CHAPTER 9: NERVE TISSUE & THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
the notochord, ectoderm on the mid-dorsal side
The human nervous system is formed by a
network of many billion nerve cells (neurons), all
assisted by many more supporting cells called
glial cells.
Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body as
an integrated communications network.
Two Major Divisions:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
-brainand spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
-cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves
conducting impulses to and from the CNS
(sensory and motor nerves, respectively)
and ganglia that are small groups of
nerve cells outside CNS
Cells in both central and peripheral nerve tissue
are of two kinds:
o Nerve Cells or Neurons
-usually show numerous long processes
o Glial Cells
-Gr. glia, glue
-haveshort processes, support and
protectneurons, and participate in many
neural activities, neutral nutrition and
defense of cells in the CNS
Neurons respond to environmental changes
(stimuli) by altering the ionic gradient that
exists across their plasma membranes. All cells
maintain such a gradient, also called an electric
potential
o Cells that can rapidly change this
potential in response to stimuli
(eg.neurons, muscle cells, some gland cells)
are said to be excitableor irritable
Neurons react promptly with stimuli with a
reversal of the ionic gradient (membrane
depolarization) that generally spreads from the
place that received the stimulus and is propagated
across the neurons entire plasma membrane
o This propagation, called the action
potential, the depolarization wave, or
the nerve impulseis capable of traveling
long distances along neurons processes,
transmitting such signals to other
neurons, muscles and glands
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE
Nervous system develops from the outermost of the
three embryonic layers, the ectoderm, beginning in
the third week of development
With signals from the underlying axial structure,
of the embryo thickens to form the epithelial
neural plate.
o The lateral sides of this plate fold
upward, bend, and grow towardeach
other medially, and within a dew days
fuse to form the neural tube
o Cells of neural tube give rise to the
entire CNS, including neurons and most
glial cells
As the fold fuse and the neural tube separates
from the now overlying surface ectoderm that will
form epidermis, a large population of
developmentally important cells, the neural crest,
separates from the neuroepithelium and becomes
mesenchymal
o Neural crest cells migrate extensively and
differentiate as all the cells of the PNS, as
well as a number of other nonneuronal
cell types
Components of the nervous system are subdivided
both structurally and functionally:
Major Structural Divisions
1. CNS
-brain(cerebrum, cerebellum) and
spinal cord
2. PNS
-nerves (cranial, spinal) and ganglia
Functional Categories
1. Sensory (afferent)
a. Voluntary Somatic
b. Involuntary or Visceral
2. Motor (efferent)
a. Voluntary (Somatic)
b. Involuntary (Autonomic)
The array of autonomic motor nerves is often
called the Autonomic Nervous System
NEURONS
Nerve cell
The functional unit in both the CNS and PNS
Some neuronal components have special names,
such as neurolemma for the cell membrane
Most neurons consist of three main parts:
1. Cell Body or Prokaryon
-contains the nucleus and most of the
cells organelles
 -serves as the synthetic or trophic Spinal ganglia (the sensory ganglia found
center for the entire neuron with spinal nerves)
and in most Cranial ganglia
2. Dendrites
-numerouselongated processes Nervous components can also be subdivided
extending from the perikaryon functionally:
-specialized to receive stimuli from
other neurons at unique sites called Sensory Neurons
synapses -afferent and receive stimuli from the
receptors throughout the body
3. Axon
-Gr. axon, axis Motor Neurons
-single long process ending at synapses -efferent, sending impulses to effector
-specialized to generate and conduct organs such as muscle fibers and glands
nerve impulses to other cells (nerve,
muscle, and gland cells) Somatic Motor Nerves
-mayalso receive information from -undervoluntary control and
other neurons, information that mainly typically innervate most
modifies the transmission of action skeletal muscle
potentials to those neurons
Autonomic Motor Nerves
Cell bodies can be very large (150 m). Other -control the involuntary
neurons, such as the cerebellar granule cells, are activities of the glands, cardiac
among the bodys smallest cells muscle, and most smooth
muscle
Neurons can be classified according to the
number of processes extending from the cell Interneurons
body: -establishrelationships among other neurons,
forming complex functional networks or circuits
a. Multipolar Neurons (as in the CNS and retina)
-1 axon, 2 dendrites -generallymultipolar or anaxonic and are
estimated to include 99% of the neurons in the
b. Bipolar Neurons human CNS
-1 axon, 1 dendrite
In the CNS, most neuronal perikarya occur in the
c. Unipolar or Pseudounipolar gray matter, with axons concentrated in the
Neurons white matter
-have a single process that bifurcates
close to the perikaryon In the PNS, cell bodies are found in ganglia and in
some sensory regions, such as the olfactory
The longer branch mucosa, and axons are bundled in nerves
extending to a peripheral
ending and the othertoward (see Figure 9-2 Neurulation in the early embryo, p. 162)
the CNS
MEDICAL APPLICATION
d. Anaxonic Neurons
Parkinsons disease
-NO true axon, many dendrites
-Slowly progressing disorder affecting muscular
- Do not produce action potentials,
activity characterized by tremors, reduced activity
but regulateelectrical changes of
of the facial muscles, loss of balance, and postural
adjacent neurons
stiffness
Most neurons are multipolar
-Caused by gradual loss of apoptosis of
Bipolar neurons
dopamine-producing neurons whose cell bodies
-found in the:
lie within the nuclei of CNS substantianigra
Retina
-Treated with L-dopa (L-3,4-
Olfactory mucosa
dihydroxyphenylalanine), a precursor of dopamine
(inner ear) Cochlear and Vestibular which augments the declining production of this
ganglia, where they serve the senses of neurotransmitter
sight, smell and balance, respectively
Cell Body (Perikaryon)
Pseudounipolar neurons
-found in the:
 The cell body is the neuronal region that
contains the nucleus and surrounding the
cytoplasm, exclusive of the cell processes
Acts as a trophic center, producing cytoplasm
for movement into the processes
Most nerve cells have a generally spherical,
unusually large, euchromatic(pale-
staining)nucleus with prominent nucleolus
The chromatin is finely dispersed
Cytoplasm of perikarya often contains a highly
developed RER
Contains basophilic Nissl substance or Nissl
bodies
o Large masses of free polysomes and RER
o Indicate the cells high rate of protein
synthesis
o Amount of this basophilic material varies
with the type and functional state of the
neuron and is particularly abundant in
large nerve cells such as motor neurons
Golgi Appartus is located only in the cell body,
but mitochondria ca be found throughout the
cell and are usually in the axon terminals
Intermediate filaments are abundant BOTH in
perikaryaand processes and in this cell are often
called neurofilaments
o Neurofilaments become cross-linked
with certain fixatives and, when
impregnated with silver stains, they
form neutrofibrilsvisible with light
microscope
Neurons also contain microtubules
Nerve cells occasionally contain inclusion of
pigmented material, such as lipofuscin, consisting
of residual bodies from lysosomal digestion
Dendrites
Gr. dendron, tree
Usually short and divided like tree branches
Usually covered with many synapses and are the
principal signal reception and processing sites
on neurons
Most nerve cells have many dendrites, which
increase the receptive area of the cell considerably
Dendrites become much thinner as they
subdivide
The cytoplasm of the dendrite base is similar to
that of the perikaryon, with cytoskeletal elements
predominating in the branched regions
Most synapses impinging on neurons occur in
dendritic spines, which are short blunt
structures projecting at points along dendrites,
visible with silver staining methods
o Dendritic spines serve as the initial
processing sites for synaptic signals.
The morphology of these spines depends
on onactin filaments and can be highly
plastic
o They are of key importance in the
constant changes of the neural plasticity
underlying adaptation, learning and
memory
Axons
Most neurons only have one axon, a fine
cylindrical process that varies in length and
diameter according to the type of neuron
Usually verylong processes
Originate from a pyramid-shaped region of the
perikaryoncalled the Axon Hillock
The plasma membrane of the axon is often called
the axolemma and its contents are known as
axoplasm
Just beyond the axon hillock, at an area called
the initial segment, is the site where various
excitatory and inhibitory stimuli impinging on
the neuron are algebraically summed, resulting in
the decision to propagate or not to propagate
a nerve impulse
In contrast with the dendrites, the typical axon is
much longer, has a constant diameter, and
branch less profusely
The distal end of an axon forms a terminal
arborization
Axons of interneurons and some motor neurons
have branches called collaterals that end at
synapses
o Each branch ends with a dilation called
terminal bouton (Fr. bouton, button)
that contacts another neuron or non-
nerve cell at a synapse to initiate an
impulse in that cell
Axoplasmcontains mitochondria, microtubules,
neurofilaments, and some cisternaeof smooth ER,
but essentially NO polyribosomes or RER,
emphasizing its dependence on the perikaryon for
maintenance
There is a lively bidirectional transport of small
and large molecules along the axon
Organelles and macromolecules synthesized in
the cell body move by anterograde transport
along the axon from the perikaryon to the synaptic
terminals
Retrograde transport in the opposite direction
carries certain other macromolecules, such as
material taken up by endocytosis (including
viruses and toxins), from the periphery to the cell
body
o Retrogade transport can be used to study
pathways of neurons
Axonal transport in both directions uses motor
proteins on microtubules
o Kinesin, a microtubule-activated ATPase,
mediates anterograde vesicular
transport and the similar ATPase called
cytoplasmic dynein provides retrograde
transport
Nerve Impulses
Also called action potential
Travels along an axon like a spark moves along an
explosives fuse
It is an electrochemical process initiated at the
axon hillock when other impulses received at the
cell body or dendrites meet a certain threshold
The action potential is propagated along the axon
as a wave of membrane depolarization produced
by voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels in the
axolemma that allow diffusion of these ions into
and out of the axoplasm
In unstimulated neurons, ATP-dependent Na-K
pumps and other membrane proteins maintain an
axoplasmic Na+concentration only one-tenth that
outside the cell and a K+ level many times greater
than the extracellular and concentration. This
produces a potential electric difference across
the axolemma of about -65mV, with the inside
negative to the outside. This difference is the
axons resting potential
When the threshold triggering an impulse is met,
channels at the axons initial segment open and
allow a very rapidinflux of the extracellular Na+
that makes the axoplasm positive in relation to
the extracellular environment and shifts
(depolarization)the resting potential from
negative to positive, to +30mV
Immediately after the membrane depolarization,
the voltage-gated Na+ channelsclose and those
K+ open, and this rapidly returns the membrane
to its resting potential
MEDICAL APPLICATION
Most local anesthetics are low-molecular-weight
molecules that bind to the voltage-gated sodium
channels of the axolemma, interfering with
sodium ion influx and, consequently, inhibiting the
action potential responsible for the nerve impulse
Synaptic Communication
Synapses (Gr. synapsis, union) are sites where
nerve impulses are transmitted from one
neuron to another or from neurons and other
effector cells
The structure of synapse ensures that
transmission isunidirectional
Synapses convert an electrical signal (nerve
impulse) from the presynaptic cell into a
chemical signal that affects the postsynaptic cell
Most synapses act by
releasingneurotransmitters, which are usually
small molecules that bind specific receptor
proteins to either open or close ion channels or
initiate second-messenger cascades
A synapse has the following components:
Presynaptic axon terminal (terminal
buoton) from which neurotransmitter is
released by exocytosis from synaptic
vesicles
Postsynaptic cell membrane with
receptors for the transmitter and ion
channels or other mechanisms to initiate
new impulse
A 20- to 30-nm-wide intercellular space
called the synaptic cleft separating the
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes
At the presynaptic region, the nerve impulse
briefly opens calcium channels, promoting a
Ca2+ influx that triggers neurotransmitter release
by exocytosis or similar mechanisms
Released neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
immediately across the synaptic cleft and bind
receptors at the postsynaptic region, producing
either an excitatory or an inhibitory effect at
postsynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitter from excitatory
synapses cause postsynaptic Na+ channels
to open, and the resulting influx of this ion
initiates a depolarizationwave in that
neuron or effector cell as described
previously
At inhibitory synapses,
neurotransmitters open Cl-or other anion
channels, causing infux of anions and
hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic
cell, making its membrane potential more
negative and more resistant to
depolarization
Once released, neurotransmitters are removed
quickly by enzymatic breakdown, diffusion or
endocytosis (recycling) mediated by specific
receptors on the presynaptic membrane
Morphologically, various types of synapses are
seen between neurons
If an axon forms a synapse with a cell body, it is
called an axosomatic synapse; with a dendrite,
axodendritic; or with another axon, axoaxonic
The chemical transmitter used at neuromuscular
junction is acetylcholine. Within the CNS major
categories of neurotransmitters include the
following:
Catecholamines, such as
epinephrines(adrenalin),
norepinephrines, and dopamine
Amino acids (often modified), such as
glutamate, glycine, serotonin (5-
hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT), and -
aminobutyrate(GABA)
Small peptides, such as endorphins and
substance P
 MEDICAL APPLICATION diverse structurally and
Levels of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft functionally
and available binding postsynaptic receptors are Those with relatively few, long
normally regulated by several local mechanisms processes are called Fibrous
Selective serotoninreuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), Astrocytes and are typical in white
a widely used class of drugs for treatment of matter
depression ad anxiety disorders, were designed to Those with many shorter, branched
augment levels of this neurotransmitter at the processes are called Protoplasmic
postsynaptic membrane of serotonergic CNS Astrocytes and predominate in the
synapses by specifically inhibiting its reuptake at gray matter
the presynaptic membrane The larger processes of all astrocytes
are reinforced with bundles of
intermediate filaments made of glial
GLIAL CELLS & NEURONAL ACTVITY fibrillary acid protein (GFAP),
Glial cells support neuronal survival activities, which serves as a unique marker for
and are ten times more abundant in the astrocytes, the most common
mammalian brain than the neurons source of brain tumors
Like neurons, most glial cells develop from
progenitor cells of the embryonic neural plate MEDICAL APPLICATION
In the CNS, the glial cells surround both the Most brain tumors are
neuronal cell bodies, which are often larger than astrocytomas derived from
glial cells, and the processes of axonsand those glial cells and characterized
dendrites occupying the spaces between neurons pathologically by their
o Except around the larger blood vessels, expression of GFAP
the CNS has only a very small amount of
connective tissue and collagen Functions associated with various
Glial cells substitute for cells of connective astrocytes include the following:
tissue in some respects, supporting neurons and
creating microenvironment immediately around a. Regulating with extracellular
those cells that is optimal for neuronal activity ionic concentrations around
The fibrous intercellularnetwork surrounding neurons with particular importance
cells of the CNS may superficially resemble in buffering extracellular K+ levels
collagen with light microscopy, but it is actually
the network of cellular processes emerging from b. Guiding and physically
neurons and glial cells. Such processes are supporting movements and
collectively called the neuropil (Figure 9-8, locations of differentiating neurons in
p.170) developing CNS

6 kinds of Glial Cells: (Fig 9-9, p. 171) c. Extending processes with

1. Oligodendrocytes
Gr. oligos, small, few + dendron, tree +
kytos, cell
Produce the electrical insulation for
neurons in the CNS
Extend sheetlike processes that wrap
around parts of several axons,
producing myelin sheaths (see Fig. 9-
9a)
o These are the predominant
glial cells in CNS white
matter, which is white
because of the lipid
concentrated in the
wrapped membrane sheaths
2. Astrocytes
Gr astron, star + kytos
Have a large number of radiating
processes (Figure 9-9b and 9-10)
By far the most numerous glial cells
of the CNS, as well as the most
expanded perivascular feet that
cover capillary endothelial cells and
contribute to the BBB
d. Regulating vasodilation within
the CNS and moving nutrients,
wastes, and other metabolites
between neurons and capillaries
e. Extending processes that associate
with or cover synapses in the CNS,
affecting the formation, function, and
plasticity of these structures
g. Forming a barrier layer of
expanded processes, called the glial
limiting membrane, lining the
meninges at the external CNS surface
MEDICAL APPLICATION
 Alzheimers disease, a common Secrete a number of
type of dementia in the elderly, immunoregulatorycytokines and
affects BOTH neuronal constitute the major mechanism of
perikarya and synapses within immune defense in the CNS
the cerebrum Do NOT originate from neural
Functional defects are due to progenitor cells, but from circulating
neurofibrillary tangles, which blood monocytes
are accumulations of tau protein Nuclei of microglial cells can be
associated with microtubules of recognized in routine hematoxylin
the neuronal perikaryon and and eosin (H&E) preparations by
axon hillock regions, and their small, dense, elongated
neuritic plaques, which are structure
dense aggregates of -amyloid Immunohistochemistry using
protein that form around the antibodies against cell surface
outside of these neuronal regions antigens of immune cells
demonstrates microglial processes
Origin: Neural tube
Location: CNS o When activated by damage
Main Functions: Myelin production, or invaders, microglia
electrical insulation retract their processes

3. Ependymal Cells Origin: Bone marrow (monocytes)

Columnar or cuboidal cells that line Location: CNS
the ventricles of the brain and Main Functions: Defense and
central canal of the spinal cord immune-related activities
In some CNS locations, the apical
ends of ependymal cells have cilia, MEDICAL APPLICATION
which facilitate the movement of In multiple sclerosis (MS) the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and long myelin sheath surrounding the
microvilli, which are likely involved axons are damaged by an
in absorption autoimmune mechanism that
Joined apically by junctional interferes with the activity of the
complexes similar to those of affected neurons and produces
epithelial cells. However, unlike a various neurologic problems
true epithelium, there is no basal T lymphocytes and microglia,
lamina which phagocytose and degrade
Basal ends of ependymal cells are myelin debris, play major roles in
elongated and extend progression of the diseases
branchingprocesses into the 5. Schwann Cellsnamed for 19th century German
adjacent neuropil histologist Theodor Schwann
Origin: Neural tube Sometimes called neurolemmocytes, are found only in
Location: Line ventricles and the PNS and differentiate from precursors in the neural
central canal of CNS crest
Main Functions: Aid production and Have trophic interactions with axons and importantly
movement of CSF allow for their myelination (like the oligodendrocytes
of the CNS)
(see Fig 9-11, p.173) One schwann cell forms myelin around a segment of
one axon, in contrast to the ability of oligodendrocytes
4. Microglial Cells to branch and ensheath parrts of more than one axon
Less numerous than 6. Satellite Cells of Ganglia
oligodendrocytes or astrocytes but also derived from neural crest
nearly as common as neurons form an intimate covering layer over the large neuronal
Small cells with short irregular cell bodies in the ganglia of the PNS
processes evenly distributed they exert a trophic or supportive effect on these
throughout gray and white matter neurons, insulating, nourishing, and regualting their
Migrate through neuropil(apparent microenvironments
in gold stain) scanning the tissue for Central Nervous System
damaged cells and invading Major regions: cerebrum, cerebellum, spinal cord
microorganisms It is covered by three connective tissue layers called the
meninges (contains very little collagen/fibrous tissue
 throughout its substance, making it relatively soft and
easily damaged by injuries affecting protective
cranium/vertebral bones)
Many structural tissues of CNS can be seen in unstained
freshly dissected specimens
Displays organized areas of white matter and gray
matter (differences caused by differential dsitribution
of myelin)
White matter main components are myelinated
axons (often grouped together as tracts) and the
myelin-producing oligodendrocytes
Contains very few neuronal cell bodies, but
astrocytes and microglia are present.
Gray matter contains abundant neuronal cell
bodies, dendrites, initial unmyelinated portions of
axons, astrocytes and microglial cells
Where most synapses occurand occupies the
thick surface or cortex of both cerebrum and
cerebellum; most white matter is in deeper
regions
Deep regions of the CNS also have darker aggregates
called nuclei consisting of large numbers of neuronal
cell bodies amd surrounded by white matter
Neuroscientists recognize 6 layers of neurons with
different sizes and shapes in cerebral cortex
Pyramidal neurons (efferent) most
conspicuous of these neuron cells that come in
many sizes
Neurons of cerebral cortex function in the
integration of sensory information and initiation
of voluntary motor responses
Cerebellar cortex which coordinates muscular
activity throughout the body, also has a layered
organization:
Molecular layer (outer) central layer of
Purkinje cells (very large neurons named for 19th
century Czech histologist Jan Purkinje)
Granule layer (inner) formed by very small
neurons (diameters of 4-5 micrometer), which are
packed together densely, in contrast to the
neuronal cell bodies in molecular layer w/c are
sparse
The purkinje cell bodies are conspicuous even on
H&E stained material, and their dendrites extend
throughout the molecular layer as a branching
basket of nerve fibers.
Spinal cord white matter=peripheral, gray
matter=internal and has the general shape of the letter
H 3. Pia Mater (L., tender mother)
Central canal opening in the center which
develops from the lumen of embryonic neural tube
Continuous with the ventricles of the brain,
contains CSF, and is lined by ependymal cells
The gray matter forms the anterior horns (which
contain motor neurons whose axons make up the
ventral roots of spinal nerves) and posterior
horns (which receive sensory fibers from neurons
in the spinal (dorsal root) ganglia
Spinal cord neurons are large and multipolar,
especially the motor neurons in the anterior horns
Meninges membranes of connective tissue between
the bone and nervous tissue
Three meningeal layers:
1. Dura mater (L., tough mother)
Thick external layer which consists of dense,
fibroelastic connective tissue that is continuous
with the periosteum of the skull
Around the spinal cord it is separated from the
periosteum of the vertebrae by the epidural
space, which contains a plexus of thin-walled
veins and areolar connective tissue
Always separated from the arachnoid by the thin
subdural space
Internal surface of all dura mater, as well as its
external surface in the spinal cord, is covered by
simple squamous epithelium of mesenchymal
origin
2. Arachnoid (Gk. Arachnoeides, spiderweblike)
Two components:
a. a sheet of connective tissue in contact with
the dura mater
b. a system of loosely arranged trabeculae
(composed of collagen and fibroblasts,
continuous with the underlying pia mater
layer)
Subarachnoid space large, sponge-like
cavity filled with CSF that surrounds the
trabeculae
Helps cushion and protect the CNS from
minor trauma, and it communicates with the
ventricles of the brain where the CSF is
produced
Connective tissue of arachnoid is said to be
avascular because it lacks nutritive capillaries,
but larger blood vessels run through it.
Arachnoid in spinal cord has fewer trabeculae, it
can be more, it can be more clearly distinguished
from the pia mater in that area
Arachnoid and pia are intimately associated and
are often considered a single membrane call pia-
arachnoid.
In some areas, arachnoid penetrates dura mater
and protrudes into blood-filled venous sinuses
located within that layer
Arachnoid villi CSF-filled protrusions which are
coverd by vascular endothelial cells lining the
sinuses and function as a site for absorption of CSF
into the blood of the venous sinuses
Innermost layer which consists of flattened,
mesenchymally derived cells closely applied to
the entire surface of the CNS tissue
Does not directly contact nerve cells/fibers,
being sepatrated from neural elements by thin
superficial layer of astrocytic processes (glia
limitans), which adheres firmly to pia mater
pia mater and layer of astrocytic end feet form a
physical barrier separating CNS tissue from CSF
in subarachnoid space
 blood vessels penetrate CNS through long
perivascular spaces covered by pia mater
(although pia disappears when blood vessels
branch to form small capillaries)
capillaries remain completely covered by th
perivascular limiting layer of astrocytic
processes.
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) a functional barrier that
allows much tighter control than that in most tissues
over the passage of substances moving from blood
into the CNS tissue
Capillary endothelium the main structural
component of the BBB and in which the cells are
tightly sealed together with well-developed
occluding junctions and with litlle or no
transcytosis activity
Limiting layer of perivascular astrocytic feet
that completely envelops basal lamina of the
capillaries in most CNS regions form another BBB
component and further regulates passage of
molecules/ions from blood to brain
Protects neurons and glia from bacterial toxins,
infectious agents, and other exogenous
substances, and helps maintain the stable
composition and constant balance of ions in
interstitial fluid that is required for normal
neuronal function
Components of it (BBB) are not found in the
choroid plexus where CSF is produced, in the
posterior pituitary which releases hormones, or in
regions of the hypothalamus where plasma
components are monitored
Choroid Plexus consists of highly specialized tissue
with elaborate folds and many villi projecting into 4
large ventricles of the brain
It is found in the roofs of the 3rd and 4th ventricles
and in parts of the two lateral ventricular walls, all
regions in which ependymal lining directly
contacts the pia mater
Each region contains a thin layer of well-
vascularized pia mater covered by cuboidal
ependymal cells
Function is to remove water from blood and
release it as the CSF (is clear and contains Na+, K+,
Cl- ions but very little protein, and its only cells are
normally very sparse lymphocytes)
CSF is produced continuously and completely fills
the ventricles, central canal of spinal cord,
subarachnoid and perivascular spaces and it
provides the ions required for CNS neuronal
activity and in the arachnoid serves to help absorb
mechanical shocks
Arachnoid villi provide the main pathway for
absorption of CSF back into venous circulation
There are no lymphatic vessels in CNS tissue
Peripheral Nervous System
Main components: nerves, ganglia, nerve endings
Nerves bundles of nerve fibers (axons) surrounded
by Schwann cells and layers of connective tissue
Nerve Fibers are analogous to tracts in the CNS,
containing axons enclosed within sheaths of glial cells
specialized to facilitate axonal function
Axons are sheathed by Schwann cells
(neurolemmocytes) in peripheral nerve fibers, and the
sheath may or may not form myelin around the axons,
depending on their diameter
Axons of large diameters grow in PNS and are engulfed
along their length by a series of differentiating
neurolemmocytes and become myelinated nerve
fibers
The plasma membrane of each covering Schwann cell
fuses with itself around the axon, and the fused
membrane (mesaxon) becomes wrapped around the
axon as the glial cell body moves circumferentially
around the axon many times
Myelin sheath united multiple layers of Schwann
cell membrane
Myelin is a large lipoprotein complex that, like cell
membranes, is partly removed by standard histologic
procedures
composed mainly of lipid bilayers and membrane
proteins
Unlike oligodenrocytes of the CNS, a Schwann cell
forms myelin around only a portion of one axon
Myelin sheath appears as a thick electron-dense axonal
covering in which the concentric membrane layers may
be visible in high-magnification TEM
Major dense lines prominent electron-dense layers
visible ultrastructurally in the sheath which represent
the fused, protein-rich cytoplasmic surfaces of the
Schwann cell membrane
surfaces along myelin sheath periodically separate
slightly to allow transient movement of cytoplasm for
membrane maintenance; myelin clefts (Schmidt-
Lanterman clefts) major dense lines temporarily
disappear,
Schwann cell membranes have higher proportion of
lipids than other cell membranes and the myelin sheath
serves to insulate axons and maintain constant ionic
microenvironment suitable for action potentials
Nodes of Ranvier (nodal gaps) In between adjacent
Schwann cells on an axon, where the axon is only
partially covered by interdigitating Schwann cell
processes
Axolemma is exposed to ions in the interstitial
fluid and has a much higher concentration of
voltage-gated Na+channels, which renew the
action potential and produce saltatory
conduction (L., saltare, to jump) of nerve
impulses, their rapid movement from node to
node
Internodal segment length of axon ensheathed
by one Schwann cell, which varies directly with
axonal diameter and ranges from 300-1500
micrometer
Unmyelinated Fibers glial cell does not form
multiple wrapping of a myelin sheath
Unlike CNS were many short axons are not
myelinated at all but run free among other
 neuronal and glial processes, the smallest-
diameter axons of peripheral nerves are still
enveloped within simple folds of Schwann cells
Each schwann cell can enclose portions of
many axons with small diameters
Nodes of ranvier are not seen
Small diameter axons have evenly distributed
voltage-gated ion channels; impulse
conduction not saltatory and is much slower
than that of myelinted axons
Nerve Organization
Nerve fibers are grouped into bundles to form
nerves
Nerves, except for very thin nerves containing
only unmyelinated fibers, have whitish, glistening
appearance because of their myelin and collagen
content
axons & schwann cells are enclosed within layers
of connective tissue
Endoneurium thin layer immediately around
the external laminae of Schwann cells which
consists of reticular fibers, scattered fibroblasts,
and capillaries
Perineuriuma sleeve that bundles groups of
axons with Schwann cells and endoneurium
together as Fascicles
Containing flat fibrocytes with their edges
sealed together by tight junctions
From 2-6 layers of these unique connective
tissue cells regulate diffusion into the
fascicle and make up the blood-nerve
barrier which helps maintain the fibers
microenvironment
Epineurium dense, irregular fibrous coat
which extends deeply to fill the space between
fascicles
Very small nerves consist of one fascicle
Peripheral nerves establish communication
between centers in the CNS and the sense organs
and effectors (muscles, glands, etc.)
Afferent fibers carry information from
internal body regions and the environment to
the CNS
Efferent fiberscarry impulses from the CNS
to effector organs commanded by these centers
Sensory nerves nerves possessing only
sensory fibers
Motor nerves composed only of fibers
carrying impulses to the effectors
mIxed nerves nerves thathave both sensory
and motor fibers, usually also with both
myelinated and unmyelinated axons
Ganglia typically ovoid structures containing
neuronal cell bodies and their surrounding glial
satellite cells supported by delicate connective tissue
& surrounded by a denser capsule
Serve as relay stations to transmit nerve impulses,
at least on nerve enters and another exits from
each ganglion
Direction of nerve impulses determines whether
the ganglion wll be a sensory or an autonomic
ganglion
a. Sensory ganglia receive afferent impulses that
go to the CNS
Associated with both cranial nerves (cranial
ganglia) and the dorsal roots of spinal nerves
(spinal ganglia)
Large neuronal cell bodies of ganglia are
associated with thin, sheetlike extensions of
small glial satellite cells
It is supported by a distinct connective tissue
capsule and an internal framework continuous
with the connective tissue layers of the nerves
Neurons are pseudounipolar and relay
information from the ganglions nerve endings
to the gray matter of the spinal cord via
synapses with local neurons
b. Autonomic ganglia (Gr. Autos, self + nomos,
law)
Effect the activity of smooth muscle, secretion of
some glands, heart rate, and many other
involuntary activities by which the body maintains
a constant internal environment (homeostasis)
small bulbous dilations in autonomic nerves,
usually with multipolar neurons
some are located within certain organs, especially
in the walls of digestive tract, where they
constitute the intramural ganglia (capsules may
be poorly defined among local connective tissue)
layer of satellite cells also envelops the neurons of
this ganglia, these may also be inconspicuous in
intramural ganglia
autonomic nerves use two-neuron circuit:
first neuron with preganglionic fiber and
is located in CNS
its axons forms a synapse with
postganglionic fibers of the second
multipolar neuron in the chain locared
in the peripheral ganglion system
acetylcholine is the chemical mediator
present in the synaptic vesicles of all
preganglionic axons
autonimic nerves make up the autonomic nervous
system which has two parts:
1. Sympathetic
Neuronal cell bodies of preganglionic
sympathetic nerves are located in the
thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal cord
Sympathetic 2nd neurons are located in small
ganglia long vertebral column
2. Parasympathetic
Neuronal cell bodies are in the medulla and
midbrain and in the sacral portion of spinal
cord
Second neurons are found in very small
ganglia always located near or within the
effector organs (ex. Walls of
stomach/intestine)
 May lack distinct capsules altogether, blockage of outflow from ventricles during fetal or
perikarya and associated satellite cells simply postnatal development
forming a loosely organized plexus within the Multiple sclerosis (MS) myelin sheaths
surrounding connective tissue surrounding axons are damaged by autoimmune
Neural Plasticity and regeneration mechanism that interferes with the activity of the
Nervous system exhibits neuronal differentiation affected neurons and produces various neurologic
and formation of new synapses even in adults problems; T lymphocytes and microglia play
Neural plasticityand reformation of processes major roles in progression of this disease
are controlled by several growth factors produced Destructive actions of t lymphocytes/
by both neurons and glial cells in a family of microglia exceeds the capacity of
proteins called neurotrophins oligodendrocytes to produce myelin and
Neuronal stem cells are present in the adult CNS, repair myelin sheaths
locartd in part among the cells of ependyma,
which can supply new neurons, astrocytes,and
oligodendrocytes
Fully differentiated, interconnected CNS neurons
cannot temporarily disengage these connections
and divide to replace cells lost by injury or disease
Astrocytes do proliferate at injured sites and these
growing cells can interfere with successful axonal
regenaration in structures such as spinal cord
tracts
Histologically much simpler peripheral nerves,
injured axons have much greater potential for
regeneration and return of function
If cell bodies are intact, damaged, or severed PNS
axons can regenerate
Distal portions of axons, isolated from their source
of new proteins and organelles, degenerate;
surrounding Schwann cells dedifferentiate, shed
the myelin sheaths and proliferate within
surrounding layers of connective tissue
Cellular debris including shed myelin is removed
by blood-derived macrophages which also secret
neurotrophins to promote anabolic events of axon
regeneration
Onset of regeneration is signaled by changes in
perikaryon that characterize the process of
Chromatolysis;
1. cell body swells slightly, Nissl substance is
initially diminished, and nucleus migrates to a
peripheral position within perikaryon
2. proximal segment of the axon close to the
wound degenerates for a short distance, but
begins to grow again distally as new Nissl
substance appears and debris is removed
3. New Schwann cells align to serve as guides for
the regrowing axons & produce polypeptide
factors that promote axonal outgrowth
4. Motor axons reestablish synaptic connections
with muscles and function is restored

Medical application:
Neuroma newly growing axons may form a
swelling that can be source of spontaneous pain
Hydrocephalus (Gr. Hydro, water + kephale,
head) promotes progressive enlargement of
head followed by mental impairment which is
caused by a decrease in absorption of CSF or a