Contents

Page
Objectives 2

Introduction 3

Part 1 (Question) 9

Part 2 (Further Exploration) 13

Reflection 19

References 20

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Objectives
The aims of carrying this project work are:-

1. To apply and adapt variety of problems-solving to solve routine and non-

routine problems.

2. To acquire effective mathematical communications through oral and

writing.

3. To experience classroom environmental that stimulates and enhances

effective learning.

4. To prepare the students’ for the demands of their future undertakings

and in workplace.

5. To realise that mathematics is an important and powerful tool in solving

real-life problems.

6. To use technology especially the ICT appropriately and effectively.

7. To realise the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

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Introduction
Integration is an important concept in mathematics and, together with
differentiation, is one of the two main operations in calculus. Given a function
ƒ of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral

is defined informally to be the net signed area of the region in the

xy-plane bounded by the graph of ƒ, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and
x = b.

The term integral may also refer to the notion of antiderivative, a function F
whose derivative is the given function ƒ. In this case it is called an indefinite
integral, while the integrals discussed in this article are termed definite
integrals. Some authors maintain a distinction between antiderivatives and
indefinite integrals.

The principles of integration were

formulated independently by Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Leibniz in the
late 17th century. Through the
fundamental theorem of calculus,
which they independently developed,
integration is connected with
differentiation: if ƒ is a continuous
real-valued function defined on a
Isaac Newton Gottfried Leibniz closed interval [a, b], then, once an
antiderivative F of ƒ is known, the definite integral of ƒ over that interval is
given by

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 Integrals and derivatives became the basic tools of
calculus with numerous applications in science and
engineering. A mathematical definition of the integral
was given by Bernhard Riemann. It is based on a limiting
procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear
region by breaking the region into thin vertical slabs.

Bernard Riemann

Beginning in the nineteenth century, more sophisticated notions of integrals

began to appear, where the type of the function as well as the domain over
which the integration is performed has been generalised.

A line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the
interval of integration [a, b] is replaced by a certain curve connecting two
points on the plane or in the space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced
by a piece of a surface in the three-dimensional space. Integrals of differential
forms play a fundamental role in modern differential geometry.

These generalizations of integral first arose from the

needs of physics, and they play an important role in
the formulation of many physical laws, notably
those of electrodynamics.

There are many modern concepts of integration,

among these; the most common is based on the
abstract mathematical theory known as Lebesgue
integration, developed by Henri Lebesgue.

Henri Lebesgue

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History
Pre-calculus integration
Integration can be traced as far back as ancient Egypt ca. 1800 BC, with the
Moscow Mathematical Papyrus demonstrating knowledge of a formula for the
volume of a pyramidal frustum.

The first documented systematic technique capable of

determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of
Eudoxus (ca. 370 BC), which sought to find areas and
volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number
of shapes for which the area or volume was known.
This method was further developed and employed by
Archimedes and used to calculate areas for parabolas
and an approximation to the area of a circle.

Archimedes

Similar methods were independently developed in

China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used
it to find the area of the circle. This method was later
used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son
mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the
volume of a sphere. That same century, the Indian
mathematician Aryabhata used a similar method in
order to find the volume of a cube.[2]

Liu Hiu

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 The next major step in integral calculus came in Iraq
when the 11th century mathematician Abū ‘Alī al-
Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham also known as
Alhazen in Europe has devised what is now known as
"Alhazen's problem", which leads to an equation of the
fourth degree, in his Book of Optics.

While solving this problem, he performed integration

in order to find the volume of a paraboloid. Using
Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan mathematical induction, he was able to generalize his
ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)
result for the integrals of polynomials up to the fourth
degree. He thus came close to finding a general
formula for the integrals of polynomials, but he was not concerned with any
polynomials higher than the fourth degree. Some ideas of integral calculus are
also found in the Siddhanta Shiromani, a 12th century astronomy text by
Indian mathematician Bhāskara II.

The next significant advances in integral calculus did not

begin to appear until the 16th century. At this time the
work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work
by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern
calculus.

Fermat

Further steps were made in the early

17th century by Barrow and Torricelli,
who provided the first hints of a
connection between integration and
differentiation.

Barrow Evangelista Torricelli

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 At around the same time, there was also a great deal of
work being done by Japanese mathematicians,
particularly by Seki Kōwa. He made a number of
contributions, namely in methods of determining areas
of figures using integrals, extending the method of
exhaustion.

Seki Kōwa

Newton and Leibniz

The major advance in integration came in the 17th

century with the independent discovery of the
fundamental theorem of calculus by Newton and Leibniz.
The theorem demonstrates a connection between
integration and differentiation.

This connection, combined with the comparative ease of

differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals. In
particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus allows
Isaac Newton one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in
importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that
both Newton and Leibniz developed. Given the name infinitesimal calculus, it
allowed for precise analysis of functions within continuous domains. This
framework eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for integrals is
drawn directly from the work of Leibniz.

Formalizing integrals

While Newton and Leibniz provided a systematic approach to integration,

their work lacked a degree of rigour.

Bishop Berkeley memorably attacked infinitesimals as "the

ghosts of departed quantities". Calculus acquired a firmer
footing with the development of limits and was given a suitable
foundation by Cauchy in the first half of the 19th century.

Cauchy
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Integration was first rigorously formalized, using limits,
by Riemann. Although all bounded piecewise continuous
functions are Riemann integrable on a bounded interval,
subsequently more general functions were considered,
to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and
Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral,
founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis).
Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and
Lebesgue's approaches were proposed.
Riemann

Notation

Isaac Newton used a small vertical bar above a variable

to indicate integration, or placed the variable inside a
box. The vertical bar was easily confused with or ,
which Newton used to indicate differentiation and the
box notation was difficult for printers to reproduce, so
these notations were not widely adopted.

Isaac Newton

The modern notation for the indefinite integral was introduced by

Gottfried Leibniz in 1675. He adapted the integral symbol , from
an elongated letter s, standing for summa (Latin for "sum" or
"total").

Gottfried Leibniz

The modern notation for the definite integral, with limits

above and below the integral sign, was first used by
Joseph Fourier in Mémoires of the French Academy
around 1819–20, reprinted in his book of 1822 (Cajori
1929, pp. 249–250; Fourier 1822, §231).

Joseph Fourier

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Questions
The diagram below shows the gate of an art gallery. A concrete structure is
built at the upper part of the gate and the words ‘ART GALLERY’ is written on
it. The top of the concrete structure is flat whereas the bottom is parabolic in
shape. The concrete structure is supported by two vertical pillars at both ends.
The distance between the two pillars is 4 metres and the height of the pillar is
5 metres. The height of the concrete structure is 1 metre. The shortest
distance from point A of the concrete structure to point B, that is the highest
point on the parabolic shape, is 0.5 metres.
A

0.5 m

1m B

4m

(a) The parabolic shape of the concrete structure can be represented by

various functions depending on the point of reference. Based on different
points of reference, obtain at least three different functions which can be
used to represent the curve of this concrete structure.

(b) The front surface of this concrete structure will be painted before the
words ‘ART GALLERY’ is written on it. Find the area to be painted.

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SOLUTIONS:
(a)
Function 1

Maximum point (0, 4.5) and pass through point (2, 4)

Function 2

Maximum point (0, 0.5) and pass

through point (2, 0)

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Function 3

Maximum point (2, 4.5) and pass through

point (0, 4)

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(b)

Area of rectangle
4x1
=4 2

Area under the curve

-2

Area of rectangle – Area under the curve

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Further Exploration
(a) You are given four different shapes of concrete structures as shown
in the diagrams below. All the structures have the same thickness of
40cm and are symmetrical

(i) Given that the cost to construct 1 cubic metre of concrete is

RM840.00, determine which structure will cost the minimum to
construct.
(ii) As the president of Arts Club, you are given the opportunity to
decide on the shape of the gate to be constructed. Which shape
would you choose? Explain and elaborate on your reasons for
choosing the shape.

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a)
(i) Structure 1

Area =
Volume =
=
Cost =
= RM896.00

Structure 2

Area =
=3
Cost = 3 0.4 RM840
= RM1008.00

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Structure 3

Area = (4 1) -
=2.75
Cost = 2.75
= RM924.00

Structure 4

Area =
= 2.50
Cost = 2.5
= RM840.00

Structure 4 can be constructed at the minimum cost of RM840.00

(ii) As the president of the art club, I will choose Structure 4 as the shape of
the gate to be constructed because it is the cheapest. Besides that, Structure 4
is easier to be constructed compared to the other structure.

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(b) The following questions refer to the concrete structure in the diagram
below.
If the value of k increases with a common difference of 0.25 m;
(i) Complete Table 1 by finding the values of k and the corresponding
areas of the concrete structure to be painted.
(ii) Observe the values of the area to be painted from Table 1. Do you
see any pattern? Discuss.

k (m) Surface Area ( )

0.00 .000
0.25

0.50 0
0.75

1.00 00
1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00 000

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(ii) There is a pattern in the area to be painted.

The area to be painted decreases as the k increases 0.25m and form a series of
numbers:

3, 2.9375, 2.875, 2.8125, 2.75, 2.6875, 2.625, 2.5625, 2.5

We can see that the difference between each term and the next term is the
same.

We can deduce that this series of numbers is an Arithmetic Progression (AP),

with a common difference,

In conclusion, when k increases 0.25m, the area to be painted decreases by

-0.0625

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(c) Express the area of the concrete structure to be painted in terms of k.
Find the area when k approaches the value of 4 and predict the shape of the
concrete structure.

=2

The shape of the concrete structure will be a rectangle with length 4m and
breadth 0.5m, which may look like this:

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Reflection
While conducting this project, I have learned how to apply and adapt a
variety of problem-solving strategies to solve daily life problems.

This project has also made me realise the importance of mathematics in

everyday usage. Now I know that mathematics is not only used to pass our
exams but to be used later in life.

Besides that, this project encourages the student to work together and
share their knowledge. It is also encourage the students to gather information
from the internet, improve thinking skills and promote effective mathematical
communication.

Lastly, this project has tightened the bonds among us. We shared the
information that we gathered. This project should be continued in the future
so that the students will have better understanding and have more interest in
Mathematics.

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References
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
 http://www.sosmath.com/
 http://www.scribd.com/
 http://www.facebook.com/
 Additional Mathematics Form 5

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