Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512

Low temperature plasma-treated nylon fabrics

Joanne Yipa,*, Kwong Chana,1, Kwan Moon Sina, Kai Shui Laub
a
Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
b
Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Received 27 October 2000

Abstract

Nylon 6 fabrics were treated with low temperature plasma (LTP) with three non-polymerizing gases: (i) oxygen, (ii) argon and
(iii) tetrauoromethane. After plasma treatment, the properties of the fabric, including surface morphology, low-stress mechanical properties,
air permeability and thermal properties, were investigated. The nylon fabrics treated with different plasma gases exhibited different
morphological changes. Low-stress mechanical properties obtained by means of the Kawabata evaluation system fabric (KES-F) revealed that
the surface friction, tensile, shearing, bending and compression properties altered after the treatments. The changes in these properties are
believed to be related closely to the inter-ber/inter-yarn frictional force induced by the LTP treatment. A slightly decrease in the air
permeability of the treated fabrics was found which is probably due to plasma action effecting on increase in the fabric thickness and a change
in the fabric surface morphology. The change in the thermal properties of the treated fabrics was in good agreement with the above ndings
and can be attributed to the amount of air trapped between the yarns. This experimental work suggests that the changed properties induced by
LTP can effect an improvement in certain textile products. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Low temperature plasma (LTP); Polyamide; Non-polymerizing gas

1. Introduction assessment of the modication of the nylon fabric induced

The low temperature plasma (LTP) technique is used
widely to modify polymer and textile materials. It is
regarded as an environmentally friendly process, since no
chemicals are involved [13]. The LTP is generated when a
gas at low pressure and near ambient temperature is exposed
to an electromagnetic eld. It contains radicals, ions,
photons and other excited species [46]. By controlling
the plasma variables, such as the nature of gas, the discharge
power, the pressure and the exposure time, a great variety of
surface effects can be generated.
LTP technology has been studied globally for at least
three decades. Most of the research related to the textile
industry has been concentrated on polyester or wool. The
related research on LTP-polyamide is mainly dyeability
[711], printability [12], wettability [6] and surface proper-
ties [13,14]. Very little attention has been focused on the
mechanical properties, the thermal properties and the air
permeability. This paper is concerned mainly with the
by LTP with different non-polymerizing gases.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Nylon 6 plain woven fabrics (from Bo Kwang, Korea;
with a fabric density of 53 ends/cm, 35 picks/cm) were used
in the present study. The fabrics were rst washed with 1%
non-ionic detergent solution in 70 8C water for 15 min and
then rinsed with water for another 15 min before LTP
treatment, in order to minimize the chance of contamination.
The fabrics were nally cut to the dimension of 20 cm 
20 cm. All of the experiments were carried out under
standard conditions, BS1051, at 20 8C and 65% relative
humidity.
2.2. LTP treatment

*
A glow discharge generator (SPP-001, Showa Company
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 99903091n@polyu.edu.hk (J. Yip),
of Japan) was employed for the plasma treatment of the
tcchank@inet.polyu.edu.hk (K. Chan). samples. Oxygen (O2), argon (Ar2) and tetrauoromethane
1
Co-corresponding author. (CF4) were chosen as the LTP gas. The discharge power,

0924-0136/02/$ see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 2 4 - 9
6 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512

Table 1
The low-stress mechanical properties obtained from the hysteresis curves [15]

Properties Symbol Definition Units

Tensile properties
Linearity LT Linearity of the load-extension curve
Tensile energy WT Energy in extending fabric to 500 gf/cm width gf cm/cm2
Tensile resilience RT Percentage energy recovery from tensile deformation %
Extensibility EMT Percentage extension at the maximum applied load of 500 gf/cm %
specimen width
Shear properties
Shear rigidity G Average slope of the linear regions of the shear hysteresis curve gf/cm 8
to 2.58 shear angle
Shear stress at 0.58 2HG Average width of the shear hysteresis loop at 0.58 shear angle gf/cm
Shear stress at 58 2HG5 Average width of the shear hysteresis loop at 58 shear angle gf/cm
Bending properties
Bending rigidity B Average slope of the linear regions of the bending hysteresis curve gf cm2/cm
to 1.5 cm 1
Bending moment 2HB Average width of the bending hysteresis loop at 0.5 cm 1 curvature gf cm/cm
Surface properties
Coefficient of friction MIU Coefficient of friction between the fabric surface and a standard contractor
Mean deviation MMD Mean deviation of MIU
Geometrical roughness SMD Variation in surface geometry of the fabric mm
Compression properties
Linearity LC Linearity of compression/thickness curve
Compressional energy WC Energy in compressing fabric under 50 gf/cm2 gf cm/cm2
Compressional resilience RC Percentage energy recovery from lateral compression deformation %
Fabric thickness at 0.5 gf/cm2 pressure T0 Fabric thickness at 0.5 gf/cm2 pressure mm
Fabric thickness at 50 gf/cm2 pressure Tm Fabric thickness at 50 gf/cm2 pressure mm

pressure and gas ow rate were 100 W, 4 Pa and 50 cm3/min,
respectively. The exposure time was varied from 5 to 30 min.
2.3. Morphological study
The morphology of the LTP-treated nylon fabrics was
observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
(Lecia Stereoscan 440). All of the samples were gold coated
before conducting the SEM examination.
2.6. Thermal properties
The thermal properties were studied using a KES-F
Thermo Labo II. The heat loss per unit area under the
conditions of 10 8C temperature difference was measured
by the warm/cool feeling (qmax) in term of W/cm2.
3. Results and discussion

2.4. Low-stress mechanical properties 3.1. Morphological study

The Kawabata evaluation system fabric (KES-F) was used
for measuring the low-stress mechanical properties of the
LTP-treated samples, including tensile, shearing, bending,
surface and compression. The standard testing methods were
according to the instruction manual from Kato Tech [15].
The parameters obtained from these hystersis curves are
dened and shown in Table 1.
2.5. Air permeability
The air permeability of the samples was studied using a
KES-F8-AP1 air permeability tester. The air resistance (R)
was recorded in term of kPa s/m: a larger value of air
resistance (R) indicates poorer air permeability of the fabric
and vice versa.
SEM micrographs of Nylon 6 fabric treated, respectively,
with the three non-polymerizing plasma gases are shown in
Fig. 1, only 5 and 30 min treated samples being presented
here. It can be seen that the surface of 5 min O2 and Ar2
treated samples are smoother than the untreated samples (as
shown in Fig. 1(b) and (d). After prolonged LTP treatment,
ripple-like patterns oriented in a direction perpendicular to
the ber axis are developed (see Fig. 1(c) and (e)). O2 plasma
gives more distinct effects than Ar2 plasma, since Ar2 is an
inert gas and has lower ablation efciency [16]. On the other
hand, it is found that CF4 plasma produces less destructive
effects on the samples (see Fig. 1(f ) and (g)). CF4 is a non-
polymerizing gas. It does not polymerize itself, but tends to
form thin lms on the surface subjected to the glow dis-
charge [6]. In the present study, it was observed that ablation
 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512 7

Fig. 1. SEM photographs of LTP Nylon 6 filament treated by three different gases: (a) untreated; (b) 5 min, O2; (c) 30 min, O2; (d) 5 min, Ar2; (e) 30 min,
Ar2; (f) 5 min, CF4; (g) 30 min, CF4.
8 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512

was accompanied by the deposition of a thin lm on the
surface of the ber, which is similar to the result of Yasuda
et al. [6]. Some granular patches developed on the surface of
the 5 and 10 min CF4 plasma-treated samples, but increase
in the treatment time would prevent the formation of these
substances. Ablation occurs at long treatment time, since
ripple-like structures perpendicular to the ber axis are
observed. It is therefore, suggested that a short treatment
time may favor the formation of thin lms, while a long
treatment time may favor the ablation of the surface.
3.2. Low-stress mechanical properties
3.2.1. Oxygen plasma and argon plasma
Tables 2 and 3 show the low-stress mechanical properties
of the nylon fabric treated by O2 and Ar2 plasma, respec-
tively. Firstly, for both gases it can be observed that the values
of frictional smoothness (MIU) and surface geometrical
smoothness (SMD) rst decrease slightly but then increase
signicantly. The results can be attributed to the etching
effect caused by the bombardment of the plasma species on
the fabric surface [17]. The plasma species rstly remove
some uneven places on the fabric surface, so that the etched
surfaces are slightly smoother than the untreated surface.
However, prolonged LTP treatments develop a certain rough-
ness (ripple-like structures) on the fabric surface and thus
increase the MIU and SMD values. The increased values of
O2 treatment are greater than those for Ar2, since it has higher
ablation power than that of Ar2.
Secondly, it is interesting to note that the effect of O2
and Ar2 plasma on the mechanical properties is not directly
proportional to the treatment time. Generally, the values of
these properties will decrease slightly at rst but then
increase signicantly, being stable thereafter (especially
for the 30 min O2 treated fabrics). The slightly decrease
in tensile energy (WT), bending rigidity (B) and shear
stiffness (G) is perhaps related to the smoothing effect
induced by short-duration plasma treatment. After a longer
treatment time, the values of WT, B and G increase sig-
nicantly. It is believed that O2 and Ar2 plasma treatments
produce an etching action, resulting in a roughening effect
on the fabric surface. This rough surface might impart more
contact points between the bers/yarns and thus enhance the
ber to ber and yarn to yarn inter-friction [18]. This
increased friction develops a greater cohesive force between
the yarns during the application of tensile, bending and
shearing stress. On the other hand, increasing the plasma
treatment time will not further increase the WT, B and G
values. Contrarily, long-duration may cause polymer-bond
breakage. The resulting polymer fragments thus cross-link
easily with each other. This cross-linking leads to the for-
mation of a brittle polymer layer. In addition, UV light also
causes an oxidation reaction that may severely damage the
ber [19]. Long treatment time resulting in ber degradation
is regarded as a main factor affecting the results.
Thirdly, the tensile resilience (RT) and compressional
resilience (RC) decrease with the progress of treatment.
These two properties reect the fabric recoverability after
tensile and compression deformation. This may be explained
by the roughening effect. When the tensile and compression
stress are removed, the cohesive force will block the recov-
ery of the extended fabric and thus effect a decrease in
tensile and compression resilience.
Finally, it is obvious that O2 and Ar2 LTP treatments
increase the fabric thickness (T0 and Tm). The treated fabrics
become fuller. Moreover, the compressional energy (WC) is

Table 2
Low-stress mechanical properties of the O2-LTP-treated nylon fabrica

KES Plasma treatment time (min)

0 (control) 5 10 20 30

Tensile LT 0.872 0.866 0.920 0.869 0.828

WT (gf cm/cm2) 7.730 7.610 ( 1.6%) 8.078 (4.5%) 8.117 (5.0%) 7.990 (3.4%)
RT (%) 66.82 66.75 ( 0.1%) 66.08 ( 1.1%) 65.88 ( 1.4%) 65.28 ( 2.3%)
EMT 3.580 3.540 ( 1.1%) 3.583 (0.08%) 3.584 (0.11%) 3.590 (0.3%)
Bending B (gf cm2/cm) 0.056 0.054 ( 3.6%) 0.057 (1.8%) 0.059 (5.4%) 0.052 ( 7.1%)
2HB (gf cm/cm) 0.043 0.042 ( 2.3%) 0.047 (9.3%) 0.048 (11.6%) 0.043 ( 7.0%)
Shearing G (gf/cm 8) 0.234 0.232 ( 0.9%) 0.249 (6.4%) 0.249 (6.4%) 0.248 (6.0%)
2HG (gf/cm) 0.756 0.685 ( 9.4%) 0.826 (9.3%) 0.777 (2.8%) 0.777 (2.8%)
2HG5 (gf/cm) 4.087 4.369 (6.9%) 4.687 (14.7%) 4.708 (15.2%) 4.657 (14.0%)
Surface MIU 0.115 0.109 ( 5.2%) 0.129 (12.2%) 0.136 (18.3%) 0.144 (25.2%)
MMD 0.020 0.015 0.025 0.030 0.034
SMD (mm) 3.975 3.896 ( 2%) 4.206 (5.8%) 4.225 (6.3%) 4.269 (7.4%)
Compression LC 0.315 0.311 0.434 0.333 0.330
WC 0.053 0.080 (50.9%) 0.089 (67.9%) 0.110 (107.5%) 0.141 (166%)
RC (%) 114.6 98.61 ( 14.0%) 95.50 ( 16.7%) 94.27 ( 17.8%) 87.42 ( 23.7%)
T0 0.280 0.300 (7.1%) 0.330 (17.9%) 0.352 (25.7%) 0.354 (26.4%)
Tm 0.213 0.215 (0.9%) 0.218 (2.4%) 0.220 (3.3%) 0.223 (4.69%)
a
Values within the parenthesis shows the percentage change compared with the control.
 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512 9

Table 3
Low-stress mechanical properties of the Ar2-LTP-treated nylon fabrica

KES Plasma treatment time (min)

0 (control) 5 10 20 30

Tensile LT 0.872 0.870 0.891 0.893 0.867

WT (gf cm/cm2) 7.730 7.676 ( 0.7%) 7.890 (2.1%) 7.910 (2.3%) 7.946 (2.8%)
RT (%) 66.82 66.49 ( 0.5%) 65.81 ( 1.5%) 65.45 ( 1.8%) 65.36 ( 2.2%)
EMT 3.580 3.590 (0.3%) 3.580 (0%) 3.550 (0.8%) 3.750 (4.8%)
Bending B (gf cm2/cm) 0.056 0.055 ( 1.4%) 0.056 (0%) 0.056 (0%) 0.057 (1.8%)
2HB (gf cm/cm) 0.043 0.043 (0%) 0.046 (7.0%) 0.049 (13.9%) 0.049 (13.9%)
Shearing G (gf/cm 8) 0.234 0.234 (0%) 0.249 (6.4%) 0.271 (15.8%) 0.271 (15.8%)
2HG (gf/cm) 0.756 0.730 ( 3.4%) 0.809 (7.0%) 0.908 (20.1%) 0.878 (16.1%)
2HG5 (gf/cm) 4.087 4.108 (5.1%) 4.523 (10.7%) 4.800 (17.4%) 4.657 (14.0%)
Surface MIU 0.115 0.111 ( 3.5%) 0.119 (3.5%) 0.123 (7.0%) 0.129 (12.2%)
MMD 0.020 0.023 0.030 0.032 0.033
SMD (mm) 3.975 3.869 ( 2.7%) 3.976 (0.025%) 3.985 (0.25%) 4.050 (1.9%)
Compression LC 0.315 0.355 0.352 0.381 0.364
WC 0.053 0.100 (88.7%) 0.100 (88.7%) 0.106 (100%) 0.113 (113.2%)
RC (%) 114.6 89.00 ( 22.4%) 87.20 ( 24%) 84.85 ( 26.0%) 82.41 ( 28.1%)
T0 0.280 0.346 (23.6%) 0.353 (26.0%) 0.328 (17.1%) 0.334 (19.3%)
Tm 0.213 0.225 (5.6%) 0.226 (6.1%) 0.221 (3.8%) 0.224 (5.2%)
a
Values within the parenthesis shows the percentage change compared with the control.

also increased (by around 50100%). A higher WC value
corresponds to a higher compressibility of the fabric. It is
suggested that plasma species create a certain roughness
(ripple-like structures) on the surface of the fabric and that
these structures enhance the spaces between the yarns and
thus increase the fabric thickness and compressibility.
3.2.2. Tetrafluoromethane plasma
The experimental results are shown in Table 4. The effect
of CF4 plasma on the mechanical properties of the nylon
fabric is not directly proportional to the treatment time. The
fabric surface roughness increases when the treatment time
increases up to 10 min, but then decreases with prolonged
exposure to plasma (indicated by the MIU and SMD values).
This phenomenon can be found in the tensile and bending
properties (see WT and B values). The values of the RT and
the RC also match well with this trend, i.e. the recoverability
decreases rst but then increases slightly. On the other hand,
it is found that the shear stiffness (G), fabric thickness
(T0 and Tm) and compressibility of CF4 treated fabrics

Table 4
Low-stress mechanical properties of the CF4LTP-treated nylon fabrica

KES Plasma treatment time (min)

0 (control) 5 10 20 30

Tensile LT 0.872 0.865 0.878 0.887 0.855

WT (gf cm/cm2) 7.730 7.780 (0.6%) 7.923 (2.5%) 7.520 ( 2.7%) 7.310 ( 5.4%)
RT (%) 66.82 66.21 ( 0.9%) 65.29 ( 2.3%) 67.53 (1.1%) 67.68 (1.3%)
EMT 3.580 3.560 ( 0.6%) 3.540 ( 1.1%) 3.530 ( 1.4%) 3.525 ( 0.98%)
Bending B (gf cm2/cm) 0.056 0.058 (3.2%) 0.059 (4.8%) 0.056 ( 0.5%) 0.055( 2.0%)
2HB (gf cm/cm) 0.043 0.049 (12.5%) 0.051 (17.1%) 0.041 ( 4.7%) 0.039 ( 9.3%)
Shearing G (gf/cm 8) 0.234 0.281 (20.1%) 0.288 (23.1%) 0.290 (23.9%) 0.292 (24.8%)
2HG (gf/cm) 0.756 0.823 (8.9%) 0.839 (11.0%) 0.933 (23.4%) 0.961 (27.1%)
2HG5 (gf/cm) 4.087 4.830 (18.2%) 4.989 (22.1%) 5.011 (22.6%) 4.931 (20.7%)
Surface MIU 0.115 0.139 (15.5%) 0.146 (27.0%) 0.123 (7.0%) 0.109 ( 5.2%)
MMD 0.020 0.023 0.025 0.020 0.022
SMD (mm) 3.975 4.041 (1.7%) 3.983 (2.0%) 3.900 ( 1.8%) 3.880 ( 2.4%)
Compression LC 0.315 0.330 0.358 0.352 0.313
WC 0.053 0.094 (77.4%) 0.097 (83.0%) 0.097 (83.0%) 0.110 (107.5%)
RC (%) 114.6 87.56 ( 23.6%) 86.14 ( 24.9%) 91.68 ( 20%) 104.3 ( 9%)
T0 0.280 0.330 (17.9%) 0.340 (21.4%) 0.348 (24.3%) 0.348 (24.3%)
Tm 0.213 0.221 (3.8%) 0.222 (4.2%) 0.223 (4.7%) 0.221 (3.8%)
a
Values within the parenthesis shows the percentage change compared with control.
10 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512
increase signicantly when they are compared with the
untreated material.
It is considering that CF4 is a non-polymerizing gas that
does not polymerize itself, but tends to form thin lms on the
ber surface subjected to the glow discharge Yasuda et al. [6]
examined CF4 plasma-treated fabrics and found that ablation
was accompanied by the deposition of thin lms on the ber
surface [6]. In the present study, it is suggested that a shorter
exposure time will favor polymerization while a longer
exposure time will favor ablation. From the SEM micro-
graphs, granular substances are found after 5 min CF4
treatment. These substances will increase the surface rough-
ness. The roughening effect imparts more contact points
between the bers/yarns and enhances the ber-to-ber or
yarn-to-yarn inter-friction. However, after prolonged treat-
ment time, ablation is more predominant. The plasma
species remove some uneven places on the fabric surface
(similar to 5 min O2 and Ar2 LTP treatments) and induce a
smoothing effect. The smoothing effect reduces the surface
friction and cohesive force between the bers/yarns. There-
fore, the initial increase of the MIU, SMD, WT and B values
and their subsequent decrease with prolonged treatment can
be attributed to this phenomenon.
3.3. Air permeability
In this study, the air resistance (R) of the LTP-treated
fabric in term of k Pa s/m was recorded. Fig. 2 indicates that
Fig. 2. The air resistance of nylon fabric vs. LTP treatment time.
all the LTP treatments increase the air resistance (R) of the
fabric but to a different extent. O2 and Ar2 treated fabrics
increase signicantly in R value (an increase of up to 70%
for O2 and 24% for Ar2 treatments) while CF4 treated fabrics
increase rst (up to 25%) but then decrease slightly with
prolonged treatment time.
The air permeability depends on the construction char-
acteristics of the yarns and fabrics, in which a large propor-
tion is occupied by air space. There are some factors
affecting the air permeability of the fabric, e.g. the fabric
structure, thickness and surface characteristics, etc. It is
known that LTP treatments do not inuence the fabric
structure, therefore the change in R values is regarded as
being closely related to the fabric thickness and surface
characteristics. As has been discussed above, LTP treat-
ments increase the fabric thickness and alter the surface
morphology. It is possible to say that LTP treatments induce
a certain roughness (i.e. ripple-like structures) or form
granular substances on the fabric surface, which nally
increase the fabric thickness and change the fabric surface
characteristics. These changes act as a boundary to hinder
the air ow through the fabric, thus resulting in a reduction
of the air permeability of the fabrics.
3.4. Thermal properties
Fig. 3 shows the warm/cool feeling (qmax) of the fabrics
plotted against treatment time. The value of the qmax reects
 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512
Fig. 3. The qmax value of nylon fabric treated with different plasma gases and time.
the heat loss per unit area under the condition of 10 8C
temperature difference. It indicates the instantaneous warm/
cool feeling sensed when there is initial contact of the fabric
with the surface of the skin. A higher value of qmax denotes
that there is more rapid movement of heat from the skin to
the fabric surface, which will provide a cooler feeling. It can
be observed that the qmax value of the fabric treated with
different plasma treatments is different. O2 and Ar2 plasma
treatments show a reduction in this value (about 614% for
O2 and 0.67% for Ar2). This indicates that the treated
fabrics have a better warmth-retention property compared
with the untreated fabric. The qmax value of CF4 treated
fabrics increases with the treatment time (about 10% for
20 min treatment), but is stable thereafter.
The thermal properties of a textile fabric depend to a great
extent on the air entrapped within it [20]. As mentioned,
ablation occurs with O2 and Ar2 plasma treatments. Ablation
increases fabric surface roughness, voids and spaces, which
may increase the amount of trapped air between the yarns.
In addition, the air permeability results indicated that the
plasma-treated fabrics have poorer air permeability, there-
fore the air trapped inside the fabric will not escape easily.
The trapped air can act as a good insulation medium and help
to prevent heat loss of the fabrics. On the other hand, it is
found that CF4 plasma treatments increase the qmax value of
the fabric. The results indicate that treated fabrics will lose
heat faster. The increase of the qmax value is closely related
11
to the formation of granular substances, since these will
decrease the air spaces between the yarns and nally
decrease the insulation medium, therefore heat can be easily
lost to the surroundings.
4. Conclusions
The low-stress mechanical properties, air permeability
and thermal properties of nylon fabrics have been studied
quantitatively. It is found that different gases and exposure
time of LTP treatments can alter not only surface morphol-
ogy, but also the mechanical properties, air permeability and
thermal properties of the fabric. SEM observation revels that
oxygen plasma is the most efcient in producing ripple-like
structures on the surface of polyamide, followed by argon
plasma. Tetrauoromethane plasma forms some granular
substances on the ber surface at short-duration and induces
a certain roughness at long-duration time. The low-stress
mechanical properties of plasma-treated fabrics depend very
much on the nature of the plasma gas. It is suggested that the
changes in the mechanical properties are closely related to
the inter-ber/inter-yarn frictional force. A slightly decrease
in the air permeability of the treated fabrics is found which is
probably due to plasma action increasing the fabric thick-
ness and changing the fabric surface morphology. The
change in the thermal properties of the treated fabrics is
12 J. Yip et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 123 (2002) 512
in good agreement with the above ndings and can be
attributed to the amount of trapped air between the yarns.
Although all of the above changes are not due to a great
extent to only the plasma action on the fabric surface, the
changed properties can act as an improvement of certain
textile products. To conclude, the LTP modication process
has a high industrial potential as it is an environmentally
friendly dry process, which does not involve any of the
solvents required for the wet chemical process.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was supported by
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Research Grant
(A/C V965).
References
[1] G. Tomasino, J. Cuomo, Annual Report, National Textile Center,
September 1994, pp. 333336.
[2] V.V. Rybkin, A.L. Maximov, B.L. Gorberg, V.A. Titov, Asian Text. J.
6 (10) (1997) 3034.
[3] M.S. Subbulakshmi, K.N. Hansraj, Indian J. Text. 109 (1) (1998)
1216.
[4] F. Johan, G. Paul, H.P. Schreiber, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 51 (1994)
285295.
[5] W. Rakowski, M. Okoniewski, K. Bartos, J. Zawadzki, Melliand
Textilberichte 11 (1982) 301308.
[6] T. Yasuda, M. Gazicki, H. Tasuda, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. (1984) 201214.
[7] T. Okuno, T. Yasuda, H. Yasuda, Text. Res. J. 62 (8) (1992) 474480.
[8] J. Ryu, J. Dai, K. Koo, T. Wakida, J. Soc. Dyers Color. 108 (1992)
278282.
[9] K. Shigenobu, T. Wakida, S. Niu, H. Satoshi, I. Taisuke, S.
Yoshiyuki, J. Soc. Dyers Color. 111 (1995) 7276.
[10] T. Wakida, M. Lee, Y. Sato, Y. Ogasawara, S. Niu, J. Soc. Dyers
Color. 112 (1996) 233237.
[11] T. Wakida, S. Cho, S. Choi, S. Tokino, M. Lee, Text. Res J. 68 (11)
(1998) 848853.
[12] S. Ruppert, B. Muller, T. Bahners, E. Schollmeyer, Textilveredlung
7/8 (1996) 157161.
[13] N.V. Bhat, Y.N. Benjamin, Indian J. Text. Res. 14 (1989) 18.
[14] T. Wakida, S. Tokino, Indian J. Fiber Text. Res. 21 (1) (1996) 6979.
[15] S. Kawabata, M. Niwa, Modern Textile Characterization Methods,
New York, 1996, pp. 329354 (Chapter 10).
[16] R.J. Smiley, W.N. Delgass, J. Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 36013611.
[17] F.R. Blakey, M.O. El-Alfy, B. Micklethwaite, I.O. Moses, in:
Proceedings of the Seventh International Wool Textile Research
Conference, Tokyo, Vol. 1, 1985, pp. 273282.
[18] C.W. Kan, K. Chan, C.W.M. Yuen, J. China Text. Univ. (Engl. Ed.)
15 (3) (1998) 510.
[19] K.K. Wong, X.M. Tao, C.W.M. Yuen, K.W. Yueng, Text. Res. J. 69
(11) (1999) 846855.
[20] W.E. Morton, J.W.S. Hearle, Physical Properties of Textile Fibers,
The Textile Institute, Manchester, 1993, pp. 585609.