Using Petrel to integrate geophysical datasets for

investigating the three-dimensional hydrostratigraphic

architecture of a buried valley network
Samantha E. Morgan, Diana M. Allen, Dirk Kirste
Department of Earth Sciences Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
Carlos J. Salas
Geoscience BC, Vancouver, BC, Canada

ABSTRACT
An understanding of the three-dimensional hydrostratigraphic architecture of a buried valley network, in particular the
continuity of permeable units within their fill, is needed to evaluate the resource potential and role of buried valley
aquifers in regional groundwater flow. In this study, a Facies Modeling module in the reservoir modeling software Petrel
is used to construct a geological model of a large buried valley network in the Peace River Region of Northeast British
Columbia. The datasets used to construct the geological model of the network include airborne time-domain
electromagnetic (TEM) interpretations from a SkyTEM survey, corrected gamma-ray logs for oil and gas wells, and
supplementary lithologic information from water wells. Initial results of the geological model indicate accurate
representation of the geophysical data and suggest that extensive permeable units within the buried valleys exist.

RESUME
Une comprhension de l'architecture hydrostratigraphique tridimensionnelle d'un rseau de valles enterres, en
particulier la continuit des units permables leur charge, est ncessaire pour valuer le potentiel de ressources et le
rle des aquifres de la valle enterre dans les eaux souterraines rgionales. Dans cette tude, un module de
modlisation Facies dans le logiciel de modlisation des rservoirs Petrel est utilis pour construire un modle
gologique d'un grand rseau de valles enterres dans la rgion de Peace River, dans le nord-est de la Colombie-
Britannique. Les ensembles de donnes utiliss pour construire le modle gologique du rseau incluent des
interprtations lectromagntiques (TEM) aroportes dans le domaine temporel partir d'un sondage SkyTEM, des
registres de rayons gamma corrigs pour les puits de ptrole et de gaz et des informations lithologiques supplmentaires
provenant des puits d'eau. Les rsultats initiaux du modle gologique indiquent une reprsentation prcise des
donnes gophysiques et suggrent que des units permables tendues dans les valles enterres existent.

1 INTRODUCTION
Buried valleys are channel-form depressions, or
paleovalleys, that have been infilled by sediment and
buried following their formation (Cummings et al. 2012).
Within these buried valleys, permeable material can form
thick units that have the potential to store and transmit
significant amounts of water, thus representing attractive
targets for groundwater exploitation (Shaver and Pusc
1992, Andriashek 2000, Cummings et al. 2012,
Oldenborger et al. 2013). Therefore, studying buried
valleys and gaining an understanding of their internal
hydrostratigraphic architecture, lateral extent, and
continuity of the permeable units is crucial to managing
groundwater resources (Hickin et al. 2016).
Buried valleys have been identified below glaciated
terrains in North America and northern Europe, and
several studies have explored the hydraulic role of buried
valley aquifers through both field techniques (e.g. Troost
and Curry 1991, Shaver and Pusc 1992, van der Kamp
and Maathuis 2012) and numerical modeling (e.g. Shaver
and Pusc 1992, Seifert et al. 2008, Seyoum and Eckstein
2014). Investigations into buried valley aquifers using
numerical modeling have incorporated their three-
dimensional hydrostratigraphic architecture and have
explored the continuity of the permeable units within their
fill, which are among the key factors that control the effect
that buried valleys have on groundwater flow (Russell et
al. 2004). These studies, however, tend to be localized
(e.g. one buried valley). There has been limited
investigation of the resource potential and hydraulic role
of buried valley aquifers at a regional scale (Russell et al.
2004).
The purpose of this research is to contribute to the
knowledge of buried valley aquifer hydrogeology and
explore the influence that buried valley aquifers have on
groundwater flow at a regional scale. The study area is
the Peace River Region of Northeast British Columbia
(NEBC) (Figure 1). This paper presents the initial results
of geologic modeling conducted using Petrel
(Schlumberger 2015) to visualize the hydrostratigraphic
architecture of a buried valley network. The aim of this
work is also to extend the research conducted for
Geoscience BCs Peace Project (e.g. Petrel Robertson
Consulting Ltd. 2015, Aarhus Geophysics ApS 2016,
Bemex Consulting International and Quaternary
Geosciences Inc. 2016), which is aimed at contributing
new information about the available groundwater
resources in NEBC.
2 STUDY AREA
The Peace River Region is situated east of the Rocky
Mountains along the western edge of the Alberta Plateau.
Water resources in this region support multiple users such
as First Nations and local communities, agriculture and
industry. The energy sector, in particular, uses large
quantities of water due to the recent increase in shale gas
development and hydraulic fracturing in the area.
Currently, most of the water used for hydraulic fracturing
in NEBC is surface water; however, continuing
development may increase the demand for groundwater
stored in aquifers.
Unconsolidated aquifers in NEBC are often associated
with sand and gravel units within buried valleys (Levson et
al. 2006). Both preglacial and glacial buried valleys
developed by eroding into overlying sediments and/or
bedrock and were subsequently filled with deposits from
the advance and retreat of ice sheets. Glaciofluvial sand
and gravel deposits within the valley fills may constitute
productive aquifers (Lowen 2011). In many areas
however, these valleys have little to no surface
expression due to thick accumulations of Quaternary
overburden (Levson et al. 2006, Hickin et al. 2016). This
makes the process of identifying and mapping these
buried valley aquifers challenging.

Figure 1: Surficial geology of the Peace River Region in Northeast British Columbia. The model area is outlined in red
and the thick black lines represent outlines of buried valleys (generally >10 m deep). Blue lines A-A and B-B show
locations of cross-sections in Figures 3 and 4. Modified from Aarhus Geophysics ApS (2016).
 In the Peace River Region, the approximate extent of
a large network of buried valleys has been delineated
through bedrock mapping, mapped surficial geology, and
both oil and gas and water well borehole logs (Figure 1);
however, the hydrogeological characteristics of these
buried valleys, in particular the continuity of high
permeability materials, is largely unknown. Moreover, the
broader role that these buried valleys play in the regional
groundwater flow regime of the Peace River Region has
yet to be explored.
2.1 Bedrock Geology
The bedrock strata underlying the Peace River Region
comprises Paleozoic to Tertiary age sedimentary rock
(BC Ministry of Natural Gas Development 2011). The
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks that both outcrop at
surface and underlie the study area represent several
marine transgression-regression-transgression cycles and
are, for the most part, gently dipping towards the
southwest (BC Ministry of Energy and Mines 2011). The
marine shale and minor sandstone of the Fort St. John
Group, composed of the Lower Cretaceous Buckinghorse
Formation shales, Lower Cretaceous Sikanni Formation
sandstones, and Upper Cretaceous Sully Formation
shales, are overlain by the Upper Cretaceous Dunvegan
Formation sandstones and shales (BC Ministry of Natural
Gas Development 2011).
2.2 Data Sources
Buried valley geometry can be extremely complex
(Oldenborger et al. 2014); therefore, the incorporation of
high-resolution geophysical data is necessary to interpret
its architecture. This research incorporates the
interpretations of data collected from two different
geophysical techniques: airborne electromagnetic surveys
and borehole gamma-ray logging.
2.2.1 Airborne Electromagnetic Survey Data
Airborne time-domain electromagnetic (TEM) surveys
have proven to be efficient and accurate tools for
hydrogeophysical investigations of buried valleys (e.g.
Steuer et al. 2009, Hyer et al. 2011, Oldenborger et al.
2013). As part of Geoscience BCs Peace Project,
approximately 21 000 line-kilometres were flown with the
SkyTEM system (Srensen and Auken 2004) to collect
airborne TEM data for the Peace River Region. The TEM
data were subject to one-dimensional and three-
dimensional inversion and are presented as interpreted
horizontal subsurface resistivity slices and vertical
resistivity cross-sections. Generally, low resistivity is
interpreted to represent fine-grained material such as clay
or shale, or material containing saline water, whereas
high resistivity is interpreted to represent coarse-grained
material such as sand and gravel, or sandstone and
conglomerate.
2.2.2 Corrected Gamma-ray Logs
Gamma-ray logging is used to measure the natural
radioactivity emitted by sediments surrounding a
borehole. Due to the presence of higher concentrations of
radioactive elements found in clay minerals, high gamma
values generally imply clays and low gamma values
generally imply sand and coarse-grained material
(Quartero et al. 2014). Gamma-ray logs are commonly
used to determine subsurface lithology and identify
stratigraphic picks between formations; however, the steel
surface casing surrounding the well mutes the gamma-ray
response from the formation, reducing the amplitude and
variance of the data, and lowering the overall gamma-ray
response (Quartero et al. 2014). While surface casing
enhances wellbore stability and protects shallow
groundwater from surface contamination, the attenuation
caused by the casing is problematic for geological
interpretation.
The gamma-ray logs from approximately 200 wells in
the study area shown in Figure 1 have been corrected for
the attenuation caused by the surface casing using the
statistical correction technique developed by Quartero et
al. (2014) (Petrel Robertson Consulting Ltd. 2015). This
technique allows the cased and non-cased log intervals to
be merged into one continuous gamma-ray curve for
stratigraphic correlation.
2.2.3 Field Verification of Geophysical Data
To verify the results of the geophysical surveys, several
locations throughout Geoscience BCs Peace Project area
were selected to drill boreholes to verify the geophysical
data (Figure 1). The wells were drilled with a sonic rig, in
which the drill bit vibrates up and down in addition to
being pushed downwards. This allows for excellent core
recovery compared to conventional rotary drilling. Core
was collected and logged along the entire length of the
hole. The holes were completed with solid PVC pipe and
backfilled with cement grout to enable geophysical
logging. At some drilling locations, a water-bearing unit
was intersected. The drill rig was moved less than 5 m
away, and a new borehole was drilled to that particular
depth. The borehole was then screened using slotted
PVC pipe over the defined interval of the aquifer.
Sediment samples were collected from the cores from
the depth interval corresponding to the screened interval,
and from other locations of coarse-grained units (i.e.
sand), for grain size analysis to be conducted in the
summer of 2017.
At the time this paper was written, four wells had been
drilled and completed, three of which are in the model
area outlined in Figure 1 (10b, 10x, and 10x-2). Further
drilling commenced in late spring of 2017. At a future
date, a suite of geophysical logging tools will be run down
the boreholes to further calibrate the TEM data. This
logging suite will include gamma-ray, neutron-porosity,
and resistivity.
3 METHODOLOGY Table 1: Resistivity values for different geological
materials. Modified from Bemex Consulting International
The reservoir software, Petrel (Schlumberger 2015), was and Quaternary Geosciences Inc. (2016).
used to design a 3-D geological model of the buried valley
network (see Figure 1 for model outline). The vertical Geologic Material Resistivity (ohmm)
extent of the geological model is from ground surface
Clay <15
down to approximately 200 metres below the top of
bedrock, below which there is likely limited groundwater Till/Silt/Fine Sand 15-50
flow. The model was created in two separate phases: a Sand 50-100
bedrock model and a Quaternary model. Sand and Gravel >100

3.1 Bedrock Model

There are approximately 200 oil and gas wells with

corrected gamma-ray logs within the model area shown in
Figure 1. These logs were used to determine the
Quaternary-bedrock contact (Petrel Robertson Consulting
Ltd. 2015) and identify contacts between bedrock
formations.
As Petrel is specifically designed for the energy
industry, the import of well logs, including gamma-ray
logs, is straightforward. The gamma-ray logs were
imported in LAS format. The stratigraphic picks of the
Quaternary-bedrock contact and contacts between
bedrock formations were imported as well tops, which
were used to create surfaces representing the top of
bedrock as well as top of Dunvegan, Sully, Sikanni, and
Buckinghorse Formations. In Petrel, surfaces can be
specified as Erosional, Conformable, Discontinuous or
Base. Since the top of the bedrock surface was created to
show the Quaternary-bedrock contact and does not relate
to a specific bedrock formation, it was set as
Discontinuous. This means the surface is erosional, such
that surfaces below will be truncated; however, surfaces
above will lap onto it. The Dunvegan, Sully, and Sikanni
surfaces were set as Conformable, and the Buckinghorse
surface was set as Base. The Convergent Interpolation
algorithm was used to create the surfaces as it is suited to
fit a variety of data types of various densities, including
sparse point data. The bedrock surfaces were then used
as input in the Make simple grid process. This generated
a 3-D grid of the bedrock.

3.2 Quaternary Model

The horizontal resistivity slices were the main dataset

used to model the Quaternary sediments. These data
were presented as PDF maps of resistivity distribution.
The resistivity slices were first imported into ArcGIS and
georeferenced. They were then digitized by tracing the
continuity of distinct geological units based on resistivity
values (Table 1). These traces were converted to ASCII
text files for subsequent import into Petrel. Once in Petrel, Figure 2: Comparison of horizontal resistivity depth slices.
the ASCII files were used to recreate each resistivity Top figure shows original interpreted resistivity distribution
depth slice. Figure 2 shows a comparison of an original from 5 to 10 m below ground surface in Peace River
PDF resistivity slice and a Petrel recreated slice. Region (modified from Aarhus Geophysics ApS, 2016).
Bottom figure shows resistivity distribution from 5 to 10 m
below ground surface recreated from top figure using
Petrel (Schlumberger 2015). Note different colour scales.
 A volumetric grid of the model area was then created
using a digital elevation model (DEM) of the Peace River
Region, the Create random points feature in ArcGIS and
the Extract raster values to points feature in ArcGIS.
Random points were populated within the model area in
ArcGIS and the surface elevations based on the DEM
were extracted. Several ASCII files were then generated
containing the spatial coordinates of the random points,
with the elevation values corresponding to the elevations
of the resistivity depth slices. Surfaces were created using
these ASCII files, and the Make simple grid process was
used to create the volumetric model of the study area.
Facies Modeling in Petrel was then used to populate
each of the grid cells of the volumetric model with a
distinct facies. While facies modeling is generally used in
sedimentological investigations, the hydraulic properties
of an aquifer are dependent upon the architecture and
continuity of the sedimentary deposits that comprise it
(Sharpe et al. 2003). Moreover, undertaking
hydrogeological modeling with complex and
heterogeneous glacial sediments can benefit by taking
into account lithofacies associations (Sharpe et al. 2003).
In Petrel, both stochastic and deterministic methods
are available for Facies Modeling, and the method used is
based on the type of input data to be used in the
modeling. Sequential indicator simulation, a stochastic
method, was chosen as it is most appropriate when the
shape of facies bodies is uncertain, or when input trends
control the facies type. Four discrete facies were
modeled: clay, till/silt, sand, and sand and gravel. For
each facies, the recreated resistivity depth slice surfaces
were used as horizontal input trends such that the
resistivity values corresponded to a distinct facies (Table
1). This generated the 3-D Quaternary model.
4 RESULTS
Figures 3 and 4 were created to compare cross-sections
through the geological model to the vertical resistivity
sections from the TEM data. Figure 3 is a roughly east-
west cross-section across the central portion of the buried
valley network, and Figure 4 is a roughly north-south
cross-section across the northern, more confined portion
of the network (see Figure 1 for locations). When
possible, gamma-ray logs from oil and gas wells were
projected onto the cross-sections.
4.1 Central Halfway River Section (A-A Section)
Figure 3 shows the A-A cross-section through the
geological model. The cross-section was drawn through
the model in approximately the same location and
orientation as the resistivity section shown in the bottom
figure (Line 118201).
The resistivity section (Line 118201) shows a
prominent, highly resistive channel-like feature spanning
approximately 3.5 km in width with a thickness of
approximately 25 m (located from approximately 567500
to 571000 m). This feature is accurately represented in
the geological model as both sand and sand and gravel
facies that constitute an extensive and continuous unit.
The resistivity section shows a thin, discontinuous lens of
a moderate-low resistivity unit overlying the highly
resistive channel feature. These are likely silts and/or
clays. The geological model represents these as small
lenses of clay overlying the sands and gravels. Underlying
the resistive feature, the resistivity section shows a very
conductive unit approximately 20 m thick, underlain by a
moderately resistive unit approximately 50 m thick. The
top of the conductive unit may represent the top of
bedrock in the resistivity section, corresponding with the
top of bedrock in the geological cross-section around 650
metres above sea level (masl). There are some
discrepancies here as the geological model shows the
bedrock formation as Sikanni, a sandstone-dominant unit
which should have low-moderate resistivity. It is possible
that the upper portion of the Sikanni has been extensively
eroded from glacial and/or fluvial activity, resulting in fine-
grained (low resistivity) gouge at the top of the formation.
It is also possible that the conductive unit represents a
shale-rich portion of the Sikanni, or remnant Sully.
There are three wells near the cross-section with
corrected gamma-ray logs; however, only one contains a
response up to ground surface and logged the
Quaternary: 100/04-35-086-25W6. This well was
projected onto the cross-section from a distance of
approximately 800 m to the southeast. The interpretation
from the gamma-ray log generally matches with the
geological model. The log indicates mostly low-gamma
Quaternary sands with a small lens of clay, which is
consistent with the alternating sand and silt/till seen in the
geological cross-section. The bedrock contacts are
slightly different which is likely due to the fact the well
does not fall directly on the cross-section. This area is a
future target for drilling to verify the geophysical data, so
further results from the drilling will help calibrate the
geological model.
4.2 Northern Halfway River Section (B-B Section)
Figure 4 shows the B-B cross-section through the
geological model. As with Figure 3, the cross-section was
drawn through the geological model in a similar location
and orientation as the resistivity section shown in the
bottom figure (Line 201804). Unlike in Figure 3, however,
the resistivity section (Line 201804) in Figure 4 does not
show a distinct, highly resistive continuous unit.
Therefore, sand and gravel units do not appear to be
extensive in the geological cross-section. Rather, the
valley-fill is quite heterogeneous. There is a thin, low-
resistivity bed on the resistivity section within the valley
that can be traced across most of the extent. This was
modeled by Petrel as clay and silt/till facies. Localized
areas of high resistivity within the valley are represented
by sand and sand and gravel facies in the geological
model, and some may be fluvial deposits associated with
the modern Halfway River; however, Facies Modeling
may have over-estimated the amount of sand and/or sand
and gravel when comparing the geological cross-section
to the resistivity section. There is also some discrepancy
between the interpreted top of bedrock in the resistivity
section compared to the bedrock surface modeled in
Petrel. These inconsistencies will be further investigated.
Figure 3: Comparison of A-A geological cross-section generated using Facies Modeling in Petrel (Schlumberger 2015)
to the resistivity section generated through 3D inversion of airborne electromagnetic data collected from the SkyTEM
survey. A) Resistivity section. Approximately 5x vertical exaggeration. Modified from Aarhus Geophysics ApS (2016); B)
geological cross-section. The rectangular inset shows location of C). Approximately 5x vertical exaggeration; C) Zoom-in
of valley-fill sediments. Approximately 9x vertical exaggeration.

Within the outline of the buried valley network (Figure ray log suggests that the Quaternary thins to the west;
1), there are two wells with corrected gamma-ray logs; this will also be further investigated with future cross-
however, only one logged Quaternary: 200/D-015-A 094- section comparisons.
B09. This well was projected onto the cross-section from
a distance of 1.7 km to the west. As this well is a
significant distance away from the cross-section, it is not
surprising the interpretations are dissimilar. The gamma-
Figure 4: Comparison of B-B geological cross-section generated using Facies Modeling in Petrel (Schlumberger 2015)
to the resistivity section generated through 3D inversion of airborne electromagnetic data collected from the SkyTEM
survey. A) Resistivity section. Approximately 3x vertical exaggeration. Modified from Aarhus Geophysics ApS (2016); B)
geological cross-section. The rectangular inset shows location of C). Approximately 3x vertical exaggeration; C) Zoom-in
of valley-fill sediments. Approximately 5x vertical exaggeration.

5 DISCUSSION Modeling reflect this observation. Figure 3 shows a

The preliminary results of this research demonstrate that
Petrel can be used to reasonably model Quaternary
sediments, using a methodology that is unconventional, in
that spatial resistivity datasets are the main modeling
input.
It has been well documented that the Quaternary
sediments of the Peace River Region are lithologically
heterogeneous, but thick accumulations of permeable
material exist within buried valleys (Lowen 2011). The fill
within these valleys typically contains pre-glacial and
advance phase glaciofluvial sands and gravels, overlain
by glaciolacustrine silts, clays, and a thick package of till
(Levson et al. 2006). The initial results of the Facies
significant permeable basal unit adjacent to the Halfway
River, which may be extensive paleochannel deposits
associated with the Halfway River paleovalley. The
horizontal resistivity depth slices and north-south
resistivity sections suggest that this is a laterally
continuous feature that spans approximately 10 km.
Further comparisons of geological cross-sections to
resistivity sections will help confirm this. Overlying the
permeable unit are areas of clays and silts, and on the
uplands to the east of the valley a moderate-low resistivity
unit may represent the thick till package.
Figure 4 illustrates that the Quaternary deposits within
the region are heterogeneous; there are variations in
sediment type across short distances that may reflect
varying depositional settings in glacial conditions. The
correlation between the geological cross-section and
resistivity section in Figure 4 is not as strong as in Figure
3. It is more challenging to pick out the top of bedrock in
the resistivity section in Figure 4. Further comparison to
adjacent geological cross-sections will allow for a broader
examination of the thickness of Quaternary sediments in
this area.
The bedrock contacts shown in the geological cross-
sections of both Figures 3 and 4 are also fairly smooth
surfaces. This is possibly a result of the sparse data used
to generate them, as they are likely more irregular.
A comparison of the modeling results to the mapped
surficial geology (Figure 1) suggests that the modeling
accurately represents the near-surface materials. For
example, in Figure 3, the eastern edge of the cross-
section shows a thick package of variable material that is
interpreted to be till. Figure 1 shows that this area was
also mapped as glaciolacustrine veneer overlying till.
Within the potential paleochannel, mostly glaciofluvial and
alluvial material is mapped, with some glaciolacustrine
material. While the modeling mostly generated sands and
gravels within this area, there are some overlying clays
reflecting the mapped glaciolacustrine sediments. In
Figure 4, the mapped glaciolacustrine veneer overlying till
on the northern and southern edges is not modeled on the
cross-section; however, depth to bedrock in these areas
is shallow and thus this till cover is likely very thin. Within
the paleovalley, the surface sediments modeled in the
cross-section also match those mapped in Figure 1;
predominantly glaciofluvial and alluvial material,
represented by thin sands and gravels overlying
heterogeneous material below, modeled from the
resistivity slices.
The combined interpretation of the AEM data and the
gamma-ray logs is difficult, and the uncertainty may be
significant. This modeling relies heavily on resistivity data,
which were derived from one specific inversion scheme. It
is also not possible to differentiate between a highly
resistive gravel that is dry and a gravel that is wet using
the airborne TEM data and gamma-ray logs, and similar
difficulties exist in differentiating shale versus clay, or
sand versus sandstone. The interpretation of the
Quaternary-bedrock contact from single gamma-ray logs
is also highly questionable. While field work is being
carried out to confirm the geophysical data, modeling
should always include as much data as possible.
Therefore, as more data become available, the model will
be updated.
The final geological model will be used to develop a
3D numerical groundwater flow model of the study area
using MODFLOW. The hydraulic properties will be
estimated primarily from the literature based on the
texture of the Quaternary deposits in the Peace River
region, in relation to the facies distinctions made in the
geological modeling. These will be supplemented by
estimates obtained from the few grain-size analyses.
Based on distinct hydraulic conductivity contrasts
between the facies, unique hydrostratigraphic units may
be defined.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The reservoir modeling software, Petrel, was efficiently
used to model both Quaternary sediments and bedrock
units within a buried valley network in NEBC. Airborne
electromagnetic data from a SkyTEM survey in the form
of resistivity maps and sections were the main input used,
and a select number of corrected gamma-ray logs were
used to identify bedrock contacts. Facies Modeling within
Petrel was used to create a geological model as complex
glacial sediments require the consideration of
sedimentological relationships.
Preliminary results of the geological model indicate
accurate representation of the Quaternary sediments
based on the resistivity data. Generated geological cross-
sections show that there are areas within the buried valley
network that may contain extensive permeable units of
sand and gravel. They also show that the Quaternary
sediments of the region are extremely heterogeneous.
Continued investigation of the generated geological model
and incorporation of field data will allow for further quality
check and analysis. The final geological model will be
used to design a numerical groundwater flow model of the
buried valley network in the Peace River Region.
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