Stress and Health

Stress and Health 21: 2731 (2005)

Published online 26 October 2004 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/smi.1033

Short Communication:
Gender differences in coping
with the major external stress
o f t h e Wa s h i n g t o n , D . C . s n i p e r
Ari Z. Zivotofsky1,*, and Meni Koslowsky2
1
The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan,
52900 Israel
2
Psychology Department, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 52900 Israel

Summary
This study examined the relationship between gender and strategies for coping for individuals
faced with a perceived major, life-threatening stressor. The focus here was the sniper(s) that ter-
rorized the greater Washington, D.C. metropolitan area for over 3 weeks in October 2002. A ret-
rospective survey of 144 random respondents regarding their behavior and coping mechanisms
during this period indicated that, overall, womens behavior was affected more than mens. Unex-
pectedly, most emotion-focused coping mechanisms studied here yielded no significant gender dif-
ferences. The findings are discussed in light of recent thinking in social psychology on sex-role
stereotyping and risk-taking. Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key Words
stress and coping; gender differences; stereotyping

Introduction situation progresses, the strategies used by one

All people experience problems and stressors in
their lives and must find mechanisms with which
to cope with these difficulties. These stressors
range from the everyday, mundane to the more
significant and serious such as job layoffs and
illnesses (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989).
How people cope with stress varies from person
to person and from situation to situation
(Ben-Zur & Zeidner, 1995; Rosario, Shinn,
Morch, & Huckabee, 1988). Even as a particular
* Correspondence to: Ari Z. Zivotofsky, The Gonda
Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan Uni-
versity, Ramat Gan, 52900 Israel. Tel: (972)-3-531-
7796. Fax: (972)-3-535-2184.
individual may change and evolve.
Research has yielded conflicting evidence about
differences in coping strategies between men and
women. Jordan and Revenson (1999) found that
in coping with infertility, women were signifi-
cantly more likely to use certain strategies, such
as seeking social support and escape-avoidance,
than their partners. Similarly, Slusarcick, Ursano,
Fullerton, and Dinneen (1999) reported different
mechanisms of stress reduction by men and
women even though both were performing an
identical stressful activity. Work locus of control
was a significant predictor of ill-health only for
women (Muhonen & Torkelson, 2004). Silver,
Holman, McIntosh, Poulin, and Gil-Rivas (2002)
showed that following a major stressor women
were significantly more likely to experience post-

E-mail: zivotoa@mail.biu.ac.il traumatic stress symptoms than men.

Received 6 June 2004
Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised 30 August 2004 27
Accepted 3 September 2004
 A. Z. Zivotofsky and M. Koslowsky

The researchers in the field are, generally, of the
opinion that men and women choose different
coping behaviors to handle stress. Many of these
studies indicate that men are more problem-
focused while women are more emotion-focused
in their coping strategies (Blanchard-Fields,
Sulsky, & Robinson-Whelen, 1991; Endler &
Parker, 1990; Ptacek, Smith, & Zanas, 1992).
Rosario et al. (1988) developed a socialization
hypothesis that predicted more problem-focused
coping in males and more emotion-focused coping
in females. Using daily hassles rather than a major
stressor, Hamilton and Fagot (1988) examined
this hypothesis and found that although women
reported more overall stress, the methods of
coping were not significantly different for them,
casting some doubt on a socialization hypothesis.
Hashim and Zhiliang (2003) also found only
minor differences in the perception of stressors.
One of the main purposes of the present study
was to examine the relationship between gender
and strategies for coping when faced with a per-
ceived major life threatening stressor. We hypoth-
esized that one of the factors not usually taken
into account is the nature of the stressor and that
when faced with a major life stressor there will
be gender differences such that women will utilize
more social support than men.
A unique opportunity to study responses to and
coping with a major life stressor occurred in the
greater Washington, D.C. area. From October 2,
2002 through October 24, 2002, the greater
Washington, D.C. metropolitan area was the
scene for 14 random shootings that resulted in 10
deaths (see Table I). Four of the shootings
targeted people at gas stations and six others
targeted people in large public parking lots.
Methods
Participants included 144 random respondents
from the Washington area, of which approxi-
mately half were from the Silver Spring, MD area,
the region of the first shootings, and half were
from northern Virginia, the area of the later
shootings. Of the respondents, 42 per cent were
men with mean age of 29.5. No compensation
was given for participation.
The survey comprised a one page anonymous
questionnaire that requested basic demographic
data and two other types of data: (a) behavioral
information about eight relevant activities that
may have been considered risky, (e.g. mall
shopping, driving, and gasoline fill-ups (see Table
II). Changes here would be more indicative
of problem-focused coping. Respondents were
asked whether for each particular activity, they
maintained the same level of activity during the
period of interest, decreased their involvement in
that activity, or modified it in some manner and
(b) information relating to emotion focused
coping mechanisms (see Table III). Subjects were
provided with a list of seven mechanisms that
people use to cope with stress and were asked if
during the period of interest they used each
coping mechanism very much, somewhat, or
not at all. These mechanisms included calling
or being in touch with friends or relatives, pills
or medicines, and blaming the government.

Table I. Summary of events.

Date Gender Location Venue Result
1 October 2, 2002 MD Store
2 October 2, 2002 M MD Parking lotgrocery Killed
3 October 3, 2002 M MD Mowing lawn Killed
4 October 3, 2002 M MD Filling station Killed
5 October 3, 2002 F MD Parking lotpost office Killed
6 October 3, 2002 F MD Filling station Killed
7 October 3, 2002 M DC Crossing street Killed
8 October 4, 2002 F VA Parking lotcraft store Injured
9 October 7, 2002 M MD Parking lotschool Injured
10 October 9, 2002 M VA Filling station Killed
11 October 11, 2002 M VA Filling station Killed
12 October 14, 2002 F VA Parking lothome depot Killed
13 October 19, 2002 M VA Parking lotrestaurant Injured
14 October 22, 2002 M MD Bus Killed
Note: M, male; F, female. MD, Silver Spring, MD area; DC, Washington, D.C. metro area; VA, northern Virginia area.

28 Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Stress and Health 21: 2731 (2005)
 Gender differences in coping with stress

Table II. Gender differences in behavior for problem-focused behavioral

strategies.
Male (%) Female (%) c2
1 Mall shopping 20.3 54.4 16.4**
2 Food shopping 13.8 44.9 14.9**
3 Driving 13.6 40.5 11.9**
4 Gasoline fill-ups 31.6 76.3 26.6**
5 Going to movies 6.9 41.6 20.3**
6 Taking public transportation 5.7 40.8 19.6**
7 Eating out 13.6 35.0 8.2**
8 Socializing with friends 8.5 16.0 1.8
** p < 0.01.

Table III. Gender differences for emotion-focused strategies.

Male (%) Female (%) c2
1 Call or be in touch with friends or relatives 67.7 92.4 14.12**
2 Pills, medicines 1.6 2.6 0.04
3 Watch news/obtain additional information 83.9 91.1 1.73
4 Disconnect from the surroundings 22.6 34.6 2.42
5 Blame the government 12.9 3.9 3.82
6 Blame the terrorist(s) 50.0 53.8 0.20
7 Carrying on activities but with a sense of concern 74.2 91.1 7.31**
** p < 0.01.

Several key demographics of the participants
were compared to that of the diverse Washington,
D.C. metro area. Respondents were 72.1 per cent
White, 7.1 per cent African American, 10.0 per
cent Asian, 7.9 per cent Hispanic, and 2.9 per cent
other. Based on the 2000 census data the equiva-
lent distribution is, approximately, 65 per cent
White, 11 per cent African American, 9 per cent
Asian, 10 per cent Hispanic, and 5 per cent other
(Census, 2000). Our data provided a fairly close
approximation of the three included counties.
Results
In our analysis, the second and third categories
from the behavioral information section were
combined resulting in two categories: maintain-
ing the same level of activities or modifying the
activity. For the data on emotion-focused mecha-
nisms, the first two categories were combined
resulting in two categories: yes, I used it and no,
I did not use it. Analysis of the results found
many similarities between men and women. For
example, when asked if they at any point con-
sidered leaving the area until the sniper was
caught, both men and women overwhelmingly
responded no (92.9 and 84.6 per cent, respec-
tively). Although a surprisingly high percentage
responded that they knew someone who had been
killed or injured in an act of violence (58.9
and 72.2 per cent, respectively), that fact did not
seem to be related to responses on the other
questions.
Table II shows the percentage of men and
women who showed a modification of behavior.
Chi square tests showed statistically significant
differences between men and women with respect
to seven out of eight behaviors (Table II). For
these behaviors, the percentage of women who
reported behavior change was considerably
greater than men. The only exception was the
question about socializing with friends, for
which there was no observed difference; both
genders curtailed their social interaction during
the crisis.
Table III shows the percentage of men and
women who utilized the emotion-focused strate-
gies. For most of the emotion-focused coping
mechanisms no significant gender differences
were found (Table III). Interestingly, although
many men coped through social support, a sig-
nificantly greater percentage of women used this
mechanism.

Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Stress and Health 21: 2731 (2005) 29
 A. Z. Zivotofsky and M. Koslowsky
To see if the findings were related to key demo-
graphic variables, cross-tabulation analyses using
ethnicity (collapsed into two categories, White
and non-white) and religion by each of the behav-
ioral changes were performed. Also, age was
correlated with each of the behavioral variables.
Only in one case was a significant relationship
observed (religion public transportation,
p < 0.05). This one finding could very well be
attributed to chance.
Discussion
Although the profile of behavior and coping
strategies as a function of gender has yielded
some inconsistent findings in the literature,
researchers such as Ptacek et al. (1992) report a
clear preference for problem-focused coping
among men and support-seeking and emotion-
focused coping among women. The gender dif-
ferences in coping mechanisms that we found
were generally consistent with our expectations.
Although no gender differences were seen in the
use of emotion-focused strategies for five of the
seven items, we did find a significant difference
between men and women in seeking and utiliza-
tion of social support. Social support is consid-
ered an effective coping strategy in moderating
the effect of stressors in both men and women,
and it is used by both genders (Bellmank, Forster,
Still, & Cooper, 2003).
What seems most surprising is our finding of
greater use of what is considered problem-
focused methods among the women. They were
significantly more likely to modify their behavior
so as to reduce stress. We propose that the dif-
ference in our findings can be explained by the
nature of the stressor. Despite being told numer-
ous times that the statistical danger based on the
population size of the area of concern was essen-
tially negligible, people continued to perceive the
situation as one of imminent danger (Stolberg,
2002). Effective coping behavior must be effec-
tual in dealing with both major stressful events
and minor, daily hassles. But that does not imply
that an individual must utilize the same mecha-
nisms in all scenarios. The majority of the prior
findings of male/female differences in coping were
found under conditions of everyday stress, not
major stressors.
Faced with a life-threatening stressful situation,
additional factors enter the picture in conjunction
with the standard coping strategies. Under the
30 Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
stated circumstances, several of the activities dis-
cussed, such as gasoline fill-ups, could be viewed
as necessary but risky activities. The threshold
for engaging in risky behavior is significantly
higher for men than for women (Browne, 2002;
LaBrie, Schiffman, & Earleywine, 2002; Murphy,
Rotheram-Borus, & Reid, 1998). This is one pos-
sible explanation for the significantly fewer men
who decreased or modified their behavior.
An additional factor in explaining our findings
may be societal sex-role stereotypes and expecta-
tions. Gender differences can be attributed to cul-
tural factors. In most societies, men are assigned
to roles that bestow them with greater power
(Eagly, 1987). Men are usually viewed as more
independent, active, and venturous, whereas
women are expected to be more sensitive, obedi-
ent, and conforming (Diekman & Eagly, 2000;
Eagly, 1987). Departures from these expectations
are viewed as violating gender-related social
patterns of behavior (Eagly, 1987, 1995).
If the car must be filled with gas and such an
activity is perceived as dangerous and in the realm
of defending the family, it becomes the job of
the man. Thus, several female respondents replied
that they modified the activity of gasoline fill-
ups and when asked to specify, noted that their
husband or boyfriend was now doing it. Indeed,
Rosario et al. (1988) developed a role constraint
theory that argues that gender differences in
coping are less likely when men and women
exhibit the same social roles. We contend that in
extreme circumstances the expected societal roles
still differ and thus lead to the observed
differences.
Future research into stress coping needs to
factor in stress type and should endeavor to cor-
relate it with the coping mechanisms utilized by
men and women and examine its prediction of
subsequent physical and psychological health.
Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate the assistance of Miriam Fried-
man, Jeffrey Aftel, and Anna Schneider in collecting the
data. We thank Dr Shulamit Epstein for bibliographic
assistance.
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