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Mathematics
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STATISTICS : is the science of compiling, classifying and
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USES OF STATISTICS
To assess the state of oral health in the community and to determine
the availability and utilization of dental care facilities.
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Objective:
To facilitate comparison.
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PROPERTIES
Should be easy to understand and compute.
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The most common measures of central tendency that are used in dental sciences are :
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ARITHMETIC MEAN
Simplest measure of central tendency.
Ungrouped data:
Sum of all the observations in the data
Mean =
Number of observations in the data
Grouped data:
Sum of all the variables multiplied by the
Mean = corresponding frequency in the data
Total frequency
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MEDIAN:-
Middle value in a distribution such that one half of the units in the
distribution have a value smaller than or equal to the median and
one half have a value greater than or equal to the median.
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Most commonly used: arithmetic mean.
To know the value that has high influence in the series: mode.
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MEASURES OF DISPERSION
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RANGE
value of the smallest item and the value of the largest item.
But this measure does not give information about the values that lie
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MEAN DEVIATION
M.D = X Xi
n
where ( sigma ) is the sum of, X is the
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MEAN DEVIATION
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STANDARD DEVIATION(SD)
Also known as root mean square deviation, because it is the square root
of the mean of the squared deviations from the arithmetic mean.
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STANDARD DEVIATION
The smaller the standard deviation, the higher the quality of the measuring instrument
and your technique
Also indicates that the data points are also fairly close together with a small value
for the range.
Indicates that you did a good job of precision w/your measurements.
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A high or large standard deviation
Indicates that the values or measurements are not similar
There is a high value for the range
Indicates a low level of precision (you didnt make measurements that
were close to the same)
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FORMULA FOR STANDARD DEVIATION
range (highest value lowest value)
= =
N N
N = number of measured values
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22.5 mL, 18.3 mL, 20.0 mL, 10.6 mL
= N = N
N=4 11.0g
= 5.95 mL
4
= 6.0 mL
S.D. = 17.9 6.0 mL (expressed to the same
level of precision as the mean) NAGHMAN ZUBERI 20
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION(C.V.)
C.V.= (Sx100)/ X
X is the mean
Gaussian curve
Half of the observations lie above and half below the mean
Normal or Gaussian distribution
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PROPERTIES
Bell shaped.
Total area of the curve is 1. Its mean zero & standard deviation 1.
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TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
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NULL HYPOTHESIS
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ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
States that there is a difference between the two groups being compared.
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LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
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STANDARD ERROR
Where,
q is (1-p)
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STEPS IN TESTING A HYPOTHESIS
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TYPES OF TESTS :-
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CHI- SQUARE(2) TEST
Advantage : it can also be used when more than two groups are to be
compared.
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CALCULATION OF 2 STATISTIC :-
2 = ( O E )2
E
Where, O = observed frequency and E = expected frequency.
This reduces chi- square & thus corrects P( i.e., result significance).
Formula used is :
2 = [ ( O E ) ]2
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LIMITATIONS :-
It will not give reliable result if the expected frequency in any one
cell is less than 5.
In such cases, Yates correction is necessary i.e , reduction of the (O-
E) by half.
X2 = [(O-E) 0.5]2
E
The test tells the presence or absence of an association between the
two frequencies but does not measure the strength of association.
Does not indicate the cause & effect. It only tells the probability of
occurrence of association by chance.
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STUDENT T TEST :-
When sample size is small. t test is used to test the hypothesis.
This test was designed by W.S Gosset, whose pen name was
student.
It is applied to find the significance of difference between two
proportions as,
Unpaired t test.
Paired t test.
Criterias :
The sample must be randomly selected.
The data must be quantitative.
The variable is assumed to follow a normal distribution in the
population.
Sample should be less than 30. NAGHMAN ZUBERI 37
PAIRED T TEST
Null hypothesis
Compare the calculated t value with the table value for (n-1) d.f. to find
the p value.
If the calculated t value is higher than the t value at 5%, the mean
difference is significant and vice-versa.
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ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE(ANOVA) TEST :-
F = S12/ S22 .The shape depends on DF values associated with S12 &
S22 .
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One way ANOVA : if subgroups to be compared are defined by just one factor.
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MISCELLANEOUS :-
Fishers exact test :
Used when the numbers involved are too small to permit the use
of a chi- square test.
Friedmans test :
Mc Nemars test :
A variant of a chi squared test, used when the data is paired.
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Tukeys multiple comparison test :
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