Martino 2016

Geol. Mag.
: page 1 of 30
c Cambridge University Press 2016 1
doi:10.1017/S0016756816000339
Reactivation, inversion and basement faulting and thrusting in the

Sierras Pampeanas of Crdoba (Argentina) during Andean
flat-slab deformation
R O B E RT O D. M A RT I N O , A L I N A B . G U E R E S C H I & A N A C A R O M O N T E R O
Departamento de Geologa Bsica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Fsicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Crdoba
(UNC), CICTERRA (CONICETUNC) and CIGEA (UNCCNEA), Crdoba, Argentina
(Received 30 October 2015; accepted 25 March 2016)
Abstract The Sierras Pampeanas of Crdoba are the easternmost uplifted blocks caused by Andean
foreland deformation, over 700 km from the Chile trench. This deformation started at c. 340 Ma
through basement faults, thrusts and reactivation of normal faults of the Cretaceous rift during the
opening of the Atlantic Ocean. Other older faults, major oblique lineaments, were also reactivated.
Thermochronological and geothermobarometric data indicate that some topographic relief could have
been PalaeozoicMesozoic relicts and not only produced by the Andean orogeny. Faults are partially
controlled by the early Cambrian S2 metamorphic foliation, coincident with the curved fault traces at
map scale. During Pliocene time, two deformation phases post-dating MiocenePliocene magmatism
are recognized. Shallow seismicity data (c. 25 km depth) indicate that the Sierras de Crdoba accom-
modate Quaternary displacement. Magnetotelluric studies detect the interface between the Pampia
terrane and the Ro de la Plata craton. The role of the oblique lineaments in the nucleation and de-
velopment of the Tertiary faulting has been little considered; they could be correlated with an old
pan-Gondwanan trend. During the Cretaceous period these lineaments worked in a transtensive way,
producing the uplift of high-grade rocks and segmentation of the mountain chain favouring the dia-
chronous uplift along the ranges. Recently, both the brittleductile transition at c. 23 km depth and
the crustal thickness have been determined by seismicity analysis. The oblique lineaments displace
normally the Mohorovicic discontinuity. Main basement thrusts were probably rooted in the suture
between the Pampia terrane and the Ro de la Plata craton.
Keywords: thick-skinned style, faulting, lineaments, Andean deformation, Eastern Sierras Pampeanas.
1. Introduction fault in the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas (Uliana, Biddle

& Cerdan, 1989; Rossello & Mozetic, 1999; Chebli
The continental lithosphere of the southwestern part
et al. 2005; Richardson et al. 2009). These two lin-
of the Gondwana supercontinent was consolidated to-
eaments are sutures: the Valle Frtil lineament is the
wards the end of Proterozoic time (for details, see
Palaeozoic suture marking accretion of the Cuyania
Ramos, 1988; Ramos, Cristallini & Prez, 2000). This
terrane (Precordillera plus Western Sierras Pampeanas;
process introduced a planar anisotropy in the basement
Ramos et al. 1986) to the Pacific Gondwana margin;
that controlled the development of Phanerozoic basins
and the Eastern Pampean lineament is the suture as-
in Argentina. The accretion of terranes to the Pacific
sembly of the Ro de la Plata craton with the Pampia
margin of Gondwana during the early Palaeozoic era re-
terrane in Precambrian times.
activated these anisotropies and created others, mainly
Tertiary Andean compression, recording arrival of
during the OrdovicianSilurian periods (Ocloyic de-
the Nazca plate with low-angle subduction, pro-
formation phase). Mesozoic basins with two exten-
duced inversion of Cretaceous basins (Schmidt et al.
sional styles were accommodated by NE and NW
1995), block-faulting and clockwise-tilting (relative to
planar structural fabrics that affected the metamorphic
present-day north), resulting in the current landscape
basement in the Ro de la Plata and Pampean domains,
of the Sierras de Crdoba (Gordillo & Lencinas, 1979).
facing the Atlantic and Pacific continental margins, re-
The uplift of these blocks and the landscape of tilted
spectively (Fig. 1; Martino, Guereschi & Carignano,
blocks impressed one of the first geologists who sys-
2012).
tematically studied the Argentinian territory (Stelzner,
In the Pampean domain, two lineaments that con-
1875). The natives called the high plains pampas and,
trolled the Cretaceous basins in the central mainland of
because of the common appearance of the sierras
Argentina (Fig. 1) are recognized: the Valle Frtil lin-
and pampas landscape, Stelzner gave these ranges
eament; and the Eastern Pampean lineament. The latter
the name Pampinas which became Pampeanas.
is reactivated today and forms the current Sierra Chica
The Sierras de Crdoba are the easternmost group of
the Sierras Pampeanas geological province. They con-
Author for correspondence: roberto.martino@unc.edu.ar sist of a NeoproterozoicPalaeozoic basement arranged
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 15 Jul 2016 IP address: 132.239.1.231

2 R . D. M A RT I N O , A . B . G U E R E S C H I & A . C A R O M O N T E R O
Figure 1. (Colour online) Schematic map of southern South America showing the Mesozoic extensional basins in Argentina (modified
from Uliana, Biddle & Cerdan, 1989; Rossello & Mozetic, 1999; Chebli et al. 2005; Martino et al. 2014). These are accomodated on
structural planar fabrics orientated NW and NE, affecting the metamorphic basement in the Pampean and Ro de la Plata domains
(separated here by the dashed line). In the Pampean domain, two lineaments that controlled the Cretaceous basins are recognized
the Valle Frtil lineament (VFL) and the Eastern Pampean lineament (EPL) today reactivated and forming the Sierra Chica fault.
These two lineaments correspond respectively to two sutures, the Palaeozoic accretion of Cuyania (C) to the Pacific Gondwana margin
(VFL) and the assembly of the Ro de la Plata craton with the Pampia terrane in Precambrian times (EPL). The latter and the Sierra
Chica fault are probably the surface expression of the true suture which is situated towards the east at lower structural levels of the
lithosphere, where it has been geophysically detected.
in NS-aligned mountain ranges, limited by Tertiary come horizontal at depth: plastic deformation ab-
W-vergent reverse faults and thrusts (Fig. 2). sorbs brittle deformation and the upper crust would
A first version of the Tertiary structure of the Si- be displaced in the lower crust along roughly ho-
erras de Crdoba was a sketch published by Beder rizontal planes, anticipating the concept of brittle
(1922), reproduced here as Figure 3. The first to ductile transition applied to lithospheric deformation.
address the problem of block uplift was Gonzlez Cuerda (1973) applied the concept of pillar-bridge
Bonorino (1950). In a pioneering work this author sug- horse to the sinking towards the ends of the raised
gested that the uplift faults, reflecting shallow brittle blocks, with maximum displacement in their central
deformation as a result of compression, would be- parts.

Basement thrusting in the Sierras Pampeanas 3
Figure 2. (Colour online) (a) Panoramic view to the ENE of the Sierras Pampeanas of Crdoba. The linearity of the mountain ranges
separated by reverse faults and basement thrusts are evident. In the foreground, the NW corner of the Achala batholith, Sierra Grande,
and in the background, Sierra de Cuniputo and Sierra Chica on the horizon. The point of maximum height is the Cerro Uritorco (1950 m
a.s.l.). (b) View toward ESE in the foreground showing the Pampa de Pocho and a small dark range named La Sierrita, composed
of mylonitic rocks from the AmbulMussi ductile shear zone, with the La Sierrita fault at its foot. Silhouetted against the horizon
are the Sierra Grande block and its southwards prolongation into the Sierra de Comechingones. (c) View SE from the central part of
the Achala batholith towards the scarp of the Sierra de Comechingones fault. The point of maximum height is the Cerro Champaqu
(2884 m a.s.l.). In the central part of the escarpment, it is the horst-like elevation of the Pampa de Achala shown in Figure 9.
Briefly, according to Jordan & Allmendinger (1986) Two main deformational events have been estab-
uplift of the basement blocks in the Sierras de Cr- lished based on these styles of faulting ((1) new; and
doba would have started about 10 Ma ago, but today (2) reactivation and inversion), using stratigraphic evid-
there is evidence of rising as old as the Carboniferous ence and regional correlation (Martino et al. 1995).
period (Ramos, 1988; Jordan et al. 1989; Coughlin et These occurred at c. 2 Ma (event B) and c. 0.8 Ma
al. 1998; Lbens et al. 2011; Martino, Guereschi & (event A).
Carignano, 2012; Richardson et al. 2013). Block up- Magmatism associated with the Andean orogenic
lift could be produced by: (1) low-angle reverse faults cycle is represented by Tertiary volcanic rocks in the
(thrusts, Kraemer et al. 1988; Kraemer, Escayola & NW margin of the Sierras de Crdoba (Pocho Volcanic
Martino, 1995), modified locally to higher angles by Complex, 7.94.7 Ma, Kay & Gordillo, 1994; Arnosio
stacking of the underthrusting wedge (Kraemer & Mar- et al. 2014) and in the Sierra de San Luis (e.g. Sierra del
tino, 1993); and (2) reactivation by inversion of high- Morro, 2.6 0.7 and 1.9 0.2 Ma; Ramos, Munizaga
angle normal faults of the Cretaceous rift (Schmidt & Kay, 1991). Quaternary movements are recognized
et al. 1995). Other older faults oblique to the current in the El Molino fault near Merlo, and in the Sierra
dominant trend (probably related to a pan-Gondwanan Chica fault (Costa & Vita-Finzi, 1996; Costa et al.
trend; Daly, 1988; Tankard et al. 1995) have also been 2001). Seismological and seismic risk data linked to
reactivated. The role of the oblique lineaments has been the latest deformation have recently been reviewed by
little considered in the nucleation and development of Fatala & Martino (2012), Perarnau et al. (2012), Costa
the Tertiary faulting. et al. (2014) and Caro Montero, Martino & Guereschi

a synthesis of thick-skinned deformation affecting the

Sierras de Crdoba and their tectonic evolution.
2. Geological setting
The Sierras Pampeanas province of central Argentina is
a region of large mountain ranges of crystalline base-
ment and intervening broad valleys. The ranges are
blocks raised by the deformation of the current Andean
foreland, over 700 km from the Chilean trench, coincid-
ing with a sector of low-angle inclination of the Nazca
plate beneath the South American plate. The flat-slab
geometry of the subducted Nazca plate and the deform-
ation of the upper plate (South American), by coupling
between them, have been compared with the Laramide
orogeny in North America and elsewhere (Jordan et al.
1983a, b; Rodgers, 1987; Marshak, Karsltrom & Tim-
mons, 2000). The Pampean flat-slab occurs between
27 and 34 S and had existed from 20 Ma to the present
(Yaez et al. 2001; Ramos, Christallini & Prez, 2002).
In a review, Ramos & Folguera (2009) constrained the
activity from 12 Ma to present. Basement deformation
(thick-skinned tectonics) affected an area of about 800
600 km. The deformation is of Cenozoic age and
the mountain ranges were uplifted mainly by reverse
faulting and folding locally.
The Sierras de Crdoba are the most eastern group
of the Sierras Pampeanas. They consist of a polyde-
formed metamorphic basement (Gordillo & Lencinas,
1979; Martino & Guereschi, 2014) of Neoproterozoic
early Palaeozoic ages (Rapela et al. 1998; Siegesmund
et al. 2010). The outcropping metamorphic basement
is predominantly composed of large migmatitic mas-
sifs with minor gneisses, amphibolites and marbles.
Pressure and temperature conditions reached granulite
facies with anatexis (78 kb, 700800 C; Guereschi
& Martino, 2014). Low-grade rocks crop out only loc-
ally, such as phyllites in the western edge of the Si-
erra de Pocho. The metamorphic basement is affected
by a highly penetrative metamorphic foliation called
Figure 3. Sketch of the Tertiary tectonic structure (block uplift) S2 (NeoproterozoicCambrian age), which exerted a
of the Sierras de Crdoba published by Beder (1922). strong control on the deformation as many authors have
highlighted (Gordillo & Lencinas, 1979; Kraemer et al.
1988; Massabie & Szlafsztein, 1991; Kraemer & Mar-
(2015). Richardson et al. (2013) evaluated the depth tino, 1993; Simpson et al. 2001; Martino, Guereschi &
of the Mohorovicic discontinuity and presented (U Carignano, 2012; Martino et al. 2014).
Th)/He thermochronometric data from apatite and zir- The metamorphic basement was imbricated by con-
con, which gave ages of Permian Early Jurassic cool- tractional ductile shear zones during Ordovician
ing, suggesting that subsequent exhumation has been Silurian and DevonianCarboniferous times (Martino,
less than 23 km. An even older age (Carboniferous) 2003; Steenken et al. 2010) and intruded by Palaeozoic
has been proposed, so the current relief could have Pa- granitoids (e.g. the Achala batholith; Figs 4, 5).
laeozoic and Mesozoic relicts and not only have been The metamorphic basement of the Sierras de Cr-
produced by the Andean orogeny (Jordan et al. 1989; doba was exhumed by denudation and has remained
Coughlin et al. 1998; Lbens et al. 2011; Martino, essentially exposed since middle Palaeozoic time
Guereschi & Carignano, 2012). (Ramos, 1988; Simpson et al. 2001; Whitmeyer, 2008;
The objectives of this work are: (1) to describe and Steenken et al. 2010; Bense et al. 2013). On the
interpret the faults and thrusts of the Sierras de Crdoba western margin of the mountains, minor outcrops of
basement produced during the Andean orogeny; and CarboniferousPermian continental sedimentary rocks
(2) to evaluate the influence of pre-Andean tectonics in are recognized at the foot of the Sierra de Pocho. To
Andean structures. Both objectives are integrated into the east in the Sierra Chica, Cretaceous continental

Figure 4. Geological map of the Sierras de Crdoba, showing the traces of the main brittle Cenozoic structures (modified from Martino,
Guereschi & Caro Montero, 2014).

Figure 5. Geological sections AA and BB orientated ESE, crossing the main brittle Cenozoic structures in the Sierras de Crdoba
(see Fig. 4 for locations). In addition to the observable surface geology, the main faults and thrusts that uplifted the ranges are
represented as interpreted in depth based on geophysical data obtained by Favetto et al. (2008), Perarnau et al. (2012) and Orozco
et al. (2013). Focal mechanism calculated by the International Seismological Center (see details in Fig. 14).

sedimentary rocks crop out associated with basaltic ented in a particularly active area as it is the west-
flows and dykes (Lagorio, Vizn & Geuna, 2014). ern zone of section BB (Figs 4, 5). From May 1923
The uplift in asymmetric blocks of the Sierras to August 2015, a total number of 585 earthquakes
Pampeanas of Crdoba is arranged in N-striking were recorded (115 > 40 km depth and 470 < 40 km
mountain ranges, limited by Tertiary reverse faults, depth). Two focal mechanisms were obtained from the
mainly W-vergent high-angle faults and low-angle International Seismological Center. Most of the recor-
faults (thrusts). It has a steep western flank, while ded magnitudes (Mb ) vary between 2 and 4 (80 %).
the eastern flank is gentle (e.g. 1012 slope, Sierra Several sections perpendicular to the La Sierrita fault,
Chica). From west to east (Figs 35), the ranges are: the Ojo de Agua lineament and the Cinaga del Coro
Sierra de Pocho; Sierra GrandeSierra de Comechin- fault were made. Analysing these sections, hypocentres
gones; Sierra Chica; and Elevacin Pampeana. These were interpolated using the Natural Neighbour method.
mountain ranges are separated by intermountain valleys The results are described and interpreted in Sections 4
with Cenozoic continental sedimentary rocks. Palaeo- and 7.
gene deposits are scarce, but late Eocene Oligocene In the following sections, the main faults and thrusts
synorogenic deposits in the Sierra Chica are evidence of recognized in the basement of the Sierras Pampeanas of
early uplift (Lencinas & Timonieri, 1968). Neogene de- Crdoba are described from west to east, from oldest to
posits are more widespread in the intermountain valleys youngest, following the deduced direction of deform-
and foothills, related to major uplift of the mountains ation propagation toward the buttress of the Ro de la
in the late Miocene period (Jordan & Allmendinger, Plata craton (see Section 6).
1986). In the northwestern area, Neogene volcanic and
pyroclastic rocks (Pocho Volcanic Complex) overlie the
3.a. Sierra de Pocho fault
landscape of E-tilted blocks. The whole of the Sierras
de Crdoba emerges from the Chaco-Pampean plain of This fault scarp borders a large block that raised the
Quaternary age, with abundant Mesozoic and Cenozoic basement c. 1000 m above the Chancan Valley. As a
deposits in depth. result, from north to south the Sierras de Guasapampa,
Pocho and Altautina were formed, describing a large arc
convex to the west (Fig. 4). To the south, this fault prob-
3. Basement faults and thrusts
ably continues parallel to the El Molino fault (Costa
A new map with the trace and the interpretation of the et al. 2014), covered by modern deposits in the Con-
main faults and thrusts recognized in the basement of lara Valley. The Sierra de Pocho fault is the longest fault
the Sierras Pampeanas of Crdoba is shown in Figure 4. in the Sierras Pampeanas; to the north of the Sierras de
It should be noted that the term fault scarp is used Crdoba between 26 and 33 S latitudes it extends by
here in the sense of Stewart & Hancock (1990), who almost 700 km, striking c. N 350.
defined it as a matching geoform coincident or grossly The geological map of the central part of the Sierra
coincident with a fault plane that has affected the sur- de Pocho and a detailed section of this fault is shown
face of the ground. This criterion has been used in in Figure 7ac. The hangingwall consists of Cambrian
tracing the faults and thrusts on the map of Figure 4. metamorphic rocks, such as the La Mermela phyllites
The main structures recognized in the Sierras de and mylonitic rocks of the Los Tneles ductile shear
Crdoba were also traced on satellite images com- zone (Martino, 2003). The footwall, coincident with the
bined with a digital elevation model (Fig. 6). The Chancan Valley, is represented by a large, W-vergent,
bow-and-arrow method (Elliot, 1976) was applied to asymmetric synformal fold (a drag fold?) in Permian
some typical thrusts, measuring the length L of the Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, partially covered by
exposed faults on the map to estimate the maximum modern sediments and profuse vegetation.
displacement D and the tectonic transport direction The La Mermela phyllites form a lenticular body on
(see Section 6 below). the map, limited by the Sierra de Pocho fault to the west
From the geological map (Fig. 4), two new sec- and by the La Mermela fault zone to the east, both of
tions transverse to the Sierras de Crdoba (Fig. 5) were reverse-type and brittle regime (Martino, Guereschi &
made. They are representative of the morphology of the Sfragulla, 2002). On the map, both structures are con-
brittle Cenozoic tectonics affecting these ranges. In ad- nected by a rejoining splay (in the terminology of Boyer
dition to the observable surface geology, the main faults & Elliot, 1982) which has the 3D shape of a horse fault
and thrusts that deform and uplift the ranges were rep- composed of the La Mermela phyllites (Fig. 7a, b). The
resented and interpreted in depth in both sections based La Mermela fault zone produced intense grinding and
on geophysical data obtained by Favetto et al. (2008), Fe-loss from biotite in the mylonitic rocks of the Los
Perarnau et al. (2012) and Orozco et al. (2013). Both Tneles shear zone. Tabular cataclasite bands of deci-
sections are described and interpreted in Section 7. metre thicknesses are recognized (Fig. 7c), consisting
Based on seismic activity (databases taken from In- of gouge (N 5/53 E) and breccia (N 350/75 E) and a
stituto Nacional de Prevencin Ssmica in Argentina, strong subhorizontal fracture cleavage (N 305/30 N).
United States Geological Survey and T. Richardson, un- To the east beyond the La Mermela fault zone the Los
publ PhD thesis, Purdue University, 2011), epicentres Tneles shear zone has brittle deformation superim-
and hypocentres of recorded earthquakes are repres- posed on the ductile deformation, evidenced by minor

Figure 6. (Colour online) Main traces of thrust faults recognized in the Sierras de Crdoba highlighted on Landsat 7 satellite images,
with 8 bands (17: resolution 30 m, 8: pancromatic resolution 15 m) from EarthExplorer (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ containing
information from https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/LETMP) on a digital elevation model (DEM), resolution 45 m, from the Instituto Geogrfico
Nacional of Argentina (http://ign.gob.ar/node/987). The bow-and-arrow method (Elliot, 1976) was applied to the main curved, low-
angle thrust faults (interpreted here as new Cenozoic faults), measuring the length L of the exposed faults on the map, to estimate the
maximum displacement D and the tectonic transport direction (arrows). The results are displayed in the table and diagram of D versus
L (in kilometres).

Figure 7. (Colour online) (a) Detailed geological map of the Sierra de Pocho (modified from Martino, Guereschi & Sfragulla, 2002),
showing the Sierra of Pocho fault (SPF) and the La Mermela fault zone (LMFZ) connected by a rejoining splay (Boyer & Elliott,
1982). (b) Geological cross-section showing the 3D effect of these structures, forming the horse of the La Mermela phyllites. (c)
Detailed geological section of the La Mermela fault zone, at the contact between the Los Tneles ductile shear zone (LTSZ) and
the La Mermela phyllites. The reverse LMFZ is nucleated in rocks from LTSZ, producing strong crushing and Fe-loss from biotite.
Two tabular sheets of cataclasites of decimetric thickness, consisting of gouge (N 5/53 E) and a breccia (N 350/75 E), and a strong
subhorizontal fracture cleavage (N 305/30 N) are also recognized. (d) Photograph showing pseudotachylite veins generated by brittle
deformation superimposed on the Los Tneles shear zone, east of the La Mermela fault zone.

conjugated thrusts, cataclasis with pseudotachylite gen- velopment of gouge and brecciation, is probably linked
eration (Fig. 7d) and calcitechlorite veins. to the Cenozoic deformation that produced the uplift
Minor conjugated thrusts (Fig. 8a) are two sets of of the sierras of Guasapampa and Pocho. The origin of
low-angle faults (<30): one set strikes N 340345, E- the large asymmetrical synformal fold in sedimentary
dipping by 417, and the other strike N 235277, with rocks (a drag fold?) could be a concomitant event.
1527 N dip (Martino, Guereschi & Sfragulla, 2002).
These thrusts affected both the Los Tneles ductile
3.b. Cinaga del Coro La Sierrita fault
shear zone and the La Mermela phyllites, cutting the
dominant E-dipping foliation in both lithologies but The Cinaga del Coro fault is a c. N 175-striking,
producing different structures depending on the angu- 4050 E-dipping fault, curving eastwards in its south-
lar relationship between the two planes (). When the ern section which uplifted the eponymous range over
angle between thrusting and foliation was low ( <40, the Sierra de Guasapampa (Figs 4, 5). It is profusely
E-dipping thrusts), drag folds were produced; while covered with vegetation, in both the hangingwall and
when the angle was high ( 60, N-dipping thrusts), the footwall, making it difficult to access and study the
asymmetric kink-bands, Z-shaped facing north, were materials involved. In the hangingwall, tonalitic rocks
generated. The N-dipping thrusts are penetrative and have a foliation N 330/4083 E and the fault trace
spaced at 110 m. Using these conjugates thrusts, the is parallel to it, indicating a strong control on their
approximate orientations of the axes of shortening Z = nucleation. Mylonitized rocks and circulation of fluids
N 312/10, intermediate Y = N 43/4 and lengthen- that precipitated iron oxides and aragonite along the
ing X = N 161/80 (Fig. 8b; Martino, Guereschi & fault plane have been recognized (Lucero Michaut &
Sfragulla, 2002) were determined following Marrett Olsacher, 1981). This is a reverse fault with an im-
& Allmendinger (1990). These coincide with axes as- pressive escarpment in its northern section which be-
signed to Event A (Kraemer et al. 1988) of probable comes lower and less steep towards its southern sec-
Pliocene age, discussed by Martino et al. (1995). tion, disappearing beneath the Tertiary volcanic rocks
At kilometre 827 of Provincial Route 28 (Fig. 8c) (Pocho Volcanic Complex, Fig. 4). Here the fault is
which crosses the Sierra de Pocho, anastomosing fault probably combined at depth with the Ojo de Agua lin-
planes (0.206 m of damaged area) displaced mylonitic eament (Caro Montero, Martino & Guereschi, 2015;
foliation (Sm = N 330/60 E with a stretching lineation see Section 4), which in turn combines with the La Si-
Ls = N 50/54) and intercalated amphibolite, the latter errita fault forming a single structure with a sigmoidal
with epidote growth on the fault plane whose orient- trace on the map.
ation is N 308/9 NE with striations N 60/8. This The La Sierrita fault uplifted a small NNW-striking
fault is reversed, with tectonic transport direction to c. block, slightly oblique to the Sierra Grande, with low-
N 240 (Fig. 8d). This faulting coincides with Event B dip (3040) to the east. Internally the La Sierrita
(Kraemer et al. 1988) of probable pre-Pliocene age, as block (Fig. 2b) consists of mylonites and associated
discussed by Martino et al. (1995). rocks from the AmbulMussi ductile shear zone. To
The brittle deformation suffered by the Los Tneles the south, this fault ends at the Nono fault.
ductile shear zone developed cataclasis parallel to
the main mylonitic foliation (plane C), producing
3.c. Cumbre de Gaspar Nono fault
a millimetre-thick brecciation, fracture cleavage and
pseudotachylite generation. The latter forms concord- The traces of these two faults form opposed arcs on the
ant veins (< 7 cm thick), black to greenish, with dis- map: the Cumbre de Gaspar fault is convex to the east
cordant ramifications and a tree-like appearance. They and the Nono fault is convex to the west (Fig. 4). To-
contain clasts with mylonitic foliation and have mostly gether these are the only E-vergent faults (antithetical)
reverse kinematics (Martino, Guereschi & Sfragulla, in the Sierras de Crdoba, unlike all other faults (syn-
2002). Millimetre veins are also recognized, filled with thetic) described in this paper (Fig. 9a). The Cumbre
calcite and chlorite, subperpendicular to the dominant de Gaspar minor block is raised by the eponymous
foliation C. fault to the east and flanked by the Sierra Grande fault
Based on overlapping relationships as observed in (see following section) to the west, with a throw of c.
the outcrops, the relative order of the recognized struc- 100 m on both sides. Near the river that runs along
tures is: first the fracture cleavage, second the La Mer- the Cumbre de Gaspar fault, gneisses have retrograded
mela fault zone, then the conjugated thrusts with con- bands of red gouge, oriented N 10/45 W, crossed by
comitant development of kink-bands and drag folds vertical extensional quartz veins. These fault zones
in phyllites and mylonites and, finally, discordant veins clearly cut the dominant S2 foliation in gneisses and
(Martino, Guereschi & Sfragulla, 2002). Cataclasis and migmatites, oriented here N 305/38 E. The Cumbre
pseudotachylites parallel to the foliation C are associ- de Gaspar fault is active at its northern end near Villa
ated with the conjugated thrusts. Whitmeyer (2008) ar- de Soto, with several earthquakes from 1997 to date
gued that the minimum age of the Los Tneles pseudot- with magnitudes of 2.54.5 on the Richter scale (see
achylites is c. 340350 Ma, so that brittle deformation Instituto Nacional de Prevencin Ssmica de Argentina,
may have begun in the Carboniferous period. Reactiv- http://www.inpres.gov.ar/seismology/xultimos.php). It
ation of this structure also in a brittle regime, with de- is noted here that the major morphogenetic faults in

Figure 8. (a) Vertical westeast sketch showing minor conjugate thrust faults associated with the Sierra de Pocho fault, east of the La
Mermela fault zone. These minor faults affected the fracture cleavage of the La Mermela phyllites and the mylonitic foliation (Sm ) of
the Los Tneles ductile shear zone (LTSZ) and are the result of brittle deformation superimposed on ductile deformation (drag folds
and kink-bands, respectively), depending on the angle between Sm and the faults. (b) Diagrams showing the kinematics and dynamics
deduced from the conjugate thrusts (see text). (c) Anastomosed fault plane affecting mylonites and amphibolites. (d) Diagram showing
structural relationships from (c). Both outcrops are located along Road 28 across the uplifted block of the Sierra de Pocho (see text for
explanation). TTD tectonic transport direction. See also Figure 7a.

Figure 9. (Colour online) (a) View to the south of the scarp of the Cumbre de Gaspar fault. This is the only W-dipping fault in the
Sierras de Crdoba. Note that the footwall and the hangingwall slope gently to the west. This fault continues southwards to the Nono
fault. (b) Oblique aerial view to the SE of the scarp of the Sierra de Comechingones fault. At the top in light colours is the gentle
E-sloping Pampa de Achala horst-like elevation. Towards the footwall, the minor scarp of the Nono fault and the elbow of the Los
Sauces river forming the reservoir of the La Via dam are seen. (c) Detail from (b) showing the Pampa de Achala, with both sides
limited by a series of reverse faults, E-dipping faults on the western flank and W-dipping faults on the eastern flank (see Fig. 4).

the Sierras de Crdoba have thin cataclastic zones that The morphotectonic steps raised the highest peaks
do not match, at first sight, with kilometre uplift of the in the granitic rocks of the Achala batholith (Cumbre
respective blocks. Here, only decimetric fault zones are de Achala) in the Sierra Grande. To the south in the
recognized as in the case of the Sierra de Pocho fault. Sierra de Comechingones the highest peaks were pro-
The Nono fault (Fig. 9b) was described by Kraemer duced in high-grade metamorphic rocks, including the
et al. (1993) and Richardson et al. (2013) in the eastern Cerro Champaqu (2884 m a.s.l.), the highest elevation
margin of the Devonian Achalita pluton (below NF in the Sierras de Crdoba. Red cataclastic zones de-
in Fig. 4), which was raised 17 m above the Cenozoic rived from granite, 300500 m thick, are identified in a
fluvial sediments of the Nono valley. This is a thrust few of these faults, sometimes cemented by ferruginous
whose plane is oriented N 331/41 W. The fault zone is silica solutions and calcareous material. To the south,
c. 2 m thick with anastomosed geometry, and contains the Sierra de Comechingones fault also decreases in
a breccia with intercalated clays. These rocks are stri- vertical throw and is divided into three minor reverse
ated and, along with other movement indicators, reveal faults, forming small ranges of oblique arrangement
the kinematic and temporal evolution of the fault. Sed- which together form a horsetail end (Fig. 4).
imentary materials record two fault movements (late In the Sierra de Comechingones fault, the main trace
Pliocene and late Pleistocene) and two deformation is located at the intersection of the escarpment with the
events: (1) a more recent event, with shortening axis piedmont covered by modern sediments; descriptions
Z = N 293/3 and lengthening axis X = N 43/81 (re- of outcrops are therefore not available to date. Inside
corded in breccia), and (2) another with shortening axes the piedmont however, low scarps parallel to the main
X = N 20/2 and lengthening axis X = N 190/74 (the scarp are recognized and defined as piedmont forelands
older, of uncertain age). (Bull, 2007). These geomorphological features are an
The Nono fault was interpreted by Kraemer et al. expression of Quaternary fault activity; one of them, the
(1993) as a backthrust of the Sierra de Pocho fault El Molino fault near Merlo town (Fig. 4), was dated by
(Fig. 4). This backthrust is interpreted here as continu- optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) techniques as
ing to the north in the Cumbre de Gaspar fault. Together 7.1 0.4 ka and 350 40 ka BP (Costa et al. 2014).
they form an uplifted block with rocks belonging to the The Sierra de Comechingones fault is a structure that
middle crust of the San Carlos massif (c. 1000 km2 of could have a significant Palaeozoic vertical displace-
anatectic rocks), indicating that part of the uplift of the ment of several kilometres based on magnetic data at
entire massif was Tertiary which, in combination with its southern end (Chernicoff & Ramos, 2003). Bense
the Sierra de Pocho fault (throw c. 1000 m), forms a et al. (2011) proposed early Carboniferous fault activ-
regional pop-up structure (P on the map in Fig. 4). ity followed by PermianTriassic and Jurassic events,
based on KAr fault gouge data. Considering this to-
gether with the neotectonic activity the structure seems
to have been active from ancient times, and the cur-
3.d. Sierra Grande Sierra de Comechingones fault
rent high relief was probably not entirely caused by the
This major fault uplifted the central range of the Si- effect of the Andean flat-slab.
erras de Crdoba (Fig. 4), the Sierra Grande, located
between the Sierra Chica (east) and the Sierra de Pocho
3.e. Sierra de Cunuputo fault
(west), and its southern continuation in the Sierra de
Comechingones (Fig. 9b). It is a N-striking, straight This is a minor fault compared with the other major
trace, high-angle (4555 E) reverse fault, extending faults, but raised the important eponymous range in
more than 250 km at approximately longitude 65 W. the northern part of the Sierra Grande (Fig. 2a). In its
In the central section, coinciding with the southern northern third it shows a Y-shape on the map with a
portion of the Achala batholith, it is divided into a series branch called the San Marcos fault, which raised a
of parallel faults forming tectonic steps. The southern small block known as the Sierra Baja de San Marcos.
portion of the Achala batholith can therefore be inter- The Sierra de Cunuputo fault has experienced neotec-
preted as a horst-like elevation, limited on both flanks tonic activity in two stages during late Holocene time,
by a series of reverse faults E-dipping in the western evidenced by changes in the drainage network, terraces
flank and W-dipping in the eastern flank. The result is and lacustrine deposits (Massabie, 1982; Massabie
a high plain called Pampa de Achala, sloping slightly et al. 2003; Costa et al. 2014).
to the east (Fig. 9c) and probably of Palaeozoic ori-
gin (Schmieder, 1921; Jordan et al. 1989). The vertical
3.f. Sierra Chica fault
throw caused by the faulting in the western flanks of the
Sierra Grande and Sierra de Comechingones is 1800 This is one of the most important and best-studied faults
2000 m, while on the eastern slope of these ranges it in the Sierras de Crdoba (Fig. 4). Its fault scarp ex-
is c. 1500 m. To the north, the Sierra Grande fault de- tends for more than 200 km from Capilla del Monte, in
creases in vertical throw and almost disappears. In the the northern Punilla Valley to near the Los Cndores
central area of the map (Fig. 4) and in the geological lineament. From here the fault branches into a series of
section AA (Fig. 5), the horst-like structure is labelled lineaments, among which the Elena lineament, with a
H and the tectonic steps with numbers. curved trace, which is the western margin of the Sierra

de Las Peas (Martino, Guereschi & Carignano, 2012). (thrust rotation) to be deduced. The main fault star-
Its highest elevation is Cerro Uritorco, east of Capilla ted as a basement thrust and, as the deformation pro-
del Monte (1950 m a.s.l., Fig. 2a). gressed, the synorogenic sedimentary sequences be-
The trace of the Sierra Chica fault consists of straight came involved by successive underthrusts propagating
and curved segments. The straight segments are high- towards the west. Consequently, a stacking of the under-
dipping faults (5060 E) that form the boundary of thrusting wedge, with progressive back-rotation of the
Cretaceous deposits, and are therefore interpreted as succesive faults, was produced. Older faults therefore
reactivated Cretaceous normal faults. In contrast, the have an angle progressively higher than the younger
curved segments are low-dipping reverse faults ( faults. This mechanism is illustrated in Figure 11a.
30 E), not associated with any particular deposit, and At more regional scale, Sierra Chica intercepts drain-
are interpreted as new Tertiary faults (Schmidt et al. age from Sierra Grande by deviating or maintain-
1995; Painceyra, 1998); they were defined as basement ing its original course and pattern (antecedent rivers).
thrusts by Martino et al. (1995). This also implies that the uplift of Sierra Chica post-
The hangingwall of the Sierra Chica fault is com- dated the uplift of Sierra Grande (Gordillo & Lencinas,
posed of the metamorphic basement, mainly gneisses 1979).
and migmatites more or less altered, for example in the Along the Sierra Chica fault zone, there is variable
Santa Rosa area (Figs 10c, 11) where the metamorphic development of brittle deformation along with chem-
basement is strongly altered and brecciated, losing the ical changes in the rocks. At the latitude of Quebrada
primary structure of the rocks (metamorphic foliation Honda (Fig. 12a), cataclasites associated with the Si-
S2 ). erra Chica fault zone are recognized: 24 m of micro-
Throughout its sinuous trace, the Sierra Chica fault breccias with red and green fault gouge, followed by
thrust rocks of different lithologies and depositional 1030 m of breccias. To the east, the fault affected the
ages. In the area of La Cumbre town it affects Creta- regional metamorphic rocks in a belt 200400 m thick,
ceous conglomerates; in the Cosqun area, it thrusts reworking the foliation of the gneisses and retrograding
Tertiary strata of the Punilla Valley (Fig. 11a) par- biotite to chlorite muscovite. In the Villa Carlos Paz
tially over Pleistocene fanglomerates in the Villa Carlos area rocks related to the fault zone are phyllonitic, in-
Paz area (Fig. 10b) and over Quaternary conglomer- tensely chloritized and with secondary muscovite, with
ates (Figs 10c, 11) in the Santa Rosa area (Castellanos, a strong orientation that defines a lineation N 70/45
1944, 1951; Gross, 1948; Schlagintweit, 1954; Lenci- on the foliation plane. Acid igneous material is inter-
nas & Timonieri, 1968; Massabie 1976, 1987; Gordillo calated in three patterns: (1) deformed lenses, parallel
& Lencinas, 1979; Kraemer et al. 1988; Massabie & to the main foliation plane; (2) asymmetrical folds; and
Szlafstein, 1991; Kraemer & Martino, 1993; Martino et (3) normally displaced pegmatite.
al. 1995; Schmidt et al. 1995). In the Potrero de Garay In a few locations, the outcrops allow kinematic ana-
area (Fig. 10d), the Sierra Chica fault rides over recent lysis of the fault plane. At the latitude of Villa Carlos
soils (Costa et al. 2014). The overthrust relationship Paz (Fig. 12a, c) south of Quebrada Honda, kinematic
southwards on younger sedimentary rocks and then and dynamic analysis of minor faults associated with
soils indicates diachronism in fault propagation in this the main faults revealed two mutually orthogonal com-
direction. pressive events. For Event A, the shortening axis is
In the Cosqun area (Fig. 4) in particular there is Z = N 106/11 and for Event B it is Z = N 15/3
a sequence of synorogenic Tertiary sedimentary rocks (Painceyra, 1998). Further north in the Cosqun area
(Fig. 11a) with two formations in relative structural (Figs 11a, 12b), the kinematic analysis of minor faults
concordance, separated by a calcrete horizon (Linares, in the hangingwall shows two populations of faults: a
Timonieri & Pascual, 1960; Lencinas & Timonieri, well-developed reverse-type with shortening axis Z =
1968). The lower sequence of late Eocene early Oli- E to SSE (Fig. 12b); and another strike-slip component
gocene age (Cosqun Formation, age based on mam- poorly represented with shortening axis Z = NE, sim-
mals fossils) is composed of clasts of granitic material ilar to results in other areas of the Sierras de Crdoba. A
from the Achala batholith (located to the west), in- deformation event post-dating the piedmont deposits is
dicating a provenance from Sierra Grande which was clearly recognized (Fig. 11a). However, the sediment-
rising west along its eponymous fault. The upper se- ary record supports the existence of at least two previ-
quence of probable late Miocene Pliocene age (Cas- ous reactivation events, without a precise time location,
agrande Formation) is paraconformable and composed revealing the complex history of this structure in which
of clastic material from the metamorphic basement typ- shortening is produced by reverse faults (Kraemer &
ical of Sierra Chica (gneisses, pegmatites, granodiorite Martino, 1993).
and tonalite). This synorogenic sequence evidences the Particularly interesting due to its proximity to the Ro
uplift of the Sierra Grande block before Sierra Chica, Tercero dam and nuclear power plant is the description
indicating the relative timing of activity of the eponym- of the Sierra Chica fault near the Santa Rosa. Here the
ous faults. In Figure 11a, these sedimentary sequences metamorphic basement, formed mainly of gneisses and
are shown imbricated by the latest activity of the Si- migmatites, is thrust over Quaternary sediments along
erra Chica fault. The imbrications of the sedimentary a gentle E-dipping fault plane (Fig. 11b). This struc-
sequences allow the steepening of the main fault plane ture, known locally as the Santa Rosa fault, was first

Figure 10. (Colour online) (a) Oblique aerial photograph of the scarp of the Sierra Chica fault at the latitude of the city of Alta Gracia;
view towards the SE. Note the curvature of the fault trace. Main outcrops of the Sierra Chica fault: (b) El Tanque quarry, Villa Carlos
Paz area, eastwest profile; (c) Santa Rosa area, eastwest profile; and (d) Potrero de Garay area, westeast profile. In (b) and (c), the
metamorphic basement rides over Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. In (d), the fault affected recent soils (hammer scale in the ellipse). See
text for details.
described by Massabie (1987), whereas Kraemer et al. irregular polyhedrons having lost its primary structure
(1988) made the first kinematic and dynamic study. The (metamorphic foliation S2 ). The footwall is formed of
local strike of the fault is N 340, E-dipping between pale yellow sedimentary rocks with coarse stratifica-
30 and 40 (Figs 2, 10c). The hangingwall consists of tion, composed of clasts of variable size (10120 cm
highly altered, brecciated, dark-green quartz-feldspar diameter) within a conglomeratic sandy matrix, inter-
gneisses, fractured such that the rock is divided into preted as piedmont cenoglomerates produced by debris

Figure 11. (Colour online) Detailed geological sections of the Sierra Chica fault. (a) In the Cosqun area, the igneousmetamorphic
basement is thrust over Tertiary sedimentary sequences, imbricated by the latest activity of the Sierra Chica fault. High angles in
the fault planes are interpreted as the result of translation and progressive back-rotation of the basement as the imbrication of the
sedimentary wedge occurred below, implying the steepening of the main fault plane (bold arrow; modified from Kraemer & Martino,
1993). (b) In the Santa Rosa area the metamorphic basement, formed mainly by gneisses and migmatites, is thrust over Quaternary
sediments along a gentle E-dipping fault plane (modified from Kraemer et al. 1988). See text for details and Figure 12 for location and
kinematic analysis.
flows coming from the east. A red clay zone is identi- analysis of minor faults allows recognition of two de-
fied in the fault plane with a thickness varying over the formation events (Fig. 12d): Event A, with shortening
range 1080 cm, which shows cataclastic foliation with axis Z NW (N 288) and subvertical lengthening axis
striations and push marks clearly revealing the relative X; and Event B, with shortening axis Z NE (N 53) and
motion of the blocks. Upwards above the fault plane, near-horizontal lengthening axis X.
the basement rocks are intensely fractured and contain The minimum age of deformation on the Sierra
minor faults and kinematic indicators. The sediment- Chica fault depends on the age assigned to the sedi-
ary rocks below the fault plane are weakly deformed mentary sequences overthrust by the basement. Based
within a layer no thicker than 20 cm, with carbonate on the correlation of similar rocks in different areas
cement in which clasts of metamorphic rocks were re- in the Sierras de Crdoba, these are probably middle
orientated parallel to the fault plane (Fig. 11b). The late Pleistocene in age. Event A is clearly recognized

Figure 12. (a) Interpretive map of the brittle structure of the Sierra Chica (modified from Martino, Guereschi & Carignano, 2012)
showing different areas of outcrops of the Sierra Chica fault (SCF). Arrows TTD tectonic transport direction. (b) Shortening and
lengthening directions deduced for deformation events A and B in the Cosqun area (Kraemer & Martino, 1993). (c) Detailed map
of the structure and structural data (lower-hemisphere Schmidt net) for the Villa Carlos Paz area. (d) Directions of shortening and
lengthening deduced for deformation events A (Z axis NW shortening direction = N 288 and X axis subvertical lengthening direction)
and B (Z axis NE shortening direction = 53 N and X axis close to horizontal lengthening direction) in the Santa Rosa area (Kraemer
et al. 1988). (e) Detailed map of the structure and structural diagram data in the Potrero de Garay area. (f) Cross-cutting relationships
between the dominant metamorphic foliation S2 and fault planes in the areas of Villa Carlos Paz and Potrero de Garay. (g) Scheme
showing the expanding front of the basement thrust sheet from the Sierra Chica fault, with minor associated fracturing (not marked on
the map) for example between the Quebrada Honda and Soconcho lineaments, which behaved as lateral ramps.

in clay levels along the fault plane as the last move- Martino, Toledo & Guereschi, 2012): Candelaria, Cor-
ment of the structure, so its age would be post-middle ral del Carnero, Rincn Grande, Guasta and Retamito
Pleistocene (late Pleistocene?). Event B is recorded in (Fig. 13). These lineaments are NNW-striking, almost
the thrust basement relatively far from the fault plane vertical planes; the traces are straight to slightly bent
and is considered as a previous event of uncertain age. and a few of them have minor Y-shaped branches (e.g.
By correlation with faults in other studied areas, a late the Candelaria lineament). They define deep V-shaped
Pliocene (?) age is assumed. valleys and segment the Achala batholith and the north-
western metamorphic host rocks in a series of elong-
ate NNW blocks (Fig. 2). Paleocene olivine nephelinite
3.g. Elevacin Pampeana fault
dykes occur along the Guasta lineament (Gordillo, Lin-
As for the other morphogenetic fractures in the Sier- ares & Daziano, 1983).
ras Pampeanas, this is a N-striking, E-dipping reverse One that stands out is the Retamito lineament (Fig. 4)
fault (Figs 4, 5) with a short range from Ro Ceballos to that cuts across the San Carlos massif, the Achala
the Soconcho lineament (Bodenbender, 1929; Gordillo batholith and its southeastern metamorphic host rocks.
& Lencinas, 1979). This fault is the western limit of In the central area, it uplifted the granite block of Cerro
the Cretaceous red strata on the eastern flank of Sierra Los Gigantes (2400 m a.s.l., Fig. 13). In combination
Chica. To the east, the boundary of these sedimentary with reverse faults, this structure generated significant
rocks is erosive or they underlie recent deposits of the metallotects (e.g. uranium; Blasn, 1999). Another im-
Chaco-Pampean plain. The fault is therefore also inter- portant structure is the seismically active Ojo de Agua
preted as a normal fault inverted during the Tertiary An- lineament (Fig. 4); to the SE it continues in the So-
dean orogeny. It is the final thrust fault of that age that concho lineament, forming a single structure at regional
limits the Sierras de Crdoba with the Chaco-Pampean scale with a total length of c. 120 km. This structure
plain, defining the landscape morphology. Although the has a branch to the Retamito lineament. On the surface,
age of the last movement of the Elevacin Pampeana zones of mylonitic rocks parallel to the Ojo de Agua
fault is unknown, it is estimated that its formation is lineament, currently under study, have been recognized.
more recent than that of the Sierra Chica fault. Brittle faulting controlled by these zones of mylonites
The small Elevacin Pampeana range is composed and by the lineament is also produced. Based on seismic
of biotite gneisses, amphibolites and calcic marbles, activity, Caro Montero, Martino & Guereschi (2015)
intruded by aplitic and pegmatitic acid igneous rocks. defined an almost vertical planar structure which co-
In the La Calera area, a zone of crushed gneisses (c. incides with the Ojo de Agua lineament (Fig. 14a, b).
50 m thick) grades to finer materials until it becomes a Both the La Sierrita fault and the Cinaga del Coro
brown fault gouge with rounded and polished clasts of fault merge into this lineament forming a single struc-
different size. Rotated blocks of marble are observed ture, whose merging area is the most seismically act-
in some quarries, intensely brecciated and with wide- ive in the region. Analysing several perpendicular sec-
spread friction marks. tions, the depth of this structure reaches c. 84 km
The predominant style of the Sierras Pampeanas, (Fig. 14b, c) with sinistral transpressive kinematics
with a steep western scarp and gentle eastern slope, (see Section 7).
is also recognized. Altitude increases northwards from Another notable lineament is the La HigueraDos
590 m a.s.l. (Alta Gracia) to 700 m a.s.l. (Cerro Largo, Pozos lineament (Fig. 4) in which a Tertiary reverse
La Calera, Fig. 4). The fault movement produced the fault was nucleated, with the hangingwall towards the
ESE-tilting of the hangingwall at an angle of 1012 NE and the footwall towards the SW. The footwall is
near the fault, decreasing to 45 towards the city of coincident with the homonymous ductile shear zone
Crdoba. The regional tilting of the basement determ- developing mylonites. Auriferous quartz veins occur
ined the ESE topographic slope that controls the flow along the lineament.
of the main rivers at this latitude (Fig. 6). With the same features of the La HigueraDos Po-
zos lineament, but with the ductile shear zone in the
hangingwall, is the Pachango lineament (Fig. 4). This
4. Oblique lineaments
reworked the homonymous ductile shear zone and jux-
Gross (1948) drew attention to large linear features ob- taposed high-grade rocks and the Los Tneles ductile
lique in the Sierras de Crdoba, >100 km long in some shear zone with medium-grade rocks cropping out
cases and of maximum width 100 m, suggesting they to the south in Sierra de Altautina (Fig. 7a). In the
had a profuse pattern of internal fracturing. However, last range, several lineaments are recognized (e.g. La
in most cases there is no visible deformation other than Cocha, La Via). In the Nono Valley, exceptional illite
the linear geomorphological feature. Petrographically, deposits (>1 km long) produced by hydrothermal al-
retrograde biotite replaced by muscovite and chlorite teration of schists have been recognized (Bertolino &
is commonly observed. In several cases, ductile shear Murray, 1992). A vertical throw of 1530 m is associ-
zones producing mylonites are linked to these linea- ated with this oblique faulting (Olsacher, 1972).
ments (Martino, 2003). As with the above-described lineaments, in the Sierra
A set of lineaments 2.55 km apart occurs in the Chica oblique lineaments are associated with ductile
northwestern sector of the Achala batholith (Fig. 4; and brittle shear zones with complex deformational

Figure 13. (Colour online) View to the SE of Quebrada Retamito, where the eponymous lineament raised the granite block of Cerro
Los Gigantes (right in the picture silhouetted against the horizon). Cataclastic rocks occur along this lineament.
histories. From north to south, they are the Den Funes, Ojo de Agua lineaments with a branch to the Retamito
Carap and Soconcho lineaments (Figs 4, 12), among lineament as described earlier in this section. These
others. lineaments form a segmented crustal discontinuity on
Using the receiver function method, Perarnau et al. the map, with a more or less straight trace indicating
(2012) and Richardson et al. (2013) obtained data high-dipping. In some places, the main trace can be
from 16 seismographs throughout the Eastern Sierras resolved in several parallel or overlapping traces such
Pampeanas. Information on discontinuities in the crust as between the Ojo de Agua and Soconcho lineaments
and the upper mantle at the latitude of the Sierras de (Fig. 4).
Crdoba revealed NE shifting and relative sinking (c. Both Carap and Soconcho lineaments also show at
3 km, Figs 4, 5) of the Mohorovicic discontinuity, coin- depth a vertical shifting of the Mohorovicic discon-
cident with the oblique lineaments recognized in Sierra tinuity (Perarnau et al. 2012; Richardson et al. 2013)
Chica and its prolongation to the NE. similar to the Den Funes lineament (see Section 7).
One of the most important is the Den Funes lin- In general it is noted that the oblique lineaments are
eament (Fig. 4), which extends for more than 200 km associated with brittle deformation, in some cases Ter-
with a width of the order of kilometres. This lineament tiary age as in the La HigueraDos Pozos and Pachango
is coincident with one of the most marked structural lineaments. The Ojo de Agua lineament has also cur-
trends in the Cretaceous tectonics of Argentina and ex- rent seismic activity. Another important point is that
tends towards the Atlantic margin in the Salado basin several lineaments are very deep (Ojo de Agua, Den
(Fig. 1). The current sinistral movement with a normal Funes, Carap, Soconcho), and some of them shift the
component (transtensive or oblique divergent shear) is Mohorovicic discontinuity. In other cases brittle de-
recognized to a depth of more than 40 km, where it formation would be older, associated with Cretaceous
displaces the Mohorovicic discontinuity (Gilbert et al. tectonics as in the Soconcho and Carap lineaments.
2010) by 3 km (see Section 7). This brittle deformation is associated with Palaeozoic
The Carap and Soconcho lineaments (Fig. 4) are ductile shear zones both in the hangingwall and in the
linked to Cretaceous tectonics as limits of the pull- footwall of the current faults.
apart extensional basins of the sierras of Pajarillo, Co- One possible interpretation is that these lineaments,
pacabana and Masa and Sierra de Los Cndores, re- or parts of them, are probably ancient features inherited
spectively (Martino et al. 2014). The Soconcho linea- from pan-Gondwanan structures (Daly, 1988; Tankard
ment can be continued to the NW, integrating with the et al. 1995), which worked in a protracted time period,

Figure 14. Study of the epicentre and hypocentre locations of earthquakes in a northwestern sector of the Sierras de Crdoba (Caro
Montero, Martino & Guereschi, 2015). (a) Digital elevation model (DEM) on which the earthquakes recorded in the area, from May
1923 to August 2015, are classified by depth. Total number of earthquakes: 585 (115 at >40 km depth and 470 at <40 km depth).
Database from Instituto Nacional de Prevencin Ssmica in Argentina, United States Geological Survey and T. Richardson (unpub.
PhD thesis, Purdue University, 2011). Two focal mechanisms obtained from the International Seismological Center. (b) Cross Section 3
perpendicular to the Ojo de Agua lineament. Equal vertical and horizontal scales. (c) 3D representation of the Ojo de Agua lineament by
interpolating earthquakes in 10 sections, showing the trend observable in Cross Section 3. Circle chart and table show the magnitudes
(Mb ) of the earthquakes that have been included in this study.

controlling the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic de- curved trace faults that we interpret as new reverse
formation. faults produced by Cenozoic deformation.
The results are displayed in Figure 6 and the in-
set table, indicating that the maximum fault displace-
5. Fault-related folds ment decreases eastwards, ranging between 8.8 km and
3.2 km. The displacement/length ratio varies between
Tertiary folds are recognized in Eocene sedimentary
1:12 and 1:6, with an average of 1:8.4 ( = 0.13). The
rocks (Linares, Timonieri & Pascual, 1960) in the foot-
deduced tectonic transport direction (TTD) is relatively
wall of the Sierra Chica fault in the Punilla valley, near
constant towards the west (c. N 260270).
the town of Cosqun (Fig. 12a). These rocks have a
In the Sierras de Crdoba, block uplift over the sur-
homoclinal arrangement but in same places are folded,
rounding valleys and plains (c. 300400 m a.s.l.) and
probably in relation to the basement uplift. Hectometre-
the highest elevations in each range decrease from
sized open folds, with E-dipping axial planes and sub-
west to east: Sierra de Pocho (Cerro Agua de la
horizontal axes dipping both north and south (Lucero
Cumbre, 1577 m a.s.l.); Sierras of Comechingones
Michaut, 1976) can be assigned to drape folds.
Grande (Cerro Champaqu, 2884 m a.s.l.); Sierra
At the latitude of Villa Carlos Paz (Fig. 12a), W-
Chica (Cerro Uritorco, 1950 m a.s.l.) and Elevacin
vergent, asymmetric drag folds and upwardly open
Pampeana (Cerro Largo, La Calera, 700 m a.s.l.).
gentle folds, both metre-scale, are recognized in cata-
In addition, the synorogenic deposits in the piedmont
clastized gneisses in the hangingwall of the Sierra
of the Sierra Chica fault (Fig. 11a) clearly indicate an
Chica fault (oriented here N 40/30 E).
uplift of Sierra Grande prior to that of Sierra Chica
Other drag folds are clearly visible in the contact of
uplift, demonstrating the relative timing of activity of
the Los Tneles ductile shear zone with the La Mer-
the eponymous faults.
mela phyllites, reflecting the effect of the Sierra de
In summary, Cenozoic block uplift, the maximum
Pocho fault. Chevron folds, with subhorizontal axes
displacement of the fault thrusts and the age of fault-
and axial planes oriented N 10/42 W, affect the dom-
ing all decrease from west to east (sequentially faulted
inant foliation in phyllites, which outside the contact
hangingwall). It follows that faulting propagated from
area is oriented N 0/40 E (Fig. 7c).
west to east. In this context, we suggest that the Ro de
A W-overturned open syncline, hundreds of metres
la Plata craton, which lies at depth beneath the Chaco-
wide and long, with an E-dipping axial plane and sub-
Pampean plain, acted as a buttress to Andean com-
horizontal axis, is recognized in the piedmont of the
pression in the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas (backwards
Sierra de Pocho near Chancan (Fig. 7a). This fold is
propagation faulting).
formed by drag on the footwall of the Sierra de Pocho
fault in subhorizontal Carboniferous sedimentary rocks
(sandstones of the Chancan Formation, Fig. 7b). This 7. Faulting depth
is one of the largest folds recognized due to Tertiary
How faults extend at depth is a major problem.
deformation in the Sierras de Crdoba.
Gonzlez Bonorino (1950) proposed that the Sierras
Pampeanas faults that produced block uplift would
become horizontal with depth, brittle deformation at
6. Estimation of uplift, maximum displacement and
shallow depths being a result of compression. Down-
tectonic transport direction of main thrusts
wards plastic deformation absorbs brittle deformation
Elliott (1976) published a figure showing the maximum and would result in upper crust displacement over the
displacement in thrust faults as a function of length lower crust along roughly horizontal planes. Geophys-
along strike. The relationship between the maximum ical data (Introcaso, Lion & Ramos, 1987; Alvarado
displacement D and fault length L is usually considered et al. 2005; Alvarado, Machuca & Beck, 2005, Per-
to be of the form D = L C, where is the propor- arnau et al. 2012; Richardson et al. 2013) confirm the
tionality constant and C has a value between 1 and correctness of the intuition and geological and mechan-
2 (Cowie, 1998; Groshong, 2008). The precise rela- ical knowledge of Gonzlez Bonorino (1950). Perarnau
tionship seems to depend on many factors, including et al. (2012) and Richardson et al. (2013) carried out
mechanical stratigraphy and nature of the interactions detailed studies showing the intracrustal structure of
between overlapping faults. For a practical estimate of the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas, including estimates of
this relationship in a map interpretation, we assumed crustal thickness and its variation as well as the location
C = 1, leading to = D/L. Ratios of 1:8 to 1:33 are and displacement of Mohorovicic discontinuity.
common, regardless of location, size or type of fault. The geological section AA (Fig. 5) cuts across the
Displacement on the main faults of the Sierras de middle of the Sierras de Crdoba at about 31 50 S,
Crdoba has not yet been measured but it is possible to crossing the main N-striking faults that uplifted the si-
apply the bow-and-arrow rule of Elliott (1976) to some erras of Pocho, Grande, Chica and Elevacin Pampeana
typical thrusts, measuring the length of the exposed and the NW lineaments that obliquely intersect the sec-
faults on the map, in order to estimate the maximum tion. Favetto et al. (2008) performed a magnetotelluric
displacement and the tectonic transport direction. We survey over 450 km through the Sierras de Crdoba,
have selected only the main low-dipping (thrusts) and obtaining data to a depth of 200 km. Subsequently,

Orozco et al. (2013) complemented this study with geometry, and are rooted between 22 km in the east
another section that included the Precordillera, the Si- and 27 km in the west over a ductile aseismic area
erras Pampeanas and the Chaco-Pampean plain. In both c. 810 km above the Mohorovicic discontinuity (Per-
studies, the boundary between the Ro de la Plata craton arnau et al. 2012). Geological sections (Figs 4, 5) were
and the Pampia terrane is located to the east of Sierra performed, integrating geophysical surface and depth
Chica, as a subvertical discontinuity marked by the dif- information (Favetto et al. 2008; Perarnau et al. 2012;
ference between the resistivities of rocks in the two Orozco et al. 2013). The crustal structure shown is con-
domains. sistent with such data from other areas (Snyder, Ramos
The Ro de la Plata craton of Palaeoproterozoic age & Allmendinger, 1990; Comnguez & Ramos, 1991;
(22001700 Ma, Rapela et al. 2007), covered by sev- Cristallini et al. 2004). Shallow seismicity data at c.
eral thousand metres of sediments from the Chaco- 25 km (Richardson et al. 2013) indicate that the Sier-
Pampean plain, acted as a rigid wall which was un- ras de Crdoba are accommodating current deforma-
affected by Andean orogenic compression. Therefore, tion in the most distant foreland portion of the Chilean
we propose that the suture between the Pampia terrane trench. The presence of melted material associated with
and Ro de la Plata craton is the origin of the different the Miocene magmatism and subsidence of the Pampia
take-off levels of the most important thrusts. Although terrane Ro de la Plata craton interface is also detected
this craton apparently reaches depths far greater than (Booker, Favetto & Pomposiello, 2004).
those established for the Mohorovicic discontinuity by In the west section BB (Fig. 5), a seismically act-
Perarnau et al. (2012), we assume an average crustal ive, almost vertical, planar structure which coincides
thickness of 40 km or less as defined by satellite gravi- with the Ojo de Agua lineament (Fig. 14a) is recog-
metry and crustal thickness modelling for the continent nized based on seismic activity (Caro Montero, Mar-
(Assumpo, Feng & Juli, 2013; Van der Meijde, Ju- tino & Guereschi, 2015). This lineament reaches a
li & Assumpo, 2013). The depth of brittleductile depth of c. 84 km, with sinistral transpressive kinemat-
transition zone is between 20 and 25 km, according ics (Fig. 14b, c). Despite the error range for hypocent-
to data obtained by Perarnau et al. (2012), with the ral earthquake location of 35 km (depending on the
depth of the Mohorovicic discontinuity between 38 and database where data were obtained), such a structure
40 km. These estimates are consistent with global geo- is clearly detected although with a depth much greater
physical studies for the South American continent (As- than expected. In addition, from focal mechanisms cal-
sumpo, Feng & Juli, 2013; Van der Meijde, Juli culated by the International Seismological Center for
& Assumpo, 2013) and, more locally, for the Andes earthquakes located along this structure, a different kin-
(Gilbert, Beck & Zandt, 2006; Heit et al. 2008; Per- ematic style above and below the Mohorovicic discon-
arnau, Alvarado & Saez, 2010). The take-off level of tinuity was deduced. The Ojo de Agua lineament has
these thrusts is defined as at 23 km, with slight vari- a transpressional nature with sinistral movement below
ations caused by a major oblique lineament (Soconcho). this limit (c. 40 km) and reverse-type above it. This
These very pervasive lineaments cause an almost ver- behaviour is possibly related to the rheological change
tical shifting of the Mohorovicic discontinuity by 2.5 between the lithosphere and the upper mantle. The same
3 km (see fig. 4b in Perarnau et al. 2012). geometry is followed by the other oblique lineament on
As for section AA, section BB (Fig. 5) is trans- the east of section BB (Carap).
verse to the Sierras de Crdoba in the northern part The existence of ancient deep lineaments calls into
(at c. 31 20 S). As in the previous section, we have question the geometry at depth, previously known or
interpreted the boundary between Pampia Terrane and inferred, of the Sierras de Crdoba faults (Perarnau
Ro de la Plata craton as the place where the take-off et al. 2012; Richardson et al. 2013; Martino, Guereschi
levels of the main thrusts were generated. The zone & Caro Montero 2014, among others).
of brittleductile transition is established at the same
depth as in section AA (2025 km), as is that of the
8. Regional interpretation: the case of the Sierra
Mohorovicic discontinuity (40 km or less), according
Chica fault
to data obtained by Perarnau et al. (2012). To the east,
near the end of the section, an almost vertical displace- Although there are many studies still to be carried out
ment of this discontinuity by nearly 3 km is caused by on faults in the Sierras de Crdoba, one of the most
another important lineament affecting the Sierras de studied faults, the Sierra Chica fault, can be taken as
Crdoba (Carap, see fig. 5b in Perarnau et al. 2012). representative of the faulting affecting this part of the
Crustal thickness ranges from 38 km in the west to Sierras Pampeanas. In the Santa Rosa and El Tanque
35 km in the east, and there are small variations in mor- areas (Fig. 10b, c) there are excellent examples of base-
phology of the Mohorovicic discontinuity (Perarnau ment thrusts produced during the Cenozoic deforma-
et al. 2012) showing displacements of c. 3 km near the tion in the Sierras de Crdoba.
Soconcho, Carap and Den Funes lineaments. Two The brittle deformation in Sierra Chica produced
planar intracrustal structures are detected throughout a series of faults and lineaments with complex rela-
the Sierras de Crdoba (remnants of hidden Cambrian tionships (Fig. 3a). This complexity is due to the con-
crust?), displaced at depth by the main faults described trol exerted by previous fabrics such as the regional
in this paper. These faults have a listric, concave-up metamorphic foliation S2 and locally the mylonitic

foliation in ductile shear zones, to which two overlap- sedimentary sequence of the Cretaceous basin is recog-
ping brittle tectonic events can be added: the Cretaceous nized here and is one of the best places in the moun-
extensional tectonics and the Tertiary compressional tains to analyse the inversion of Cretaceous basins by
tectonics. Tertiary deformation. The Carap and Guacha Corral
The brittle deformation affected metamorphic rocks Pachango ductile shear zones (Fig. 4) are the two most
of NeoproterozoicCambrian ages (Rapela et al. 1998; important crustal boundaries in the Sierras de Crdoba,
Siegesmund et al. 2010) with a strong planar anisotropy subsequent to the metamorphic peak and the beginning
that is very pervasive regionally (main metamorphic of exhumation of the Pampean orogen at this latitude
foliation S2 ). This foliation has a general orientation (Martino, 2003).
N 310340/3050 NE in Sierra Chica. The foliation High angles observed in some segments in the Si-
S2 is a plane of weakness and, in some places, acted erra Chica fault plane, manifested as straight traces on
as the main fault plane of the Sierra Chica fault (e.g. the map (e.g. at the latitude of Cosqun, Fig. 12a), are
in the Santa Rosa area, Fig. 10c). The strong control interpreted as the result of translation and progress-
exerted by the S2 fabric of metamorphic rocks on the ive back-rotation of the main fault as the imbrication of
orientation of Tertiary brittle structures in the East- the sedimentary wedge occurred below (Fig. 11a). This
ern Sierras Pampeanas has been highlighted by many implies an essentially non-rigid basement behaviour
authors (Gordillo & Lencinas, 1979; Kraemer et al. strongly influenced by the geometry of the footwall
1988; Massabie & Szlafsztein, 1991; Kraemer & Mar- (Kraemer & Martino, 1993). Other straight segments
tino, 1993; Schmidt et al. 1995; Simpson et al. 2001; of the Sierra Chica fault, that mark the boundaries of
Martino, Guereschi & Carignano, 2012). However, in the Cretaceous basins sierras of Pajarillo, Copacabana
other places the plane S2 was cut at a low angle by and Masa in the north and Sierra de los Cndores in
the Sierra Chica fault plane (e.g. Villa Carlos Paz and the south (Fig. 4), are interpreted as Cretaceous nor-
Potrero de Garay areas, Fig. 12c, e). This case could mal faults today reversed by Tertiary tectonics. The
also be interpreted as a shortcut imposed mechanically curved segments are therefore new low-angle reverse
by a too-steep S2 geometry, without significant rotation faults (basement thrusts) caused by Tertiary tectonics,
from inherited steeper faults to the shallow-dipping while the straight segments are rotated thrusts or re-
fault. verse reactivations of previous faults as postulated in
At the mountain scale, in the basement of Sierra the Introduction section of this paper. Taken together,
Chica the fabric S2 is cut by three N 330-striking main all segments are interconnected forming the current
oblique lineaments named, from north to south, Carap, Sierra Chica fault.
Quebrada Honda and Soconcho (Fig. 12a). These lin- In the segments between the oblique lineaments, the
eaments have a subvertical, straight trace on the map, current Sierra Chica fault has a curved trace, convex
and internally show an old mylonitic fabric and a su- westwards (salient S in Fig. 12a), while at the latit-
perimposed new brittle fabric. The old fabric could ude of the lineaments the fault reverses becoming con-
be Devonian or older and later reactivated in a brittle cave eastwards (recess R in Fig. 12a). The convex seg-
regime during the Cretaceous and Tertiary tectonics. ments, limited by oblique lineaments, produced the seg-
When the Tertiary compression occurred these linea- mentation of the Sierra Chica fault into at least three
ments were reactivated as dextral strike-slip faults, with large thrusts sheets. During Tertiary compression, such
an extensional component (divergent oblique shear = sheets were displaced mainly towards the NNW (c.
transtensive) generating drag and rotation of the fabric N 330), while the lineaments acted as lateral ramps.
S2 in the Quebrada Honda lineament and formation of The convex shape should be the effect of low-angle
cleavage superimposed on S2 in the Carap and So- reverse faulting associated with the expansion of the
concho lineaments. front of the thrust sheet, a mechanism analogous to that
The oblique lineaments are here assigned to an old recognized in the nappes (spreading nappes, Fig. 12g).
deformation, named pan-Gondwanan, which affected The central fault segment between the Quebrada Honda
the South American and African plates (Daly, 1988; and Soconcho lineaments can be taken as an example
Tankard et al. 1995). As stated in Section 4, the rela- of the latter process and geometry. The thrust plane is
tionship between the lineaments and the ductile shear slightly wavy, so locally the tectonic transport direc-
zones is not clear; although they are commonly associ- tion (arrows TTD in Fig. 12a) deviated from the main
ated, not all the lineaments have mylonitic rocks linked NNW-striking trend and veered to the west and SW.
to them. This is an open question currently under study. This gentle undulation of the fault plane is also ob-
The northern end of the Sierra Chica fault would served at the latitude of Villa Carlos Paz, where it can
have nucleated along the NW extension of the Carap be interpreted as a gently folded subvertical fault plane
lineament (Fig. 12a). This would have been one of the (Fig. 12c). An undulating fault plane is another factor
main controls of the Cretaceous basin of the sierras that explains the various cross-cutting relationships ob-
of Pajarillo, Copacabana and Masa, because it is inter- served with respect to the foliation plane S2 (Fig. 3f).
preted as the take-off listric normal fault (detachment Kinematic analysis of minor faults in the areas of
or sole fault; Martino et al. 2014), then inverted during Cosqun, Villa Carlos Paz and Santa Rosa (Kraemer
the Tertiary tectonics. An eroded harpoon-like struc- et al. 1988; Kraemer & Martino, 1993; Painceyra,
ture (McClay & Buchanan, 1992) affecting the basal 1998) indicates that there are two common directions of

shortening that belong to different deformation events, del Morro at San Luis (2.6 0.7 Ma and 1.9 0.2 Ma;
NW and NE, corresponding to events A and B, respect- Ramos, Munizaga & Kay, 1991). The Pocho volcanic
ively (Fig. 12b, d). It is worth noting that recent focal rocks overlying the eastern flank of the Sierra de Pocho
mechanisms, deduced by P and S waves, are coincident show strong erosion on the west side near the top of the
with the event A since a component of NW shortening sierra. This would indicate that these rocks were tilted
and subvertical lengthening (Richardson et al. 2009) to the east, probably as a result of the reactivation of
is determined. This dynamic also coincides with the the Sierra de Pocho fault during PliocenePleistocene
determined main direction of tectonic transport (TTD times.
arrows, Fig. 12a) for the various blocks of the Sierra For the Sierra de Comechingones fault, based on
Chica limited by the Carap, Quebrada Honda and So- the results of KAr fault gouge dating, Bense et al.
concho lineaments. (2011) set the onset of brittle deformation as early Car-
The Tertiary reverse fault of Sierra Chica was nuc- boniferous (c. 340 Ma) followed by PermianTriassic
leated and reactivated, and then inverted a Cretaceous and Jurassic events. Lbens et al. (2011) proposed that
normal fault related to the deformation that led to the the current structural relief was achieved after the late
opening of the Atlantic Ocean (Schmidt et al. 1995). Cretaceous exhumation (c. 8070 Ma, based on ther-
This coincides with the Eastern Pampean lineament mochronological data). This fault also recorded Qua-
(Fig. 1) corresponding to the suture produced by the ternary activity dated at 7.1 0.4 ka and 350 40 ka
assembly of the Ro de la Plata craton with the Pampia BP (the El Molino fault, Fig. 4; Costa et al. 2014).
terrane in Precambrian times. The latter lineament and The Sierra Chica fault is a Tertiary reverse fault that
the current fault are probably the surface expression was nucleated and reactivated and then inverted a nor-
of the true suture, now in lower structural levels of the mal fault of the Cretaceous rift. To date, thermochrono-
lithosphere but geophysically detected (Booker, Favetto logical data are not available to constrain previous
& Pomposiello, 2004; Gilbert et al. 2010). brittle activity. The age of the Cenozoic deformation de-
Based on geobarometric data obtained from meta- pends on the age assigned to the sedimentary sequences
morphic rocks of the blocks exhumed on both sides of overthrust by the basement. In the Cosqun area, the
the Sierra Chica fault, Martino, Guereschi & Carig- EoceneOligocene Cosqun Formation is separated by
nano (2011) estimated a throw of between c. 5 km a calcrete horizon from the MiocenePliocene Cas-
at Alta Gracia (31 36 S) and c. 12 km at La Calera agrande Formation, and both sequences were imbric-
(31 21 S). This present-day geobarometric difference ated by reverse-faulting (Fig. 11a) during the Pliocene
is an effect of Cretaceous extensional tectonics that was Pleistocene periods. In the Santa Rosa area (Fig. 11b),
not compensated by the Tertiary inversion. deformation event A is clearly recognized in clay levels
in the fault plane suggesting that it was the last epis-
ode of movement, probably post-Pliocene (early Pleis-
9. Considerations about the age of faulting
tocene?). Event B is recognized in the basement rel-
Based on thermochronological data that indicate activ- atively far from the fault plane and is considered as
ity as early as during the Carboniferous period, the in- a previous event of uncertain age (pre-late Pliocene?,
version of the Cretaceous basin and Cenozoic synoro- Kraemer et al. 1988). Both events coincide approx-
genic deposits affected by subsequent faulting, it can be imately with the PliocenePleistocene imbrication of
deduced that block uplift resulted from different oro- the Cosqun and Casagrande formations. According to
genic cycles from the Palaeozoic era to present times. Schmidt et al. (1995), deformation developed after the
It should be noted that the modern mountain uplift is Pliocene period based on the inversion of the Creta-
not recorded by thermochronological data, but it can ceous basins. Based on stratigraphic evidence in the
be constrained based on stratigraphic evidence from Sierras de Crdoba and correlation with structural ana-
the overthrust sequences and their regional correlation. lysis in the Puna and northwestern Sierras Pampeanas
The information available is fragmentary, the Sierra (Allmendinger, 1986; Marrett & Allmendinger, 1987),
de Pocho, Sierra de Comechingones and Sierra Chica Martino et al. (1995) proposed that the two deform-
faults being the best studied to date. ational events occurred during the Pleistocene, at c.
Based on radiometric dating in pseudotachylites 0.8 Ma (event A) and c. 2 Ma (event B). In addition,
from the Sierra de Pocho fault (Fig. 4), the deformation very recent (Holocene?) displacements have been re-
could have been active from the early Carboniferous cognized (Costa et al. 2014) based on geomorphology
period (c. 350340 Ma, Whitmeyer, 2008). Brittle re- and observations of soil horizons affected by the fault-
activation of this structure with development of gouge ing (e.g. in the Potrero de Garay area). Reactivation of
and brecciation is probably linked to the Cenozoic de- the Sierra Chica fault therefore developed during late
formation that produced the uplift of the sierras of Pliocene Pleistocene Holocene times. In addition,
Guasapampa and Pocho. The origin of the large asym- southwards diachronism in fault propagation is recog-
metrical synformal fold in sedimentary rocks (a drag nized based on the overthrust relationship over younger
fold?) could be a concomitant event. The magmatism sedimentary rocks to soils in that direction.
associated with the Andean orogenic cycle, represented The age of the reactivation of the easternmost Ele-
by the Pocho Volcanic Complex (7.94.7 Ma; Kay & vacin Pampeana fault is unknown, but it is estimated
Gordillo, 1994; Arnosio et al. 2014) and in the Sierra to be more recent than the Sierra Chica fault. Other

authors (Costa & Vita-Finzi, 1996; Costa et al. 2001) At the latitude of the Sierras de Crdoba, the top
believe that it is a Holocene uplift but with variable of the Nazca plate is located at a depth of c. 175 km
uplift rates. (Cahill & Isacks, 1992; Booker, Favetto & Pomposi-
Seismological and seismic risk features linked to ello, 2004), as detected by seismic and magnetotelluric
the latest deformation have been recently reviewed by surveys. These studies also suggested that, towards the
Fatala & Martino (2012), Perarnau et al. (2012), Costa east of Sierra Chica (Alta Gracia, Fig. 4), almost ver-
et al. (2014) and Caro Montero, Martino & Gueres- tical sinking of the Nazca plate would occur, probably
chi (2015). The Cinaga del Coro fault, Ojo de Agua related to the presence of the western boundary of the
lineament, La Sierrita fault, northern segments of the Ro de la Plata craton (Rapela et al. 2007).
Cumbre de Gaspar and Sierra Chica faults all exhibit The asymmetric uplift blocks of the Sierras de Cr-
present-day seismic activity, with magnitudes of 24 doba are arranged in NS-aligned ranges limited by
(Mb ). E-dipping reverse faults, both high- and low-angle,
The synorogenic deposits in the piedmont of the Si- with a steep western flank and a gentle eastern flank
erra Chica fault (Fig. 11a) and the interception of drain- (e.g. 1012 for Sierra Chica). Looking to the north,
age from Sierra Grande by Sierra Chica provide clear there is clockwise tilting. Four blocks are distin-
evidence of uplift of the Sierra Grande prior to that of guished from west to east: Sierra de Pocho; Sierra
Sierra Chica through its eponymous faults. de ComechingonesGrande (highest elevation Cerro
Based on thermochronometric data of apatite and Champaqu: 2884 m a.s.l.); Sierra Chica (Cerro Urit-
zircon (U/Th)/He ages, Richardson et al. (2013) postu- orco: 1950 m a.s.l.); and Elevacin Pampeana. Between
lated Permian Early Jurassic cooling in the basement the blocks are Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins, the latter
of the Sierras de Crdoba, suggesting that exhuma- partitioned by the deformation that uplifted the blocks
tion has been less than 23 km since then. Faulting from c. 10 Ma ago (Jordan et al. 1989; Schmidt et
and uplift in the Sierras Pampeanas of Crdoba is dia- al. 1995; Ramos, 1999). These basins were covered
chronous from north to south, based on the overthrust- by Pleistocene rocks and Holocene soils in turn. Data
ing relationship in sedimentary sequences and thermo- from depth of the Mohorovicic discontinuity and ther-
chronological data. This suggests discrete block uplift, mochronometric dating indicate Permian Early Jur-
reflecting segmentation produced partly by the oblique assic cooling, suggesting that exhumation has been less
lineaments and partly by other ancient faults. The fault than 23 km since then (Richardson et al. 2013). An
reactivation would have formed mountain ranges in- even older age (Carboniferous) has been proposed, so
ternally composed of blocks that rose diachronously. the current relief could have partial Palaeozoic and
The direction of propagation of the main faults with Mesozoic inheritance and was not only produced by
a dominant westerly vergence was from west to east the Andean orogeny (Jordan et al. 1989; Coughlin et
(backwards propagation), with the Ro de La Plata al. 1998; Lbens et al. 2011; Martino, Guereschi &
craton acting as a buttress. The present topography Carignano, 2012).
is the result of the Permian Early Jurassic exhuma- The controls on the Andean deformation by faulting
tion (according to (U/Th)/He data) plus the Pliocene in the Sierras de Crdoba are varied: (1) the domin-
Quaternary uplift of c. 23 km, not detected by thermo- ant basement metamorphic fabric S2 (Kraemer et al.
chronometric data as in most of the Sierras Pampeanas. 1988; Kraemer, Escayola & Martino, 1995; Martino,
In addition, palaeoclimatic and geomophological ob- Guereschi & Carignano, 2012); (2) the reactivation of
servations allow the remnants of pre-Cenozoic land- suture zones (Schmidt et al. 1995); and (3) the reactiv-
forms to be recognized (Rabassa et al. 1997; Carig- ation of Cretaceous normal faults (Martino, Guereschi
nano, Cioccale & Rabassa, 1999). & Carignano, 2012). We recognize two further factors.
(4) Based on geological and geophysical data, we pro-
pose that oblique lineaments are another kind of control
on the nucleation and development of Tertiary fault-
10. Concluding remarks
ing. These lineaments are old, probably correlated with
The Sierras Pampeanas de Crdoba are the eastern- the pan-Gondwanan trend (Daly, 1988; Tankard et al.
most uplift blocks related to current Andean foreland 1995) and deeply affect the crust, shifting the Mo-
deformation, over 700 km from the Chilean trench and horovicic discontinuity (Perarnau et al. 2012). They
coinciding with a region of low inclination and shallow- worked in a transtensional way (= divergent oblique
ing of subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South shear) during the Cretaceous period, uplifting high-
American plate (the Pampean flat-slab). By coupling grade metamorphic rocks in their highest parts during
between the two plates, this phenomenon has been com- Cenozoic tectonics (Martino, Guereschi & Carignano,
pared to the Laramide orogeny of North America and 2012). These lineaments are also the locus of magmas
elsewhere in the world (Jordan et al. 1983b; Rodgers, represented by Paleocene olivine nephelinites dykes
1987; Marshak, Karsltrom & Timmons, 2000). In the and serve as metallotects for gold and uranium min-
Sierras Pampeanas, it occurs between 27 and 34 S eralization. The Ojo de Agua lineament (Fig. 4), one
latitude and was active from 12 Ma to the present of these ancient lineaments, extends to the SE into
(Ramos & Folguera, 2009), causing thick-skinned tec- the Soconcho lineament, forming a single structure
tonics over an area of about 800600 km. at regional scale, with deep current seismic activity

below the Mohorovicic discontinuity to c. 80 km (Caro Acknowledgements. The CONICET, FONCyT, SECyT
Montero, Martino & Guereschi, 2015). (5) Finally, UNC and Secretara de Minera of the Province of Crdoba
there is clear control exerted by Palaeozoic ductile (Argentina) institutions are thanked for supporting our re-
shear zones in both the hangingwall and footwall on search over the years. Formal revisions by two referees, V.
Ramos and an anonymous reviewer, and the editorial assist-
the Tertiary brittle deformation. As an example, the ance of O. Lacombe are acknowledged for their contributions
Pachango lineament and the eponymous ductile shear which significantly improved the manuscript. Language re-
zone (Fig. 7a) make the southern boundary of the large vision by R. J. Pankhurst is gratefully acknowledged.
Los Tneles shear zone and put rocks with contrasting
metamorphic grades into contact.
According to observations in many places, it has References
been traditionally considered that in the Sierras
Pampeanas high-angle reverse faults limit mountain ALLMENDINGER, R.W. 1986. Tectonic development, south-
range blocks (Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950; Gordillo & eastern border of the Puna Plateau, northwestern Ar-
Lencinas, 1979). However, in some places very-low- gentine Andes. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America 97(9), 107082.
angle reverse faults (thrusts) also produced block up- ALVARADO, P., BECK, S., ZANDT, G., ARAUJO, M. & TRIEP,
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Geol. Mag.

Reactivation, inversion and basement faulting and thrusting in the

(Received 30 October 2015; accepted 25 March 2016)

1. Introduction fault in the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas (Uliana, Biddle

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a synthesis of thick-skinned deformation affecting the

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