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HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
A set of organic compounds with similar chemical properties, with a general formula and
showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in the size of mass of the
molecule.
The formula of each member differs from the previous one by an extra CH2 group of atom.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP:
An atom or group of atoms which give the molecule its characteristics properties. E.g. (C-C)
As boiling point of alkanes till Butane are below 0, therefore they are in gaseous form when at
Room Temperature. On the other hand alkanes after Pentane are in liquid form at Room
Temperature.
Structural Properties:
General Formula Cn H2n + 2
Saturated Single Covalent Bonds C C
Physical Properties:
Insoluble in Water (H20)
As the number of Carbons increases going down the group :
Mass, Density, Melting Point, Boiling Point increases.
More Viscosity ( Self hindrance offered by liquid towards its flow)
Less flammable
Chemical Properties:
They do not react with most of the chemicals as they are saturated, having only C-C and
C- H single bonds.
They do however undergo combustion and react with chlorine in the presence of
sunlight.
Combustion Reaction:
Complete Combustion:
Alkanes burn in the presence of sufficient supply of Oxygen is called complete combustion
production.
HydroCarbons on complete combustion produce Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water (H2O).
E.g.
1) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
2) C3H8 +5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Incomplete Combustion:
Burning in the presence of insufficient supply of Oxygen gas is called in-complete combustion.
Hydro Carbons on incomplete combustion produce Carbon Monoxide and Water.
CH4 + 3O2 CO + 4H2O
Substitution With Chlorine:
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one or more atoms of an organic compound are
replaced with one or more other atoms.
This reaction can keep on happening (stepwise) until all the hydrogen atoms in the
hydrocarbons have been replaced by a halogen (group 7 elements).
The product produced after this reaction would be known as Halogenoalkanes.
HCl is also the product
Reaction speed depends upon the reactivity of the Halogen
Reactivity of Halogen decreases down the reactivity.
Ultra Violet radiation is providing heat energy to start up this reaction.
Light (sunlight) is needed, to break the covalent bonds between chlorine molecule
atoms.
E.g.
Uses of Cracking:
To produce akanes and alkenes and Hydrogen.
To breakup large hydrogen carbon molecules into smaller ones to produce fuel for
motor vehicles.
Ethene is produced, It is useful in production of Ethanol and Plastic (Polyethene).
Isomerism:
Isomers are organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
Due to difference in chain length (structural properties), they have different physical
properties (e.g. Boiling point, Melting point)
They can occur in both Alkanes and Alkenes
As the # of Carbon atoms increases, the number of isomers also increases.
As they have same molecular formula, therefore their percentage composition by mass
remains the same.
Isomerism is used in the petroleum industry e.g. car eng
ALKENES:
Alkenes are a group of hydrocarbons, with a C=C double bond, as not all Carbon atoms are
bonded to the maximum number of 4 other atoms.
General Formula: ( Cn H2n )
Functional Formula: ( C = C )
All alkenes name ends with ene.
They are Unsaturated hydrocartbons
Each member of the alkene differs from the next by a CH2
Note: As you go down the group, the mass and boiling point increases.
They have the same molecular formula C4H8, but have different structural formula.
Butene is a straight-chain unsaturated hydrocarbon while methylpropen is a branched-
chain, unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Butene and methylpropene have different melting and boiling point.
Isomerism for Alkenes:
Isomers can be created in Alkenes by changing the direction of Carbon atoms or by changing
the position of Carbon Carbon double bonds (C=C).
Saturated:
These are those hydro carbons, that have Carbon Carbon single bond (C-C)
In these the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is fully used as possible in bonding with
Hydrogen atoms
Note: that Carbon double bond with Oxygen doesnt make them unsaturated.
Unsaturated:
These are those hydro carbons, that have Carbon Carbon double bond (C=C).
In these the combining capacity of the Carbon atoms is not fully used e.g 2 or 3 Hydrogens are
attracted to a one single Carbon atom.
Combustion:
All Alkenes will have more Carbon content, then their respective Alkane. Hence they would be
needing more Oxygen for combustion.
Thus there is more chances of incomplete combustion.
E.g.
As Alkene is turned into Alkane, Hydrogenation is used, to change vegetable oil, into Margarine.
Vegetable oil contains unsaturated fats with many C=C bonds, therefore it can be hardened to
form margarine, the greater the Hydrogen used, the more solid(harder), the margarine
becomes.
Note: Butter higher degree of saturation (C-C bonds)
Oil higher degree of un saturation (C=C bonds) liquid bromine can be added to test
oil, colour will change.
Hence, hydration is used to covert Ethene into Ethanol and Propene into Propanol.
Halogenation:
Halogenation is used, to convert Alkene to Alkane
Halogen (group 7 elements) is added across the double bonds of Alkene to covert the C=C to C-
C.
Note: In substitution reaction in Alkanes, Halogens were added in a step wise reaction, where
as in case of Alkenes, Halogens are added up at once.
Polymerization:
Alkene molecules undergo an addition reaction, where they add on to each other to form
addition Polymers. Therefore, in this reaction Alkene molecules are used as Monomers, to form
addition Polymers.
Alkene molecules monomers
Long chained compound formed polymers
Reaction polymerization
E.g. Ethene is polymerized to form Poly(ethane) or Polythene.
Polyethene is used to make plastic films, plastic bags and drinking bottles.
Detection Of Alkenes:
Alkenes can be detected by using cold aqueous Potassium Maganate(VII).
The purple colour of the Potassium Maganate(VII) is discharged, leaving behind a brown
precipitate of Manganes (IV) Oxide MnO2 .
The Maganate(VII) ions are reduced to Manganese (IV) Ions.
Differences:
Molecular structure:
Alkanes C-C bonds
Alkenes C=C bonds
Reactivity:
Alkanes are mostly unreactive.
Alkenes are more reactive than the Alkanes
Reaction with Bromine:
Liquid Bromine when added to Alkane will not change its colour.
Liquid Bromine when added to Alkene will change its colour due to the
presence of C=C bonds.
During Combustion Alkenes produce a much smokier flame then Alkanes.
Poly unsaturated:
These are those fats and oils whose hydrocarbon chains contain more than one C=C Bonds in
their structure.
ALCOHOLS:
Alcohols are a series of compounds with a hydroxyl group (-OH) joined to a carbon atom in a
hydrocarbon chain.
General Formula: ( Cn H2n + 1 OH)
Functional Group: (OH)
Note: The above mentioned Alcohols are all in Liquid state at room temperature as their
boiling point > room temperature. Also moving down the group, the mass and boiling points of
Alcohols increases. Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids are not Hydrocarbons as they contain Oxygen
atoms in their compounds.
Physical Properties:
Alcohols are soluble in water(H2O).
Alcohols have OH in them but they are not Alkalies.
Alcohols are more reactive than Alkanes and Alkenes, as they have more electronic
density, and presence of hydroxyl (-O-H) and carboxyl group (-C-O) as shown below.
Combustion:
Alcohol requires less Oxygen for combustion, as Oxygen is a part of it.
Complete Combustion:
Alcohol + O2 CO + H2O
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
Incomplete Combustion:
Alcohol + O2 CO + Carbon Soot
This reaction, is highly exothermic, thus alcohols are used as fuels.
Oxidation:
Oxidation is gain of Oxygen and loss of Hydrogen.
Alcohols upon oxidation will form Carboxylic Acids + H2O
In the presence of acidified Potassium Dichromate (H2SO4 & K2Cr2O7) an oxidizing agent.
Preperation Of Alcohol:
There are two methods to obtain alcohol:
Hydration Of Alkene (Lab Method)
Fermentation (Industrial Method)
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS:
Carboxylic Acids are homogenous Series/ organic compounds containing the (CO2H) group.
General Formula: CnH2n + 1 COOH
Functional Group:
Carboxylic Acids are not Hydrocarbons, as they contain Oxygen in their Compounds. Hydro
carbons are those organic compounds containing only Hydrogen and Carbon.
In Organic Acid:
Organic Acid:
Esterification:
Esters are organic compounds formed by the combination of Carboxylic Acid with an
Alcohol.
Catalyst Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
This Reaction is reversible.
H2O is produced as a by product.
Ester is a sweet smelling organic compound.
Preperation of Ester is known as esterification.
We can add acid catalyst (H+ ion) and heat mixture to obtain Carboxylic acid and alcohol from
ester This is Hydrolysis.
The two functional groups react with each other. The C of the Carboxyl group bonds to the O of
the OH group. The COO group where they join is called ester linkage.
The two molecules have joined by getting rid of a small molecule, water. This is called
condensation reaction.
In Condensation reaction, two molecules join together to form a large molecule, with the loss
of a small molecule.
Uses of Esters:
As a flavouring agent in foods.
Used in cosmetics.
Used as a solvent, to dissolve organic compounds that are insoluble in wate. They are
volatile, hence they evaporate easily. (painting, ink, glues and nail polish).
Esters are used in creating vegetable oils.