Chapter 2 Frameworks

General

A structure may be defined as an organized assemblage of elements. Most structures are composed of members whose length
are very much larger than its width and height, and thus can be modeled as line elements. Chapter 2 deals with the verification of
such framing members.

The line (or curve if member is not straight) is usually taken as the one which passes through the geometric centroid of the cross-
section of the member. Further, in place of the cross-sectional dimensions, the corresponding cross-section properties (area,
moment of inertia, torsion constant, etc.) are assigned at each point of the line.

The use of line elements rather than three dimensional elements greatly simplifies the mathematical model. For one, this makes
the mathematical description of the geometry of the structure easier. There is also a considerable reduction of the number of
primary unknowns, and therefore the number of equations, that has to be solved. For a three dimensional structure, the unknowns
will primarily be the stresses at all points of the element. Using line elements, we need only determine the stress resultants acting
on the section.

Types of Framing Members

Generally, framing members may be classified based on primary internal resistance. These include ties (pure tension members),
struts (pure compression members), beams (members normally loaded transversely and resist deformation through its flexural and
shear resistance), columns (primarily compression members with or without simultaneous bending), and shafts (members primarily
resisting torsion forces).

Framing members which are specific to the faade industry include mullions (vertical framing members) and transoms (horizontal
framing members).

Materials

Different framing materials offer different benefits which depend on the end use. The principal materials used to form glazing
frames are aluminum and steel.

The advantages of aluminum include its ability to be extruded into endless shapes, inherent strength, light weight and ability to
hold finishes. Installation-wise, aluminum products are more easily and quickly installed, and can be more easily modified in the
field to adjust with on-site inconsistencies and limitations.

Steel, on the other hand, has a higher mechanical yield, which allows the design of wider spans and significant heights. It is also
a very ductile material, and welding is an easy and common process that can be performed on-site.

Using the two materials in conjunction with each other provides the best and most cost-effective structural solution, by taking
advantage of the strength of a steel frame in tandem with the lightness of aluminum.

Supports and Releases

Supports are important structural components that also have to be included in the analytical model. Typically, the following idealized
supports are used: (1) Fixed supports, where the member ends connected to the support cannot have any displacement (translation
or rotations) relative to the support. (2) Hinged supports where there is no restraint against rotation in the plane of the hinge support
of the member end connected to the support. (3) Roller or guide supports where there is no restraint against translational
displacement along one direction in the plane of the support.

The above were described as idealized supports, since the actual restraint provided by the support depends primarily on the
connection detail of the member end.

Releases may also be introduced between members. The releases allow relative displacement of the ends of members connected
to the release relative rotation for a hinge release and a relative displacement for a guide
In most cases, the connection details for the framing members used in the faade industry is best idealized as simply-supported,
for the purpose of analysis and design.

Loads and Load Combinations

The members which form the vertical building enclosure generally support no load other than its own weight and that of the ancillary
components, and the environmental forces which act upon it. Depending on the direction of these loads with respect the plane of
the framing members, they are either considered in-plane or out-of-plane.

The type of and minimum values of these actions that a structure must be able to withstand are specified by the governing structural
code and specifications. The structural code also specifies the combinations of loads that have to be considered and load factors
if factored loads are the basis of design.

Analysis

There are several methods of and techniques for structural analysis that has been developed for different possible types of
structures. For relatively simple planar structures, classical methods are sufficient in presenting structural behavior. These
calculations, however, are generally impractical for the structural analysis of actual three-dimensional structures. For these cases,
using an all general purpose software such as STAAD.Pro is preferred. In rare instances where an even more sophisticated
approach is required, the finite element method (FEM) using the SolidWorks Simulation may be employed.

Design

Design specifications give more specific guidance for the design of structural members. They present the guidelines and criteria
that enable a structural engineer to achieve the objectives mandated by a building code. Design specifications represent what is
considered to be good engineering practice based on the latest research. They are periodically revised and updated by the
issuance of supplements or completely new editions.

Optimization

The overall structural system is selected and evaluated in order to produce an efficient and economical design using a thorough
appreciation and understanding of the design of the components of the structure.