TAHAPAN INTERPOLASI DENGAN IDW

Creating maps using inverse distance weighted interpolation

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with deterministic methods

Inverse distance weighted interpolation assumes that the characteristics of the surface are driven by local variation. IDW works best if
the sample points are evenly distributed throughout the area and are not clustered. Important parameters for this method are the power
parameter and the search neighborhood specifications (including anisotropy, if it is included as part of the model).
Steps:
1. Click the point layer in the ArcMap table of contents that contains the attributes you are interested in.
Alternatively, go directly to step 2 and browse to the dataset you are interested in on the first page of Geostatistical Wizard.
2. Start Geostatistical Wizard.
3. Under the Methods section, choose Inverse Distance Weighting, which is located under Deterministic Methods.
The lower portion of Geostatistical Wizard shows information about inverse distance weighted interpolation. There is also a link that
will take you directly to more detailed information on inverse distance weighting in the main help system.
4. Under the Input Data section, notice that Source Dataset has been set to the layer you clicked in the ArcMap table of contents.
Under Data Field, choose the attribute that you want to interpolate.
In addition, you can specify a Weight field. This will weigh the data values and alter the interpolated surface. Including a weight can
be a useful option when you want to include a measure of confidence in the data (for example, GPS locations taken inside a forest
may be less reliable than those taken in clear areas, so you might choose to assign them less weight in the interpolation).
5. Click Next.
6. Modify the Power value, which can vary between 1 and 100.
Step 2 of Geostatistical Wizard is where the parameter values for this method must be defined. For inverse distance weighting, one
of the parameters that you can change is Power. You can investigate the effects of changing the power by examining the preview
surface on the left-hand side and evaluating the goodness of fit of the model on the next page of Geostatistical Wizard.
There is an option to optimize the Power value by clicking the Optimize button . The optimization process evaluates several
models and chooses the Power value that gives the model with the lowest root mean square error (see step 9 for more information
on cross-validation and error statistics). Note that the search neighborhood is not changed during the optimization process.
Adjusting the search neighborhood may lead to a better model and should also be investigated.
7. Adjust the search neighborhood options (refer to Altering the search neighborhood by changing its size and shape and Altering the
search neighborhood by changing the number of neighbors to see how to modify the number of neighbors and the shape of the
search neighborhood). Anisotropy (directional influences present in the phenomenon that the data represents) can be accounted
for at this stage by modifying the Major semiaxis, Minor semiaxis, and Angle parameters.
Neighborhood type can be changed from Standard to Smooth. In this case, Maximum neighbors, Minimum neighbors, and Sector
type are replaced by a smoothing factor, and the method produces a smoother surface. Refer to Smooth interpolation for more
details.
8. Click Next.
9. Assess the goodness of fit of the model using the Predicted and Error graphs and the summary information on prediction errors and
by examining particular pairs of measured and predicted values in the table on the left-hand side.
For more information on how to assess the goodness of fit of a model, refer to Performing cross-validation and validation.
10. Once you are satisfied with the model, click Finish. A Method Report window appears.
11. Click OK to produce the surface.
The Method Report window contains a summary showing the dataset, attribute, interpolation method, and parameter values used to
create the surface. This information can be retrieved for any geostatistical layer by right-clicking it in the ArcMap table of contents,
choosing Properties from the menu, then clicking the Method Summary tab.

The result is a surface generated by interpolating attribute values using inverse distance weighting. The surface is added directly to the
ArcMap table of contents and is displayed using a default color scheme and class breaks, which can be changed by accessing the
layer's properties.

Understanding ordinary kriging

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Kriging models

Ordinary kriging assumes the model

Z(s) = + (s),

where is an unknown constant. One of the main issues concerning ordinary kriging is whether the assumption of a constant mean is
reasonable. Sometimes there are good scientific reasons to reject this assumption. However, as a simple prediction method, it has
remarkable flexibility. The following figure is an example in one spatial dimension:
It looks like the data is elevation values collected from a line transect through a valley and over a mountain. It also looks like the data is
more variable on the left and becomes smoother on the right. In fact, this data was simulated from the ordinary kriging model with a
constant mean . The true but unknown mean is given by the dashed line. Thus, ordinary kriging can be used for data that seems to
have a trend. There is no way to decide, based on the data alone, whether the observed pattern is the result of autocorrelationamong
the errors (s) with constantor trend, with (s) changing with s.
Ordinary kriging can use either semivariograms or covariances (which are the mathematical forms you use to express autocorrelation),
use transformations and remove trends, and allow for measurement error.

Semivariogram and covariance functions

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

The semivariogram and covariance functions quantify the assumption that things nearby tend to be more similar than things that are
farther apart. Semivariogram and covariance both measure the strength of statistical correlation as a function of distance.

The process of modeling semivariograms and covariance functions fits a semivariogram or covariance curve to your empirical data. The
goal is to achieve the best fit, and also incorporate your knowledge of the phenomenon in the model. The model will then be used in
your predictions.

When fitting a model, explore for directional autocorrelation in your data. The sill, range, and nugget are the important characteristics of
the model. If there are measurement errors in the data, use ameasurement error model. Follow this link to learn how to fit a model to the
empirical semivariogram.
Semivariogram
The semivariogram is defined as

(si,sj) = var(Z(si) - Z(sj)),

where var is the variance.
If two locations, si and sj, are close to each other in terms of the distance measure of d(si, sj), you expect them to be similar, so the
difference in their values, Z(si) - Z(sj), will be small. As si and sj get farther apart, they become less similar, so the difference in their
values, Z(si) - Z(sj), will become larger. This can be seen in the following figure, which shows the anatomy of a typical semivariogram.
 Notice that the variance of the difference increases with distance, so the semivariogram can be thought of as a dissimilarity function.
There are several terms that are often associated with this function, and they are also used in Geostatistical Analyst. The height that
the semivariogram reaches when it levels off is called the sill. It is often composed of two parts: a discontinuity at the origin, called the
nugget effect, and the partial sill; added together, these give the sill. The nugget effect can be further divided into measurement error
and microscale variation. The nugget effect is simply the sum of measurement error and microscale variation and, since either
component can be zero, the nugget effect can be composed wholly of one or the other. The distance at which the semivariogram
levels off to the sill is called the range.

Learn more about semivariograms, range, sill, and nugget

Covariance function
The covariance function is defined to be

C(si, sj) = cov(Z(si), Z(sj)),

where cov is the covariance.
Covariance is a scaled version of correlation. So, when two locations, si and sj, are close to each other, you expect them to be similar,
and their covariance (a correlation) will be large. As si and sj get farther apart, they become less similar, and their covariance becomes
zero. This can be seen in the following figure, which shows the anatomy of a typical covariance function.

Notice that the covariance function decreases with distance, so it can be thought of as a similarity function.
Relationship between semivariogram and covariance function
There is a relationship between the semivariogram and the covariance function:

(si, sj) = sill - C(si, sj),

This relationship can be seen from the figures. Because of this equivalence, you can perform prediction in Geostatistical Analyst using
either function. (All semivariograms in Geostatistical Analyst have sills.)

Semivariograms and covariances cannot be just any function. For the predictions to have nonnegative kriging standard errors, only
some functions may be used as semivariograms and covariances. Geostatistical Analyst offers several choices that are acceptable,
and you can try different ones for your data. You can also have models that are made by adding several models togetherthis
construction provides valid models, and you can add up to four of them in Geostatistical Analyst. There are some instances when
semivariograms exist, but covariance functions do not. For example, there is a linear semivariogram, but it does not have a sill, and
there is no corresponding covariance function. Only models with sills are used in Geostatistical Analyst. There are no hard-and-fast
rules on choosing the "best" semivariogram model. You can look at your empirical semivariogram or covariance function and choose a
model that looks appropriate. You can also use validation and cross-validation as a guide.

Understanding a semivariogram: The range, sill, and nugget

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

The semivariogram depicts the spatial autocorrelation of the measured sample points. Once each pair of locations is plotted (Binning
the empirical semivariogram), a model is fit through them (Fitting a model to the empirical semivariogram). There are certain
characteristics that are commonly used to describe these models.
The range and sill
When you look at the model of a semivariogram, you'll notice that at a certain distance, the model levels out. The distance where the
model first flattens out is known as the range. Sample locations separated by distances closer than the range are spatially
autocorrelated, whereas locations farther apart than the range are not.

The value that the semivariogram model attains at the range (the value on the y-axis) is called the sill. The partial sill is the sill minus
the nugget.

The nugget
Theoretically, at zero separation distance (lag = 0), the semivariogram value is 0. However, at an infinitesimally small separation
distance, the semivariogram often exhibits a nugget effect, which is some value greater than 0. For example, if the semivariogram
model intercepts the y-axis at 2, then the nugget is 2.

The nugget effect can be attributed to measurement errors or spatial sources of variation at distances smaller than the sampling
interval or both. Measurement error occurs because of the error inherent in measuring devices. Natural phenomena can vary spatially
over a range of scales. Variation at microscales smaller than the sampling distances will appear as part of the nugget effect. Before
collecting data, it is important to gain some understanding of the scales of spatial variation.
Binning empirical semivariograms
Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

As you can see from the landscape of locations and the semivariogram cloud shown in Creating the empirical semivariogram, plotting
each pair of locations quickly becomes unmanageable. There are so many points that the plot becomes congested and little can be
interpreted from it. To reduce the number of points in the empirical semivariogram, the pairs of locations will be grouped based on their
distance from one another. This grouping process is known as binning.

Binning is a two-stage process.

Stage one
First, form pairs of points, and second, group the pairs so that they have a common distance and direction. In the landscape scene of
12 locations, you can see the pairing of all the locations with one location, the red point. Similar colors for the links between pairs
indicate similar bin distances.

This process continues for all possible pairs. You can see that, in the pairing process, the number of pairs increases rapidly with the
addition of each location. This is why, for each bin, only the average distance and semivariance for all the pairs in that bin are plotted
as a single point on the semivariogram.

Stage two
In the second stage of the binning process, pairs are grouped based on common distances and directions. Imagine a graph so each
point has a common origin. This property makes the empirical semivariogram symmetric.

For each bin, you form the squared difference from the values for all pairs of locations that are linked, and these are then averaged
and multiplied by 0.5 to give one empirical semivariogram value per bin. In Geostatistical Analyst, you can control the lag size and
number of lags. The empirical semivariogram value in each bin is color coded and is called the semivariogram surface.

Learn more about choosing the lag size

Choosing a lag size
Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

The selection of a lag size has important effects on the empirical semivariogram. For example, if the lag size is too large, short-range
autocorrelation may be masked. If the lag size is too small, there may be many empty bins, and sample sizes within bins will be too
small to get representative averages for bins.
When samples are located on a sampling grid, the grid spacing is usually a good indicator for lag size. However, if the data is acquired
using an irregular or random sampling scheme, the selection of a suitable lag size is not so straightforward. A rule of thumb is to multiply
the lag size by the number of lags, which should be about half the largest distance among all points. Also, if the range of the fitted
semivariogram model is very small relative to the extent of the empirical semivariogram, you can decrease the lag size. Conversely, if
the range of the fitted semivariogram model is large relative to the extent of the empirical semivariogram, you can increase the lag size.

Another approach to determining the lag size is to use the Average Nearest Neighbor tool to determine the average distance between
points and their nearest neighbors. This provides a reasonably good lag size as every lag will have at least a few pairs of points in it.
The Average Nearest Neighbor tool is located in Spatial Statistics tools, under Analyzing Patterns. An example of the use of this tool is
shown below.

Average Nearest Neighbor geoprocessing tool

Only the input feature class needs to be specified. The distance method is automatically set to Euclidean distance.

Average Nearest Neighbor tool dialog

The result of running the tool (with the background geoprocessing option turned on) is shown in the Results window. NNObserved is the
average distance between nearest neighbors, and can be used as a lag size for semivariogram/covariance modeling. However, if the
dataset contains clustered points/samples, it may be advisable to use a smaller value for the lag size in order to obtain a more accurate
estimate of the nugget for the semivariogram/covariance model.

Average Nearest Neighbor result

Learn more about fitting a model to the empirical semivariogram
Fitting a model to the empirical semivariogram
Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

Semivariogram/Covariance modeling is a key step between spatial description and spatial prediction. The main application of
geostatistics is the prediction of attribute values at unsampled locations (kriging).

The empirical semivariogram and covariance provide information on the spatial autocorrelation of datasets. However, they do not
provide information for all possible directions and distances. For this reason and to ensure that kriging predictions have positive kriging
variances, it is necessary to fit a model (in other words, a continuous function or curve) to the empirical semivariogram/covariance.

Learn about the relationship between semivariograms and covariance

Different views of the empirical semivariogram/covariance values
The Geostatistical wizard provides three different views of the empirical semivariogram values. You can use one, two or all three of
them to aid you in fitting a model to the data. The default view shows binned and averaged empirical semivariogram/covariance
values.

Binned values are shown as red dots, and are generated by grouping (binning) empirical semivariogram/covariance points together
using square cells that are one lag wide. Average points are shown as blue crosses, and are generated by binning empirical
semivariogram/covariance points that fall within angular sectors. Binned points show local variation in the semivariogram/covariance
values, whereas average values show smooth semivariogram/covariance value variation. In many cases it is easier to fit a model to
the averaged values, as they offer a less cluttered view of the spatial autocorrelation in the data and show smoother changes in the
semivariogram values than the binned points.

The Show points control can be set to Binned and Averaged (as shown in the figure above), Binned, or Averaged (as shown in the
figures below).
Additionally, lines can be added to the plot. The lines are local polynomials fitted to the binned empirical semivariogram/covariance
values. If the Show search direction option is set to True, then only the local polynomial fitted to the empirical semivariogram/covariance
surface in the Show search direction tools central axis transect is displayed, as shown in the following figure:
 The semivariogram/covariance model you fit to the empirical data should:

Pass through the center of the cloud of binned values (red dots).
Pass as closely as possible to the averaged values (blue crosses).
Pass as closely as possible to the lines (green lines).

Keep in mind that your knowledge of the phenomenon may dictate the shape of the model as well as its nugget, range and partial sill
and anisotropy values, even though the model does not fit the empirical data too well (recall that the empirical data is just a sample of
the real phenomenon you want to model, and may not be fully representative of all of its spatial and statistical aspects).

Different types of semivariogram/covariance models

Geostatistical Analyst provides the following functions to model the empirical semivariogram:

Circular
Spherical
Tetraspherical
Pentaspherical
Exponential
Gaussian
Rational Quadratic
Hole Effect
K-Bessel
J-Bessel
Stable

The selected model influences the prediction of the unknown values, particularly when the shape of the curve near the origin differs
significantly. The steeper the curve near the origin, the more influence the closest neighbors will have on the prediction.

As a result, the output surface will be less smooth. Each model is designed to fit different types of phenomena more accurately.
 The diagrams below show two common models (Exponential and Gaussian) and identify how the functions differ:

Using ordinary kriging to create a prediction map

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Kriging models Ordinary kriging

Ordinary kriging assumes an unknown constant mean. The data points need to be sampled from a phenomenon that is continuous in
space. Important parameters include an appropriate transformation, a possible detrending surface, covariance/semivariogram models,
and search neighborhoods.

Steps:

1. Click the Geostatistical Wizard button on the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar.

2. Select Kriging/CoKriging, choose a dataset and attribute field, then click Next.
3. Choose Ordinary kriging, then click Next.
4. Specify the desired parameters on the Semivariogram/Covariance Modeling dialog box and click Next.
5. Specify the desired parameters on the Searching Neighborhood dialog box and click Next.
6. Examine the results on the Cross Validation dialog box and click Finish.
7. Click OK on the Method Report dialog box.
Note:
On the Kriging/CoKriging dialog box, a database file can be used in place of an ArcMap layer by clicking the Browse
button and navigating to the desired database file.

Using ordinary kriging to create a prediction standard error map

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Kriging models Ordinary kriging

Ordinary kriging provides a standard error map that shows the uncertainty related to the predicted values.

Steps:
1. Right-click the geostatistical layer in the ArcMap table of contents that was created using ordinary kriging and click Change output to
Prediction Standard Error.

Creating a prediction map using ordinary kriging with a data transformation

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Kriging models Ordinary kriging

Steps:

1. Click the Geostatistical Analyst Wizard button on the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar.
2. Select Kriging/CoKriging and choose a dataset and attribute field, then click Next.
3. Choose Ordinary kriging and set the Transformation type to the desired transformation, then click Next.
4. Specify the desired parameters on the Semivariogram/Covariance Modeling dialog box and click Next.
5. Specify the desired parameters on the Searching Neighborhood dialog box and click Next.
6. Examine the results on the Cross Validation dialog box and click Finish.
7. Click OK on the Methods Report dialog box.

Note:
Use Explore Data tools to make decisions on transformations, detrending, and the effect of unusual observations on
covariance/semivariogram models. Confirm your decisions using validation and cross-validation.
Learn more about transformations and trends

Understanding transformations and trends

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Key concepts for geostatistical methods

Kriging as a predictor does not require that your data have a normal distribution. However, as you see in Understanding different kriging
models, normality is necessary to obtain quantile and probability maps for ordinary, simple, and universal kriging. When considering
only predictors that are formed from weighted averages, kriging is the best unbiased predictor whether or not your data is normally
distributed. However, if the data is normally distributed, kriging is the best predictor among all unbiased predictors, not only those that
are weighted averages.

Kriging also relies on the assumption that all the random errors are second-order stationarity, which is an assumption that the random
errors have zero mean and the covariance between any two random errors depends only on the distance and direction that separates
them, not their exact locations.

Transformations and trend removal can help justify assumptions of normality and stationarity. Prediction using ordinary, simple, and
universal kriging for general Box-Cox, arcsine, and log transformationsis called trans-Gaussian kriging. Log transformation is a special
case of Box-Cox transformation, but it has special prediction properties and is known as lognormal kriging.
Transformation and trend for primary variable
In the table below, the transformations and trend options available for each kriging method are shown for the primary variable. The
table also shows whether transformation or trend removal is performed first when both are selected.

Kriging type BAL NST Trend

Ordinary Yes (1st if TR) No TR (2nd if BAL)

Simple Yes Yes No

Universal Yes (1st if T) No T (2nd if BAL)

Indicator No No No
 Probability* No No No

Disjunctive Yes (1st if TR) Yes (2nd if TR) TR (1st if NST, 2nd if BAL)

Primary variable transformations and trend options

*For probability kriging, the primary variable is composed of indicators of the original variable; the original variable is then considered a
secondary variable for cokriging.

Transformation and trend for secondary variable (cokriging)

In the table below, the transformation and trend options available for each kriging method are shown for the secondary variable. The
table also shows whether transformation or trend removal is performed first when both are selected.

Kriging type BAL NST Trend

Ordinary Yes (1st if TR) No TR (2nd if BAL)

Simple Yes Yes No

Universal Yes (1st if T) No T (2nd if BAL)

Indicator No No No

Probability Yes (1st if TR) Yes TR (2nd if BAL)

Disjunctive Yes (1st if TR) Yes (2nd if TR) TR (1st if NST, 2nd if BAL)

Secondary variable transformation and trend options

Definitions and Appreviations

See the following for the meanings of the definitions and abbreviations used in the preceding tables.

Definitions
Primary variable: Variable to be predicted when using kriging or cokriging
Secondary variables: Covariables (not predicted) when using cokriging
Trend: Fixed effects composed of spatial coordinates used in a linear model
Abbreviations
BALBox-Cox, arcsine, and log transformations
NSTNormal score transformation
SVVariable (covariables for cokriging)
T (internal trend)
TRRemoval (external trend)

Using ordinary kriging with detrending to create a prediction map

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques Kriging models Ordinary kriging

Steps:

1. Start the Geostatistical Analyst Wizard .

2. Select Kriging/CoKriging and choose a dataset and attribute field, then click Next.
3. Choose Ordinary kriging and select a desired Order of trend removal, then click Next.
4. Specify the desired parameters on the dialog box and click Next.
5. Specify the desired parameters on the Semivariogram/Covariance Modeling dialog box and click Next.
6. Specify the desired parameters on the Searching Neighborhood dialog box and click Next.
7. Examine the results on the Cross Validation dialog box and click Finish.
8. Click OK on the Method Report dialog box.

Understanding measurement error

Extensions Geostatistical Analyst Creating surfaces Creating surfaces with geostatistical techniques

Three of the kriging methodsordinary, simple, and universaluse measurement error models. Measurement error occurs when it is
possible to have several differing observations at the same location. For example, you might extract a sample from the ground or air
and divide that sample into several subsamples to be measured. You may want to do this if the instrument that measures the samples
has some variation. As another example, you might send subsamples of a soil sample to different laboratories for analysis. There could
be other times when the variation in instrument accuracy is documented. In this case, you may want to input the known measurement
variation into your model.
The measurement error model
The measurement error model is

Z(s) = (s) + (s) + (s),

where (s) is measurement error and (s) and (s) are the mean and random variation. In this model, the nugget effect is composed
of the variance of (s) (called microscale variation) plus the variance of (s) (called measurement error). In Geostatistical Analyst, you
can specify a proportion of the estimated nugget effect as microscale variation and measurement variation, have Geostatistical
Analyst estimate measurement error for you if you have multiple measurements per location, or input a value for measurement
variation. When there is no measurement error, kriging is an exact interpolator, meaning that if you predict at a location where data
has been collected, the predicted value is the same as the measured value. However, when measurement errors exist, you want to
predict the filtered value, (s0) +(s0), which does not have the measurement error term. At locations where data has been collected,
the filtered value is not the same as the measured value.
In previous versions of ArcGIS, the default measurement variation was 0%, so kriging was defaulted to be an exact interpolator. In
ArcGIS 10, the default measurement variation is set to 100%, so the default predictions at measured locations will be based on the
spatial correlation of the data and the measured values at nearby locations. Measurement error can be introduced by many sources,
including uncertainty in the measurement device, location, and data integration. In practice, perfectly precise data is extremely rare.
The effect of the model
The effect of choosing measurement error models is that your final map can be smoother and have smaller standard errors than the
exact kriging version. This is illustrated with an example in the figures below, where exact kriging and smooth kriging are shown when
there are only two data locations (at 1 and 2) with values -1 and 1 for a model without measurement variation and one where the
nugget effect is all measurement variation.