, control of the
terous manipulation [14]. contact trajectories in rolling manipulation is possible
Different manipulation phases often require differ- using the controller presented in 1421.
ent control laws. For example, the control may switch
from fingertip motion control to object force control as
the fingers close upon an object. Smooth transitions 5 Manipulation Versus Exploration
between phases are needed, particularly when event
detection relies on dynamic sensors that are inherently As shown by Klatzky and Lederman [24], manipula-
sensitive to vibrations and motion discontinuities. tion and exploration go hand in hand. We can obtain
Knowing when a particular event,, such as a finger a precise definition for each separately: Pure manip-
making contact with an object, has occurred is often ulation occurs when the objcct is complctcly known.
a difficult task in the presence of other events thats Piire exploration happens when the ohject, is fix-
result in similar sensor signals. Thus, context-sensitive tured and is not, known. Most dexterous manipulation
event detection and sensor fusion are used to define the is a combination of the two. And in a non-ideal world,
probability that a particular event has occurred [9, 141. we need manipulation for exploration and vice versa.
Robotic exploration through manipulation is a re-
4.2 Dynamics and Low-Level Control cent area of research. Bicchi, et al. [3] manipulate
by rolling, building a modcl of thc objcct as thcy go.
In comparison to mid-level cont(ro1, the low-level ,Maekawa uses a ta.ctile swsor to permit object explo-
control of dexterous manipulation has received thor- ration and manipulation without, any prior model [31].
ough attention in previous work. This is primarily Okamura, et al. manipulate an object. for which the
because the strategies are a direct extension of those general shape is known but surface features remain
used or single and cooperating robot arms. to be explored [38, 371. Allen uses exploration with
The operational space dynamics formulation [23] robot fingers, sometimes in combination with vision,
is particularly suited for dexterous manipulation. to build up an object model using mathematical shape
Through joint spaceloperational space relationships descriptions (sup(:rquadrics) [l]. Pais ACME (ACtivc
Commands Control Laws Application and Feedback
MEasurement) facility can be used to obtain a rich set vital to accomplish any task where uncertainties
of object, measurements, including shape, reflectance, are present. To illustrate the point, consider what
sound, and contact forces [39]. happens when your fingers are cold and numb.
Simple tasks likc buttoning a jacket become dif-
ficult. The main problcm is not with your mus-
6 Accomplishments and Future Work cles (which are mainly in the forearms, and com-
paratively warm) but. with the cutaneous sensors
While the of study dexterous manipulation and which have become anaesthetized. In robotic dex-
robotic fingers has matured in the last decade, thcrc terous manipulation, tactile sensors are the pri-
remain significant, research problems to be solved. In mary sources of information (although some work
this section, we review the major accomplishments in has been done on combining vision sensors with
dexterous manipulation (both in hardware and soft- dexterous manipulation/haptic cxploratiori [2]).
ware/algorithms) and highlight areas for future work. Tactile sensors can be divided into two categories:
extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic sensors can sense
6.1 Hardware contact location and, in some cases, contact pres-
sures and shear stresses. Examples include capac-
Hand design. Many robotic hands have been de- itive arrays, pin arrays, micromachined force sen-
signed over the last two decades. With a few no- sor arrays, and optical measurement systems (i.e.,
table exceptions (e.g, [S, 31) most of these have CCD). Problems with these sensors include sensi-
been anthropomorphic designs with three [32, 363 t,ivity to noise, delicacy, poor resolution, slow data
or four [16] multi-jointed fingers drivcn by cables. acqiiisit,ion and processing, difficulties in manu-
The size and shape of the hand workspace is of- facturing, large numbers of wires, and cost [12].
ten carefully chosen for specific tasks [32, 451. In Intrinsic sensors use global measiirements from
recent, years the focus of research has shifted from which cont,act information can be extracted. In-
hand design to development of the hardware com- trinsic sensors include force/st,rain sensors [32],
ponents and algorithms for manipulation. optical sensors (i.e. PSD), and joint torque sens-
Actuotion. Actuators for dexterous rnanipulation ing [19]. While these sensors are often robust and
should be small and lightweight, in comparison t,o fast, they providc limitcd iriformation. For cxam-
the robotic hand. In many hand designs, back- ple, the optical waveguide tact,ile sensor designed
drivable systems are used so that small motion by Maekawa, et al. gives the centroid and inten-
errors will not result in high interaction forces. sity of all contact, locations [30]. Intrinsic sensors
Low friction is also desirable for better control. also cannot, differentiat,e between one and multiple
Large motors are located remotely, and complex contacts.
cabling systems are often used t o transmit motor
Miniaturization. The miniaturization of manip-
torques to the fingertips. Small actuators with
ulation is another area with promise. Manipula-
high specific force or torque will be needed if ca-
tions occurring on a very small scale are domi-
bles are to be eliminated.
nated by friction and Van dcr Waals forces. Sta-
Sensing. Sensors are essential for dexterous n a - ble grasping is often not necessary; at this level
nipulation, as feedback of contact information is objects can stick directly to tjhe manipulator [44].
6.2 Software and Algorithms D. L. Brock. Enhancing the dexteritv of a rohot hand
using controlled slip. Proc. IEEE ICRA, pages 249-
0 Automated grasping and motion planning There 251, 1988.
remains a gap between theoretical promise and hI. Buss, H. Hashimoto, and J . B. Moore. Dextrous
practical delivery due to the complexity of spec- hand grasping force optimization. IEEE Trans. on
ifying and controlling automated grasping and Robotrcs u r d A7rto~natron,12(3):406-418, June 1996.
manipulation tasks. There are several areas in
hl. R. Cutkosky and R. D. Howe. Human grasp choice
which better algorithms are required. Currently,
and robotic grasp analysis. In S . T. Venkataraman and
most, grasp choice and optimization systems that T. Iberall. editors, Dextrous Robot Hands, pages 5-31.
use multiple fingers are slow and the calculat,ions Springer-Verlag, 1990.
must be done off-line, particularly when contact
locations must be determined. Another area for hl. R.. Cutkosky and P. Wright. Friction, stability and
improvement is motion planning. As with grasp the design of robot fingers. IJRR, 5(4):20-37, 1986.
choice, current algorithms are slow and cannot be P. Datseris and W.Palm. Principles on the devel-
arxomplished during the manipulat.ion t,ask. opment of mechanical hands which c,an manipulate
objects by means of active control. Journal of Mech-
0 3D Manipulation with Rolling. The mathemati- anism.s, !l'ransmission,,s, and Automation i n Design,
cal complexity involved in spatial rolling and slid- 1O7(2) :148--1S6,1985.
ing manipulations has also impeded the applica-
B. Eberman and ,J. K. Salisbury. Application of
tion of 3-D multi-fingered hands. The state of
change detection to dynamic contact sensing. I.JRR,
the a r t is that, limited rnariipulations with rolling 13(5):369-394, 1994.
and sliding have been demonstrated, but general
purpose manipulation will probably await the de- N. Hogan. Impedance control: An approach to manip-
velopment, of better tactile sensors as described ulat,ion: Parts i, ii, and iii. ASME Joirrnnl of Dynamic
Systems, Measurement, and Control, 107:l-24, 1985.
above.
W. S. Howard and V. Kuniar. 011the stability of
0 Tactile data interpretation. Understanding and grasped objects. IEEE Trans. on Robotics and Au-
using t,act,ile sensor output for direct servoing has tomation, 12(6):904-917, 1996.
been the subject of some recent work [31, 37, 521,
however, improvements in tactile sensing and data R. D. Howe and M. R. Ciit,kosky. Touch scnsing for
interprettation are still needed to support general robotic manipulation and recognition. In 0. Khatib,
J. Craig, and T. Lozano-Perez, editors, T h e Robotics
manipulation wit,h unknown objects. Revie,w 2: pages 5 5 - 112. RlIT Press, 1992.
0 C071trd through supervised manipulation. Al- R.. D. Howe and M. R.. Cutkosky. Practical force-
t,hough aut,onomous dexterous manipulation and motion models for sliding manipulation. I.JRR,
explorat,ion remains impractical outside of the 15(6):557-572, 1996.
laboratory, a promising interim solution is su-
J. M. Hyde, M. Tremblay, and M. R.. Cutkosky. An
pervised manipulation. In this approach, a hu- object-oriented framework for event-driven dexterous
man provides the high-level grasp and manip- manipulation. In Experimental Robotics IV. Springer-
ulation planning, while the robot performs fine Verlag, 1995.
manipulations [37]. Another method is teaching
by demonstration (gest,ure-based programming) T. Iberall. A neural network for planning hand shapes
in human prehension. Proc. of the 198s Automatic
[20, 471. The human may also perform the high-
Controls Conference, pages 2288-2293, 1988.
level interpretation of tactile information in su-
pervised remote exploration. S . Jacobsen, J. Wood, D. Knutti, and I<. Biggers.
Utah/m.i.t. dextrous hand: Work in progress. I.JRR,
3(4):21 50, 1984.
J. W.Jameson. Analytic techn,iques for automated
References grasp. PhD thesis, Stanford University, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, 1985.
[l] P. K . 411en and P. Michelman. Acquisition and inter-
pretation of 3-d sensor data from touch. IEEE !l'ran,s. R.. Johansson and G . Westling. Afferent signals dnr-
on Robotics and Autom.ation, 6(4):397-404, 1990. ing nianipiilativt! tasks in man. In 0 . Franzen and
J. Westman, editors, Information Processing in the
[2] P. K. Allen, A. T. Miller, P. Y. Oh, and B. S. Lci- Somatosensory System: Proc. of an Intl. Sem.in.ar at
bowitz. Using tactile and visual sensing with a robotic the Wenmer-Gran. Center. Macmillan, 1991.
hand. Proc. IEEE ICRA, pages 676-681, 1997.
RI. Kaneko and K. Tanie. Contact point detection
[3] A. Bicchi, A. Marigo, and D. Prattichizzo. Dexter- for grasping an iinknown object using self-posture
ity through rolling: Manipulation of unknown objects. changeability. IEEE Tranu. on Robotics and Automa-
Proc. IEEE ICRA, pages 1583-1588, 1999. tion, 10(3):355 367, 1994.
261
[20] S. B. Kang and K. Ikeuchi. Toward automatic robot [37] A. M. Okamura, M. A. Costa, M. L. Turner,
instruction from perception-mapping human grasps C. Richard, and M. R. Cutkosky. Haptic exploration
to manipiilator grasps. IEEE Pans. on Robotics and of surfaces. In P. Corke and .J. Trevelyan, editors,
Automation, 13(1):81 95, 1997. Experimental Robotics VI. Springer-Verlag, 2000.
[21] I. Kao and M. R.. Cutkosky. Qiiasistatic manipulation [38] A. M. Okamura, M. L. Turner, and M. R.. Cutkosky.
with c:onipliance and sliding. I.lRR, 11(1):20 40, 1992. Haptic exploration of objects with rolling axid sliding.
Proc. IEEE ICRA, 3:2485--2490, 1997.
(221 .J. Kerr and B. R,oth. Analysis of multifingered hands.
IJRR, 4(4):3-17, 1986. [39] D. K. Pai, J. Lang, J. E. Lloyd, and R.. J. Wood-
ham. Acme, a telerobotic activc measurement facility.
[23] 0. Khatib. Unified approach for motion and force In P. Corke and J. Trevelyan, editors, Experimental
control of robot manipulators: the operational space Robotics VI. Springer-Verlag, 2000.
formulation. ZEEE Journal of Robotics and Automa- [40] J. Ponce and B. Faverjon. On computing three-finger
tion, 3(7):43-53, 1987. force-closure grasps of polygonal objects. IEEE Pans.
o n Robotics and Automation, 11(6):868-881, 1995.
[24] R. L. Klatzky and S. Lederman. Intelligent explo-
ration by the human hand. In S. T. Venkataraman [41] D. R.us. In-hand dexterous manipulation of piecewise-
and T. Iherall, editors, Dextrous Robot Hands, pages smooth 3-d objects. ZJRR, 18(4):355-381, 1999.
66 81. Springer-Verlag, 1990.
[42] N. Sarkar, X. Yun, and V. Kumar. Dynamic control of
[25] V. Kumar and A. Bicchi. R.obotic grasping and con- 3-d rolling contacts in two-arm manipulation. ZEEE
tact: A rcvicw. Symposium Proc. IEEE ZCRA, 2000. Trans. on Robotics and Automation, 13(3):364-376,
1997.
[26] C. Laugier and 3. Pertin. Automatic grasping: A case
study in acccssibility analysis. In A. Danthine and [43] S. Stansfield. A robotic perceptual system utilizing
M. Geradin, editors, Advanced Software in Robotics, passive vision and active touch. IJRR, 7(6):138-161,
pages 201-214. Elsevier Science Publishers, 1984. 1988.
[27] S. R. Leveroni. Grasp gaits for planar object manip- [44] T. Tanikawa and T. Arai. Development of a micro-
ulation. PhD thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- manipulator system having a two-fingered micro-
nology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1997. hand. ZEEE T h n s . on Robotics and Automation,
15(1):152 -162, 1999.
[28] Z. Li and S. S. Sastry. Issues in dextrous robot hands. [45] C. Tischler, A. Samuel, and K. Hunt. Dexterous
In S. T. Venkataraman and T. Iherall, editors, Dex- robotic fingers with desirable kinematic forms. ZJRR,
trous Robot Hands, pages 154~-186.Springer-Verlag, 17(9):996-1012, 1999.
1990.
[46] F. Valero-Cuevas. Applying principles of robotics to
[29] K. M. Lynch. Nonprehensile robotic manipulation: understand the biomechanics, neuromuscular control
Controllability and planning. PhD thesis, Robotics and clinical rehabilitation of human digits. Symposium
Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, 199G. Proc. IEEE ICRA, 2000.
[30] H. Maekawa, K. Tanie, and K. Komoriya. A finger- [47] R. M. Voyles and P. K. Khosla. Gesture-based pro-
shaped tactile sensor using an optical waveguide. gramming: a preliminary demonstration. Proc. IEEE
Proc. of the IEEE Zntl. Conference on Systems, Man ZCRA, pagcs 708--713, 1999.
and Cybernetics, pages 403-408, 1993.
[48] D. Williains and 0 . Khatih. The virtual linkage: a
[31] H. Maekawa, K. Tanie, and K. Komoriya. Tactile scn- modcl for internal forccs in multi-grasp manipulation.
sor based manipulation of an unknown object by a Proc. ZEEE ZCRA, 1:1025-1030, 1993.
multifingered hand with rolling contact. Proc. lEEE [49] C.-H. Xiong, Y.-F. Li, H. Ding, and Y.-L. Xiong. 011
ZCRA, pages 743-750, 1995.
the dynamic stability of grasping. IJRR, 18(9):951-
I321 M. T. Mason and J. K. Salisbury. Robot Hands and 958, 1999.
the Mechanics of Manipulation. The MIT Press, 1985. [50] N. Xydas and I. Kao. Modeling of contact mechanics
and friction limit surface for soft fingers in robotics
[33] D. Montana. The kinematics of contact and grasp. with experimental results. ZJRR., 18(9):941-950, 1999.
I.JRR, 7(3):17-32, 1988.
[5l] T. Yoshikawaand K. Nagai. Analysis of multi-fingered
[34] R.. Murray, Z. Li, and S. Sastry. A Mathematical In- grasping and manipulation. In S. T. Venkataraman
troduction to Robotic Manipulation. CR.C Press, 1994. and T. Iherall, editors, Dextroiis Robot Hnn,ds, pages
5-31. Springer-Verlag, 1990.
(351 V.-D. Nguyen. Constructing force closure grasps.
IJRR, 7(3):3-16, 1988. [52] H. Zhang, H. Maekawa, and K. Tanie. Sensitiv-
ity analysis and experiments of curvature estimation
[36] T. Okada. Computer control of multijointed finger based on rolling contact. Proc. ZEEE ZCRA, pages
system for precise object-handling. ZEEE Trans. on 3514-3519, 1996.
Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 12(3):289-299, 1982.
262