Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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This book was originally conceived as a set of
lecture notes for engineers engaged in the
marketing of cutting fluids. During the
background researches it was found that ^H
serious omissions existed in the copious
bibliography of metal-machining. Some books.
\
for example, assume that readers have a
detailed knowledge of machine tools and ,ys
machining processes, although in fact many
post-graduate students and managerial staff in
industry have no such intimate acquaintance
with production plant. Other publications give
machining data for only a limited range of
workpiece materials; no modern treatment of
this subject, however, can afford to ignore the
high-performance metals being used more and
more in the aeronautical and allied industries.
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Machine Tools
Metals and
Cutting Fluids
Plate I
A complex workpiece being turnedfrom mild-steel bar on
an automatic lathe. The coolant here is 'neat' cutting oil.
n
metal.
Machining note: This component's profile has been
machined by the form-tool in the background. An internal
thread is being cut by the tap on the right, which is
Acknowledgements
The British Petroleum Company Ltd expresses its gratitude for the data, technical advice and assistance provided by
machine-tool manufacturers, specialist industries and research centres during the preparation of this book. The
editors have drawn on material published or provided by the following organizations additional to those mentioned
in the text, and this is gratefully acknowledged
*.,.'- T-MLwai* .,
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ACCESSION >Jo.
88630
Lfc>S No. XUC
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BP Trading Limited
Britannic House
Moor Lane
London EC2Y 9BU
Photography
Main graphic illustrations: Donald Page
Toolpoint close-ups on page 63 : PER A
MP 432/1972
t=JP
Contents
Introduction
1 Centre Lathes 10
2 Capstan and Turret Lathes 12
3 Vertical Boring Machines 13
4.1 Single-spindle 13
4.2 Multi-spindle 15
5 Chucking Automatics 15
6 Milling Machines 18
6.1 Horizontal 18
6.2 Vertical 19
6.3 Universal 19
6.4 Milling machines in general 19
7 Drilling Machines 22
8 Deep-Hole Boring Machines 26
9 Shapers 26
10 Slotters 27
11 Planers 27
12 Grinding Machines and Processes 29
12.1 Cylindrical grinders 29
1 2.2 Surface grinders 29
12.3 Centreless grinders 31
1 Standardized Nomenclature 43
2 Definitions of Cutting-Tool Nomenclature 43
3 Influence of the Components of Shape 45
3.1 Cutting-edge rake 45
3.1.1 Positive side-rake 45
3.1.2 Negative side-rake 45
3.1.3 Cutting-edge back-rake 46
3.2 End and side relief angles (DIN) 46
3.3 Clearance angles (DIN) 46
3.4 Nose radius 46
4 Tool Setting on Lathes 46
5 Tables of Machines and Tool-Setting Data 49
Basic Considerations 58
1.1 Shear strength 58
1.2 Strain- or work-hardenability 58
1.3 Hardness 58
1 .4 Abrasiveness 58
The Type 1 Chip - Discontinuous or Segmental 59
The Type 2 Chip - Simple Continuous 59
The Type 3 Chip - Simple Continuous, with Built-up Edge 61
1 Tool Wear 75
2 Tool Life 76
1
1 Microstructure
2 Grain Size
3 Hardness
4 Metallurgical Condition due to Heat Treatment
5 Metallurgical Condition due to Manipulation
6 Chemical Composition 81
Ferrous Metals 82
1.1 Plain carbon steels
1 .2 Free-machining steels
3 Soluble-Oil Emulsions 92
3.1 Milky soluble-oil emulsions 93
3.2 Clear soluble-oil emulsions 93
3.3 'Extreme-pressure' (EP) soluble-oil emulsions 94
4 Preparation, Use and Maintenance of Soluble-Oil Emulsions 94
4.1 Storage and band ling 94
4.2 Preparation 94
4.3 Water quality 95
4.4 Acidity and alkalinity 96
4.5 Controlling emulsion strength 96
4.6 Keeping emulsions clean 98
4.7 Operating temperatures 99
4.8 Applying the fluid 99
5 Chemical Coolants 101
5.1 Synthetic grinding fluids 101
Glossary 117
Index 120
5
6 :
Crankshaft machining 15
Gear-shaping 33
Centreless grinding 39
Types of swarf 48
Multi-spindle drilling 63
Flank wear and crater wear 64
Form-milling 72
Vertical broaching 78
Plate II: Soluble-oil emulsion Facing 82
Internal grinding 84
Plate III: Synthetic coolant Facing 91
Boring machine 93
Cylindrical grinding 98
Plate IV: Skin cancer Facing 112
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Composition
controlling factors Bracing
i
technique :
Physical ptoperties i
Tipped
Stiffness I
Material
Sha
Damping Cross-section
Setting position
Rough Tip
Machining Edges k surfaces
Efficiency ol Material
stock removal
Sn rf "eat
, treatment
Rate of
Combined carbon i
stock removal
Carbide material
Tool life I F'T. JS Lr :io^ * ':
Material Segregation
Non-ferrous
Non-metallic
Work inclusions
Form Structure
Grain si^e
Proportions Physical
properties
Rigidity
Surface
condition Foundation
Rigidity
Frame
p Horizontal
mm Damping
Tool mmmmmmmmwmmmmwm Headstock
setting Ver c3 | |
Accuracy
Tool- holding
Angular device
Finish
Machining
Machine mmmmm
Condition
Design
i Slides
Rigidity
Accuracy
Dimensional _, '
Speed Lubrication
" Cuttmt.i Drive
accu'acy " conditions
MM Feed
Foed
Rate of surface
Depth mechanism
production
Chucks etc
! Tool life
Typo of bearing
Rate of flow
Rigidity
1
Temperature Spindle
Accuracy
Application
Cutting fluid Neat oil
i
i
Lubrication
composition
Type
Composition
Soluble oil Corrosion etc
Dilution
Aqueous
.
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Introduction
Metal machining, like most techniques used in industry, increase in cutting speed. The resultant importance
developed from fairly crude beginnings. Today's attached to the use of cutting fluids has perhaps led
machine tool can be said to stem from a crude some production engineers - and even some oil-com-
machine constructed in about the year 1 500 for boring pany representatives - to think that these fluids will
gun barrels; the disadvantage of this machine was that solve all machining difficulties. Too often, engineers try
the tool followed the profile of the casting - which was to overcome their problems by making a change of
invariably irregular. The first reliable book on the cutting fluid, usually going to one containing more
subject of metal-working was published in about 1540. additives, without examining all the other factors in-
Since then, of course, there have been many signifi- volved. The limitations of this attitude are underlined in
cant developments, particularly from the 19th century the abridged table of factors and criteria in typical
tjp
1. Machine tools
The primary function of all machine tools is to remove da Vinci (1452-1519) contain drawings of many
metal, in order to produce an object of precise shape and machine tools, among them a lathe with 'pole' drive (a
dimensions from a rough form. The machine tool treadle operating a crank). It is an intriguing commen-
applies the necessary force and the correct relative tary on the importance of machine tools that many of
movement between tool and workpiece for the removal Leonardo's inventions, including his machine tools,
of the unwanted material. A machine tool capable of could not be made because there were no machine tools
performing every type of machining operation could with which to fashion them. However there is evidence
possibly be designed but such a machine would be that crude lathes driven by water or animal power, and
forbiddingly large, and a complex piece of engineering; based on his designs, were in existence in the 1500's.
in addition it would be highly uneconomic, since only a Not until the late 18th century did lathes made of
small part of its potential could ever be realized during metal, with sliding toolrests, come into being. In
the greater part of its life. England in 1810 Henry Maudslay constructed a lathe
Design has tended to point the other way: machine that incorporated a lead-screw and so made possible the
tools are designed to perform the minimum variety of manufacture of a variety of machine tools. Thirty years
machining operations, and in this way maximum later the lathe was well established.
efficiency is achieved. A degree of versatility is attained 1 shows a modern lathe of simple design
Fig it com- :
in many types of machine tool , but almost always in one a bed or frame, a fixed headstock, a carriage that
prises
specific respect. Mining machines, for example, may be moves on longitudinal slideways, and a tailstock whose
universal - capable of vertical, longitudinal and trans- position is adjustable along the bed. The headstock
verse milling. embodies a spindle and its bearings, gears to adjust the
One result of this design philosophy is that machine speed of the spindle, and gears or belts connecting the
tools are essentially simple in operation. This may not gear-change system to a power source (usually an
be apparent when one looks at an automatic lathe, which electric motor).
probably carries out many operations on a workpiece The carriage incorporates a horizontal saddle and a
however, if we analyse its performance we see that, with vertical apron, and the toolholder is mounted on a
turrets holding different types of tool, a series of cross-slide on the saddle. Beneath the toolpost is a
essentially simple turning operations is being performed. secondary slide which can be swivelled through a small
The following brief descriptions of the more common angular movement and locked, so that a taper or
types of machine tool emphasize this fundamental chamfer can be machined by operation of the secondary
simplicity of the machining operations employed in slide. The work-holding device is mounted on the head-
industry, and of the machine tools that perform them. stock spindle, and takes the form of a multi-jaw chuck
or a spring-sleeve device called a collet (both of which
grip the sides of the piece) or perhaps a face-plate to
which the piece is bolted. The workpieces may be of
1 Centre Lathes irregular shape - for example complicated castings or
The machine
lathe can be considered as the primary forgings thatmust be machined on only some of their
tool; historically, from which nearly all
it is the one surfaces - so some chucks can be tightened
the jaws of
others have been developed. The records of Leonardo independently. Long components are mounted between
10
Figl
This illustration of a typical modern centre-
lathe shows details of the transmission and Spindle drive
gear system inside the headstock. The
driving motor is beneath the headstock, and
multiple belts convey drive to the pulley at
the left. In the plan view at the top are seen
the speed-selection gears for the main
spindle, together with multi-plate clutches for
Headstock
11
a conical 'centre' inserted in the headstock spindle and a the machining operations performed on these lathes are
similar (usually stationary) one in the tailstock. In some longitudinal - drilling, boring, tapping, threading and
instances the spindle is hollow, and this allows a long long-turning.
component or bar stock to be held in the chuck, with The differences between capstan and turret lathes arc
only part of it projecting into the cutting zone. as follows. In the capstan lathe (Fig 4) the head is
The lathe illustrated in Fig 1 can turn external dia- mounted on a short slide; this in turn mounted on a
is
meters, face-turn, drill, bore, produce screw-threads and base which can be moved to any desired position and
both external and internal tapers, and part-off com- clamped to the bed. The head therefore has a short
ponents. With the gap-bed chuck .lathe (Fig 2) most stroke, which makes for rapid manipulation, especially
of these operations are possible, and so is the machining since the head indexes automatically at the end of each
of large, flat surfaces. In modern production techniques withdrawal stroke. Usually a separate saddle carries a
many lathes are controlled automatically. One practice simple toolpost for parting-off finished components. In
is to employ hydraulic copying devices, in which a the turret (Fig 5) the saddle for the head is mounted
stylus follows the profile of a template or a master directly on the bed, the length of which governs travel.
component and the tool traces out the same outline on Such a lathe normally has a conventional toolpost
the workpiece. Another involves numerical control, in between the turret saddle and the headstock.
which coded signals on a punched tape arc translated Most capstan lathes have hollow hcadstock-spindles
into movements of the lathe. so that work can be produced from bar stock. In this
case the chuck takes the form of a collet, which is
opened rapidly to allow the bar to move forward, and
2 Capstan and Turret Lathes then quickly closed for machining. Normally a succes-
In these machines the tailstock of the orthodox lathe is sion of similar components is machined from the bar,
replaced by an assembly carrying a turret-type head, and at the completion of each cycle the component is
and each indexing movement of the turret brings a parted-off and the bar is moved forward to produce the
new tooling set-up into the machining position. A wide next. If long bars are to be machined, a carrier is pro-
range of attachments can be bolted to the faces of the vided for them beyond the headstock. These machines
turret.The heavier attachments carry a sleeve that are sometimes automated either completely by the use of
registers with a pilot bar projecting from the headstock, numerical control, or partly by the use of copying
to act as a guide and support during heavy cuts. Most of attachments.
Chuck
Fig 2
A Lang gap-bed chuck lathe of older design. Some chucks a workpiece can be greater than the height of the spindle
are self-centring, but this has four jaws which are axis above the slideways. The cross-slide can be used for
tightened independently, so the workpiece need not be of machining large, flat surfaces, and the tool-slide would be
regular shape. Because of the gap in the bed the radius oj usedfor fine longitudinal adjustments or manualfeeds.
12
Column
Tool-holding
turret
Facing
slide
unit
Fig 3
Vertical borers such as this machine perform
much the same duty as lathes, but offer
greater ease of loading and unloading with
heavy or large workpieces.
(Thomas Ryder and Sons Lid.)
An automatic lathe (commonly known as an auto) per- This has a single rotating spindle, and hence deals with
forms the same operation as a simple lathe but, as the only one piece of bar or stock. The cutting tools, drills or
machine's name suggests, once it is set up the operations taps are held in a multi-station turret, and only one tool
are carried out automatically. In contrast to the centre at a time is in the cutting position. On completion of
lathe, it requires workpieces of regular section - round, each operation the turret withdraws and indexes to
square or hexagonal. The bar is fed through the hollow bring the next cutting tool into position. There are
spindle of the headstock and is secured at one end by the normally six stations on the turret, permitting six con-
chuck, which automatically fixes it accurately on the secutive operations to be performed on the workpiece.
rotational axis of the machine; its free end is supported Additional external operations, including parting-off,
on rollers. Bars arc theoretically of any length, but are performed by toolposts movable on slides attached
practical considerations usually limit them to about 5 m to the machine bed. Operation of these cross-slide tools
13
Turret locking
Main slideway
handle
Capstan rest
hexagonal tool-holder. On the capstan lathe (above) it is on the bed. (H. w. Ward and Company)
Headstock
Intermediate saddle
Turret
Turret
clamp
lever
Saddle
locking
lever
Feed gearbox
Intermediate
saddle apron Star handle for
Turret saddle Turret apron turret operation
14
4.2 Multi-spindle (Fig 7) 5 Chucking Automatics
These have a number of workpiece spindles arranged in Many components, because of their shape or the
a circular carrier round the main horizontal axis of the machining required, cannot be turned from bar stock.
machine: the number varies according to the type of Consequently they must be fed to the work area from
machine - four, five, six or eight - and every spindle the front, as in orthodox turning. The automatic lathes
carries its own bar. Opposite each spindle position is a for this purpose are known as chucking automatics or
machining station set up to perform one or more semi-autos. The single-spindle version has developed
operations; the stations are, in effect, on a static from the turret lathe, and the main variation is that
longitudinal 'turret'. after the work has been fed to the chuck - either
After each operation the spindle carrier indexes round manually or, more usually, by an automatic handling
the main axis, moving the spindles from one station to device - a full cycle of operations is initiated the chuck
:
the next. Thus, in a six-spindle automatic, six bars are is locked, the machine started, the machining performed
machined simultaneously, each undergoing a different and the spindle stopped ready for reloading.
operation. At the first station, unmachined bar receives The multi-spindle chucking auto, on the other hand,
the initial operation while at the sixth station the final has been developed from the multi-spindle bar machine.
operation takes place and the completed workpiece is The major differences are that in the former each spindle
parted-off. As in the single-spindle automatic there are carries a chuck which can hold a casting or forging
cross-slides for external machining and parting-off. On (possibly of irregular shape) and that the spindles have
large six- and eight-spindle machines as many as six independent drive enabling them to be stopped at the
cross-slides can be fitted; 12 to 14 operations can there- loading station. Thus a new piece can be loaded into one
fore be carried out in the ful I cycle. chuck while machining is still in progress at the others.
A development of this idea is the multi-spindle vertical
15
Speed-change Tool-slides
mechanism
Bar-feed and
collet mechanism Turret
Turret slide
Turret camshaft
and indexing
mechanism
Speed-change
trips
Fig 6 and 6a
In the single-spindle automatic lathe the
work is machined from a long bar that is fed
from the left-hand end through the spindle.
16
Fig 7 and 7a
For very high rates of production the
multi-spindle automatic lathe is pre-
ferred. In some, such as this Wickman
machine, the volume of swarffrom the
cutting zone justifies the inclusion
Swarf
conveyor
Collet and
bar-feed cams Range-change Constant-speed
Main camshaft gears shaft
17
:
the start of the cut and thick where the tooth leaves the the axis of the cutter is horizontal. Whereas the work-
Fig8
Fig 9
Fig 8a
Fig 10 Fig 11
Fig 8-11
Milling cutters are shaped according to application. One cutters (Fig 10) whose peripheries are ground to the
version, the plain, cylindrical or 'slab' mill (Fig 8), has appropriate form. The end mill (Fig 11), oriented at right
its axis parallel to the work; the face mill's (Fig 8a) is at angles to the main work surface and to the direction of the
right angles. For the simultaneous cutting of two faces at work's movement, is used for cutting slots and grooves.
mutual right angles the side-and-face cutter (Fig 9) is Cutters with shanks are gripped in collets; those with
used. Continuous profiles can be machined by form- bores are mounted on arbors.
18
Fig 12 and 12a
When the workpiece and the milling cutter move in opposite directions the action is known
as 'up' milling, and each chip is thin where the tooth enters the work. In 'climb' or 'down cut' milling,
on the other hand, the two move in the same direction so the chip is thick at the start of the cut.
table can be moved manually or automatically in the tool tableways can be cut. Face cutters enable large,
is normally used for milling flat surfaces, slots and 6.3 Universal (Fig 15)
keyways, and is capable of high rates of metal removal. horizontal but the
In this machine the cutting axis is
keyways can be machined and the tee slots for machine- distinctions between vertical, horizontal and universal
Fig 13
Milling machines are made in various configurations, and
one of the virtues of the bed-type machine shown here is
that it has a long table. It can be equipped with a column
Fig 14a
20
Overarm Arbor inner support
Column or
headstock
Universal
dividing-head
Table
traverse
handwhee!
Dividing-head
drive gears
for helical
milling
II Swivel housing
Cross-feed
engaging lever
Vertical feed
Rear hand crank
cross-feed
hand c Feed-rate
change lever
Rea
rapid
I eve Coolant return pipe
21
orientations, are all of the knee-type machine, which is For higher outputs the bed-type miller (Fig 13) is more
one of three basic designs of milling machine. In the likely to be used: its table has only longitudinal move-
knee-type layout the tool spindle is mounted on a rigid ment, and the spindle carrier is housed in a vertically
column, in front of which is a vertically adjustable movable head on a rigid column. The main feature is
'knee' carrying the work-table. This type of machine that the machine has a long table which is well-supported
is favoured for small-to-medium components in batch for the whole of its length. As with the horizontal
production. knee-type machine, whenever a long arbor is used it is
Spindle comes from the fact that it has the same general size
head and appearance as the planing machine (deal t with later).
Modern milling machines are extremely versatile,
and those with provision for three-dimensional feed
Pillar
can be programmed for numerical control through
punched tapes; with such control, complicated shapes
can be produced extremely accurately with a minimum
of supervision. At the other end of the production scale
are the machines suitable for jobbing work, in which
flexibility of application is important. An adaptation of
the horizontal knee-type machine in this category is the
turret-type machine, in which the spindle drive is carried
through an angularly adjustable turret so that irregular
workpieces can be machined without being supported
on inclined fixtures. Turret-type machines also offer a
very flexible approach, by virtue of the ease with which
the angles can be changed.
7 Drilling Machines
The machine comprises a work-table and a
drilling
a radial drill (Fig 17). Pillar drills can drill in only one
axis,and the workpiece must be accurately positioned.
The radial drill, on the other hand, can be adjusted
along its arm, which can swing through 360 around the
column. Thus there is an annular area in which any
Fig 16
number of holes can be drilled without the workpiece
On the orthodox rigid (pillar) drilling machine the table
being moved. During a drilling operation the cutting
has no horizontal movement; after the operator has raised
tool, while rotating, is fed manually or automatically
or lowered it to suit the height of the workpiece and the
into the stationary workpiece. In addition to drills,
vertical travel of the drill, he positions the workpiece or
various cutting tools are used, among which are
its holding device, and may then clamp it to the table.
(Herbert Boring and Drilling Ltd)
reamers and tapping tools.
22
Fig 17
This is the radial drill, on which the
drilling head can be moved radially
along the arm, which in turn can be
swung around the pillar. Thus one
drilling bit can be used to drill several
Traversing
spindle head
Centralized
controls
Swivelling
arm
Column
Adjustable
table
23
Constant-speed
motor
Variable-speed
motors, direct
drive to spindles
Gearbox for
Electric speed selection
speed-change
selector
Hand feed
Automatic feed
Multi-drill heads
Table
Table height
adjustment
Fig 18
In some operations -particularly batch-production work drilling machine offers this facility: the workpiece is
several groups of drilling!reaming! tapping operations fixed in a jig, which the operator passes along slideways
have to be performed on one component. The multi-head between the work-stations.
(Herbert Boring and Drilling Lid)
24
Piping to hydraulic
controls
Turret slide
Column and
spindle drive
gearbox
Turret
Speed selection
(six spindles)
Control
cabinet
Depth stops
Work table
Push-button
controls
Fig 19
A Middlesex turret drill. All operations are in the same numerical control - such that a wide range of operations
vertical axis, but the movements of the turret and the is performed, producing a precise, repeatable though
25
The drilling head, usually a self-contained unit in- 8 Deep-Hole Boring Machines
corporating an electric motor, has gears for varying the
A 'deep' hole is usually defined as one whose depth is
rotational speed and in some cases for applying feed to
more than ten times its diameter. There are several
the drill. Drill sizes vary from 0025 mm (0001 in) to
reasons why the machining of such holes is often beyond
about 76 mm (3 in). Tapping attachments, used for the
the scope of standard twist - the coolant finds
drills
production of internal threads, embody automatic
difficulty in reaching the cutting zone, and swarf does
reversing mechanisms that unscrew the tap when the
not clear easily; cutting speeds and feeds must be low
operator releases downward pressure.
because of a long drill's poor torsional strength;
The drilling machines described arc those most com-
dimensional and directional accuracy are lacking; and
monly and more refined ones have been
used, but larger
surface finish is poor.
developed, some of them with a number of drilling
As a result, special techniques and machines have
heads (Fig 18). In the automobile industry multi-head
been developed for boring deep holes. In one method -
machines arc used for producing all the drilled and
known as gun drilling - the cutter is mounted at the end
tapped holes in engine castings, in automatic sequence.
of a tube through which coolant is fed. In another the
Another type is the turret drill (Fig 19), in which the
coolant passes down the space between the workpiece
drilling head has a number of spindles but only one
and the tube on which the cutter is mounted, and the
drilling position.The work-table has movement in two
coolant flushes swarf away through the bore of the
horizontal directions, however. The spindles, which are
tube; the tube is centralized by guide pads, which are
indexed to the work position in sequence, hold tools of
lubricated by the coolant. A third technique involves a
different sizes or types, so enabling complex holes or
cutter mounted end of two co-axial tubes, with
at the
hole patterns to be produced.
coolant fed through the annular space between them;
The turret drill is especially suitable for conversion to
this tool can be used on standard lathes and borers.
numerical control. Since the work-table is moved
longitudinally and transversely by a programmed tape,
9 Shapers
holes of the same or various sizes can be produced with-
out jigs, in exact relationship to a datum point. Further- In the pillar-type shaper (Fig 20) the tool reciprocates
more, large quantities of identical components can be across a stationary workpiece. The toolhead, which is
produced. Operation is automatic once the machine has mechanically or hydraulically driven, follows a straight
been set, loaded and started. cutting path with a single-pointed tool; the forward
Toolholder
I. '"T^
Work-holding vice
Table
Table support
Fig 20
The pillar- type shaper. Its ram
has a simple short-stroke recipro-
cating action, and the table on
which the work-piece is mounted
is given a lateral feed to produce a Saddle
plane surface. The tool is mounted
in a hinged toolholder, so that the
tool swings free during its return. (Builer Machine Tool Co. Lid)
26
Ram Column
Fig 21
The slotter. Here again the movement is a
simple short-stroke reciprocation, but in a
vertical direction. This machine, originally
Rotary table
Gearbox
Longitudinal
slideway
Transverse
slideway
stroke is the cutting one, and the return merely an idling except that its toolhead reciprocates vertically to give
stroke. A hinge on the toolholder enables the tool to the cutting action. Its main purpose is to cut slots
lift during the return stroke and so to slide lightly across or grooves - usually keyways in components to be
the vvorkpicce; the return stroke is quicker than the keyed to shafts - but it is also used to cut other forms.
cutting stroke. Some heavy-duty machines are equipped The tool is same width as the slot. Cutting
generally the
with power-lift for the toolholder. takes place only on the downward stroke, and the tool-
On some shapers, tool feed is applied mechanically holder swings clear during the return stroke; at the end
or manually to the work-table, horizontally and at of the return stroke the table feeds forward to provide
right angles to the stroke of the tool ; on travelling-head the requisite depth of cut. On some slotters the work-
shapers the cross-feed is obtained by traversing the ram. holder is capable of rotation through 360 on a vertical
Depth of cut is regulated by vertical adjustment of the axis, so that vertical slots can be machined in angular
workpicce table or the toolholder. Blind keyways or relationship to each other. A curved surface can be
slots in holes can be cut, as can the teeth of spur and generated by virtue of a limited amount of workpiece
helical gears. (Special purpose gcar-shapers are des- rotation relative to the cutting tool.
The slotting machine (Fig 21) is similar to the shaper. its table moves past one or more stationary cutting tools.
27
Cross-slide Cross-slide
elevating drive elevating
gearbox
Cross-slide
Quill type
milling head Slide head
and drive balance
weight
Pendant
control
station
Table drive
gearbox
inversion of the s/iaper, in that the workplace moves but employed for milling a very long component: instead of a
the tool remains static. One or more tools are mounted on static tool the cross-slide carries a milling head, and the
toolholders on the cross-slide, and they are given cross- table is given a slow feed instead of reciprocation.
feed while the table reciprocates. Thus are produced one or
(Butler Machine Tool Co. Ltd and
more planed surfaces. As with the shaper, the tool is fixed John Stirk and Sons Ltd)
28
As in the shaper, the toolholder is hinged to allow the (and their developed versions, centreless grinders), but
tool to lift during its return stroke. On modern planers there are also many special-purpose machines.
hinge mechanism is an added safety measure in case of 12.1 Cylindrical grinders (Fig 23)
number of cutting points. Sec page 74 for notes on the millers, in that the workpiece is firmly secured by bolts
identification marking of grinding wheels. or magnets to a flat table that reciprocates or rotates
There are two basic types of grinding machines in horizontally beneath a vertical or horizontal rotating
Diamond Wheelhead
down feed
Workhead
Tailstock
Finger-tip control
for diminishing
feed
Workhead speed
control
Grinding wheel
Table speed control cross feed with
micro-adjustment
Fig 23
This is the cylindrical grinding machine, in which the axes finish and lack of dimensional control, so the wheel's
of the wheel and the slowly rotating workpiece are working surface is trued by a diamond dressing- tool,
parallel. During a cut the table traverses longitudinally; which on some machines comes into operation auto-
between working strokes the wheelhead is fed forward to matically at intervals. The position of the wheelhead is
reduce the workpiece diameter until the required dimen- automatically adjusted to restore dimensional control.
sion is reached. Wheel-wear could lead to poor surface (Churchill Machine Tool Co. Ltd)
29
Table Table traverse Belt-driven
speed control wheel head
assembly
Cross saddle
- Wheelhead slide
Grinding wheel
Saddle
Table traverse
handwheel
Cross-feed
handwheel
Vertical wheel-feed
handwheel
Fig 24 (above)
In this lightweight horizontal-spindle surface grinder the Spring loaded Driving belt
grinding wheel rotates at high speed and the wheelhead
sleeve for axial
location
remains static. A combination of table reciprocation and
fine cross-feed produces very high finish on a flat surface.
In some surface grinders the wheel is mounted with its
Fig 25
The bearings for grinding wheels need to be extremely
accurate, because grinding itself is an accurate operation.
These two sectional views through typical bearing
assemblies show how designers minimize working
clearances. In the top view is an assembly incorporating
angular-contact ball bearings, which are kept at optimum
pre-load by springs between their housing sleeves.
Fig 26
This shows a section through a plain-bearing type, in
30
12.3 Ccntreless grinders The term 'lapping' also refers to the practice of rubbing
Centreless grinding involves the application of two two components together with an abrasive medium
wheels running on almost parallel axes. The component between them, to produce accurately matching faces
to be ground rests on a narrow rail between them, and and fine clearances.
31
;
produces a ripple or some unwelcome pattern on the succession of teeth, usually formed on a single long
workpiece. Bearing lubricants need to be carefully piece of metal known as a broach. The advantage of
selected, too, because grinding-wheel spindles rotate at this technique is that an operation can be completed at
very high speed, and if great accuracy is required the one pass or stroke, with each tooth taking the shape
clearances between spindle and bearing (Figs 25 and 26) wider or deeper than its predecessor until the last one
have to be very small. Therefore the bearing lubricant reaches the desired form. A keyway produced on a
has to be of lower viscosity than that for normal slotting machine, for instance, requires many strokes of
machine-tool applications, and has to be reinforced the ram, but a broach with as many cutting edges as
with additives to compensate for any lack of load-carry- the slottcr strokes required can finish the job in one pass
ing properties. while removing the same amount at each cut.
The cutting fluid used in grinding becomes heavily The technique is employed in two forms. One is
contaminated with both the fine metal particles re- internal broaching, in which a circular hole is gradually
moved from the workpiece and the abrasive particles developed into the shape required ; the other is surface
and bonding material of the grinding wheel. Because it broaching, in which the tool cuts into the side or
is so fine this debris tends to remain in suspension, and edge of the workpiece.
so is recirculated. This reduces the effectiveness of the Broaching machines are used for making internal and
cutting fluid and hence the quality of the finish, so the external slots, grooves, splines, gear teeth and miscel-
cutting fluid has to be filtered continuously. Most laneous sections. In most machines the broach moves
modern grinding machines are equipped with magnetic and the workpiece is stationary, but in a few - particu-
and other filters, and with settlement tanks for the fluid larly very large ones - the roles are reversed. Some
some arc even fitted with coolers. machines are vertical (Fig 27) and some horizontal (Fig
Pull-Head
Broach outer Work -holder
support
32
:
28). Although some are operated mechanically, hy- gear blank. The following are typical of non-generating
Broaching tools are expensive, and their use is space, and with the aid of a dividing head. For faster
root' of blades and the corresponding female forms in 14.1.2 Broaching This is a useful method for the pro-
the hub. In such work, great accuracy and interchange- duction of small internal gears; as we have seen, it can
ability of components arc necessary. perform the complete gear-cutting operation in a single
pass. The technique can be used for producing various
types of gears but, because of the high cost of broaches,
14 Gear-Cutting and Finishing Machines is economic only for long runs.
Planing, turning and milling are clearly defined machin-
but the term gear-culling embraces 14.1.3 Shaping and planing {non-generating) Gears can
ing operations,
several machining processes - with the obvious excep- be cut on orthodox shaping and planing machines, as
tion of turning. they can on milling machines, by cutters having the
shape of inter-teeth spaces and with the aid of dividing
14.1 Gear-cutting methods heads.
An important factor in gear-cutting is the machining In the special-purpose gear-shaping and gear-planing
method chosen. The cutting tool may be of precisely the machines, on the other hand, generating methods are
shape of the metal to be removed from between teeth, employed; the cutters are virtually gears themselves. If a
or the tooth form may be 'generated' when metal is cylindrical blank of readily deformable material is
Rotation controller
Cutter
Work table
Workpiece
Index gearbox
34
returned along the tangential path to the starting point. of the teeth to be formed on the gear blank, in an
arrangement resembling the relationship of a worm and
14.1.6 Hobbing (Fig 30) This is used mainly for the a worm-wheel. Longitudinal flutes in the worm, cut
quantity production of finished gears. The cutting tool, across its thread, form the cutting edges. With the hob
termed a hob, has its axis at nearly 90 to the helix angle fed parallel to the axis of the gear and along the path of
the gear teeth, a form conjugate to the cutting tool is
Tailstock
Hob slide
Work table
35
Crowner
Cross-slide lead-screw
Cross slide
Up-feed control
of the process is to give the teeth a high-quality The 'Orcutl' process involves a grinding wheel whose
finish. The teeth are 'crowned'' by a slight periphery is shaped to match the space between two
rocking action of the cutter, to give gears the teeth on the gear. It grinds the flanks of two adjacent
proper running clearance during service. In the teeth in one pass, and then the gear indexes to bring the
view below, the workpiece is a gear-cluster, next pair of flanks into position. In the 'Maag' method
and the machine is set up for only one of the two grinding wheels are used, each formed to match a
gears on it. tooth-flank. One wheel moves in and grinds a flank,
(Sykes Machine Too] Co. Ltd)
then moves out to make room for the second to advance
and grind the other flank. In these two systems the
Live centres wheels can be dressed continuously to maintain the
correct form, and the in-feed is automatically increased
to compensate for this dressing.
by main motor usually two, four or six. Shaving produces a very good
36
Counterbalanced
Fig 32 pendant support arm
Boring machines range from the very
small to the very large. This is a
modern heavy-duty horizontal borer:
its table has movement in two direc-
Feed drive
motor
Saddle
Saddle supports
Levelling screws
Machines in this category (Fig 32) consist of five basic the headstock. The saddle is mounted on the bedways,
elements - hcadstock, column, bed, saddle and table. and its travel is parallel to the axis of the spindle.
Theheadstock contains the horizontally mounted work- Workpieces are fixed to the table, which has two axes
spindle, and all power for machining comes from a of motion: it can travel with the saddle along the bed-
motor mounted on the rear of the hcadstock. Opera- ways, but has independent motion at right angles to the
tions that can be performed include boring, milling. saddle traverse. Such machines as these have either
37
Elevating unit
Counterbalance
chains Spindle drive motor
Head assembly
Arm
Adapter case
Pendant
Chuck spindle
Control panel
Console
Fig $3
The 'machining centre' is the name given to a machine
tool with a very wide range of capabilities. Various
tools and and their
cutters are carried in the magazine,
38
:
numerical or manually set automatic control. On tools. It can perform, in sequence, operations such as
manual machines all functions are controlled from a centring, twist-drilling, spade-drilling, tapping, reaming,
pendant push-button station which can be swung by the boring and milling. Tt does away with the need for
operator to any position around the workpiece; on jigs, virtually obviates the risk of mistakes due to the
numerically controlled machines, of course, the func- human element, and carries out many related operations
tions are all governed by punched tape. on one or more faces of the workpiece at one clamping.
Although the advent of numerical control has not In the version illustrated its three main elements are
radically altered the appearance of these machines, it the tool-holding matrix, work-head and work-table.
new thinking on the design of the All movements and all cycles are numerically controlled
has necessitated
individual elements and the transmissions. With such
- the indexing of the matrix to present the correct tool
control has come the need for improved standards of
in the right sequence
repetitive accuracy, rigidity and reliability. A few years
- the movement of the tool from its matrix to the head
ago horizontal boring, milling and drilling machines did
- the vertical adjustment of the head on its column
only what their names implied. Today, with more - the positioning of the table in two horizontal
power available at the spindle, greater load-carrying
dimensions
capacity and a wider range of attachments, they are - the selection of the speeds and feeds
being used to much greater advantage.
- the machining operation
- the return of the tool to its place in the matrix.
The name 'machining centre' has been given to a changing function is automatic, and sometimes it is
machine tool (Fig 33) that carries a large number of done manually.
39
:
lubricants required in machine tools are normally these several of the oils in one range have corresponding
- grease for electric motors grades in the other. In each of these rationalized ranges,
- lubricating oils for bearings incidentally, there are pairs of oils having the same
- lubricating oils for gearboxes viscosity but different properties because they have to
- hydraulic oils, generally petroleum-based but in satisfy different requirements; for example, one oil has
some cases non-flammable synthetic types extreme-pressure properties, but another of similar
- slideway lubricants. viscosity has not. It is important to note that the
Various authorities have collaborated with machine- viscosity of oil varies with temperature, so every
tool manufacturers and oil companies to produce viscosity figure must relate to a stated temperature.
rationalized ranges of lubricants. One recommended In the continuing development of machine tools, the
range has been drawn up in Britain by the Machine world's manufacturers and research establishments have
Tool Industry Research Association (MTFRA), and devoted a great deal of study to the lubrication of slide-
another in the USA by the American Society of ways. This is because, in the interests of dimensional
Lubrication Engineers (ASLE). accuracy, rapid production and low wear of bearing
MTIRA has allocated numbers to 12 selected oils, surfaces, the aim is to combine great freedom of sliding
from which nearly all requirements can be met (Table 2). movement with negligible deflection under load. One
Machine-tool lubricants are selected from the 18 approach to this is the hydrostatic bearing, in which
standardized viscosity grades (Table 3) in British lubricant under pressure is fed to the sliding surfaces
Standard Specification 4231:1967, Viscosity Classifica- and then recycled: the stiffness of petroleum oil (its
tion for Industrial Liquid Lubricants. resistance to 'compression' under load) is extremely
ASLE has selected ten oils (Table 4) with designations consistent, and the accuracy of linear motion is therefore
that correspond to 'viscosity numbers' allocated by the very high. Another approach is to use air as the lubri-
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). cant, in a manner similar to the principle of the hover-
In the British system the BS numbers are derived craft.
40
Table 2 MTIF
Type of lubricant*
Table 2
MTIRA rationalized range of
MTIRA machine tool machine-tool lubricants
t> Viscosity grade no: BS 4
Table 3
Functions Characteristics of BS4231 oils
General lubrication
Table 4
Bearings, spindles
ASTM and ASLE equivalents
Hydraulics
Feed mechanisms
Gears, worms
Slideways
Table 3 Char
British
Standard
grade
designation
3
5
7
10
15
22
32
46
100
150
220
320
460
680
1000
1500
Table 2 MTIRA rationalized range of machine-tool lubricants
Type of lubricant*
Plain universal oils may Oils with superior resistance to Oils with superior Oils with superior performance
have a small additive corrosion, oxidation, wear load-carrying as slideway lubricants
content and foaming properties
Functions
General lubrication
Bearings, spindles
Hydraulics
Feed mechanisms
Gears, worms
Slideways
m
Table 3 Characteristics of BS4231 oils Table 4 ASTM and ASLE equivalents
British Mid-point Kinematic Corresponding ASLE nomenclature Viscosity limits 3fc All oils should be highly refined
Standard kinematic viscosity ASTM and application Saybolt universal seconds and have
least 60
a viscosity index of at
41
tj?
2. Geometry of
cutting tools
All cutting tools - whether single-point or multi-point, Cutting-edge side-rake (DIN) is the angle between a line
and whether of rotary or linear cutting action - have parallel to the base and one parallel to the top face,
basically similar cutting edges, but the precise geometry measured in a plane at 90 to the side cutting-edge angle.
of each tool-point is determined by various factors such
as tool material and workpiece material. Recommended Cutting-edge back-rake (DIN) is the angle between a
angles for all the commercially available materials are line parallel to the base and one parallel to the top face,
given in tables elsewhere in this book. measured in a plane parallel to the side cutting-edge
A great deal of research has been carried out to deter- angle.
Although research continues, a stage has now been Maximum rake (BSS) is the maximum angle between the
reached at which standards for the shape of tools can base and the top face, measured in a plane at 90 to the
be laid down. Of necessity, such standards call for base. (The direction of maximum rake is always at right
standard nomenclature. A simple turning tool and its angles to the direction of zero rake.) The angle is
terminology is shown in Fig 34. positive if the face slopes downwards from the culling
edge, and negative if the face slopes upward.
1 Standardized Nomenclature
This aspect of tool geometry has only relatively recently
been standardized. Two well-known systems of tool
nomenclature are those defined in Deutsche Industrie
Norm (DIN) 6581 (May 1966) and British Standard
1886:1952. The latter is similar to the 'maximum rake'
system, in which the quoted figure is the maximum rake
produced by a combination of side-rake and back-rake.
Figs 35 and 36 detail the correct nomenclature
according to these standards. From a practical point of Base
view, each system is satisfactory so long as the terms
used are completely understood.
2 Definitions of Cutting-Tool
Nomenclature Fig 34
Angle or rake is positive if the top 'face' inclines down- These are the common terms used in reference to a simple
wards from any cutting edge; if the face inclines up- turning tool. The basic cutting form is repeated in most
wards from any cutting edge the rake is negative. other machining devices.
43
Side cutting-edge
wedge angle Plan trail angle ncluded plan angle
Maximum rake
plan angle
Side cutting-edge
clearance angle
Secondary
side cutting-edge
clearance angle
Front cutting-edge
clearance angle
\
Cutting -edge Secondary Front cutting-edge
side rake front cutting-edge wedge angle
clearance angle
44
Maximum-rake plan angle (BSS) is the angle between a Plan relief angle (DIN) or plan trail angle (BSS) is the
line parallel to the side of the shank and the direction of angle between the front cutting edge and a line at 90 to
maximum rake, measured in a plane parallel to the the side of the shank, measured in a plane parallel to the
base. base. In the case of a bent tool this angle is measured
from the straight side of the shank.
Wedge angle (DIN) is the included angle between the
top face and the side relief-angle face measured at 90 to Side cutting-edge angle (DIN) or plan approach angle
the appropriate cutting edge (90 minus the sum of side (BSS) is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
relief and cutting-edge side-rake angles). side of the shank, measured in a plane parallel to the
base.
Included plan angle (BSS) is the angle between the front
cutting edge and the side cutting edge measured in a
(BSS) is the angle between a line at 90 to the base and aluminium alloys and similar materials.
Radial Helix
rake angle
Peripheral
secondary
clearance
Section A-A ang e
|
Chamfer
secondary
clearance angle
Chamfer
Corner/
angle
radius
Secondary
"^\\h"~~ side clearance
Radial angle
rake
N Side
clearance
angle
Fig 37 Section C-C
The milling cutter and its cutting-edge nomenclature.
45
Land
Body
clearance
diameter
Chisel-edge
Heel
Diameter
Core or web
Chisel-edge thickness
angle
Cutting edge
Lip
clearance
angle
Rake (helix)
angle at Fig 38
periphery
Nomenclature of the drill-point.
are applied to the tool. Most cemented carbide tools normally taken right up to the cutting edge, since this
built-up edge of workpiece material on the tool (see A large nose radius usually gives an improvement in
page 58) should be avoided; the remedy is a positive surface finish but if it is too large there is a danger of
back-rake. Generally the back-rake increases with the vibration, which causes chatter marks to appear on the
softness of the workpiece material. A small amount of machined surface. Other advantages of generous nose
building-up protects the cutting-edge, so the back-rake radii are improved tool life and the possibility of in-
should not be so great as to eliminate the build-up creased feeds and higher turning speeds. The foregoing
entirely, as this would tend to expose the tool tip to comments on tool shape refer to single-point cutting
These reduce the contact area with the cut metal, and the care taken in its design and manufacture will have
hence friction between tool and workpiece. The end and been wasted. Single-point cutting tools must always be
side relief angles should be the same wherever possible. set up so that the cutting edge is exactly in line with the
Relief angles should increase with the softness of work- axis of rotation, which is usually horizontal (Fig 39). If
piece materials. the tool is not set accurately, all its angles are altered
relative to the workpiece. If the cutting edge is set
3.3 Clearance angles (DIN) below the horizontal axis the tool tends to dig into the
These provide clearance between the tool and work- workpiece (or the workpiece tries to climb over the
piece below the relief angles. The clearance angle is not tool), probably with disastrous results. Any vibrations
46
set up can both damage the cutting edge and mar the with the minimum possible overhang. Odd, misshapen
surface finish. If, on the other hand, the cutting edge is pieces of packing should not be used to bring the cutting
setabove the horizontal axis the flank rubs against the edge to the horizontal axis. The practice of tilting the
workpiece; this spoils the finish and causes wear of the tool to achieve accurate centre-line setting is bad,
flank and nose, with a significant reduction in tool-life. because in the first place the tool/workpiece geometry is
Tools should be firmly secured on a good foundation affected and, secondly, part of the tool is unsupported.
Back rake 5
Effect of
setting tool
too low
1 -5 mm
06 in
Actual
back rake130'
Actual
end relief 8 3 30'
Effect of
setting tool End relief cancelled out.
too high Interference causes wear on
end relief face and damage
to surface finish
Actual
back rake 830'
1-5 mm
06 in
Fig 39
In a turning operation the tool geometry can be seriously upset if the tool is not in
line with the axis of the workpiece.
47
f**AAA
"^VV\^rvvvt
'/**
The type oj swarfproduced in machining varies with the workpiece material and nature and severity of the cutting action.
Five typical kinds are shown here. (Left) Mild steel: continuous helical swarf from a single-point turning operation.
(Right) Cast iron chips produced in a hobbing operation.
48
5 Tables of Machining and Tool-Setting Data
The machine and tool sellings in the following tables are roughing cuts, whereas shallow cuts arc preferable for
those generally agreed by the industry, and they cover finishing, to reduce both the cutting force and the risk of
all normal requirements. In many instances the range tool chatter.
and keeping the speed low to give reasonable tool life. quoted finishing speeds.
In finish turning it is desirable to use the highest For rough milling the depth of cut should be as great
speeds quoted, together with fine feeds and shallow cuts. as is allowed by the horsepower and rigidity of the
The standard grades of high-speed steel (such as machine, and by the strength of the cutter.
18/4/1) should be used in the easier conditions listed; Finish milling, on the other hand, necessitates
super grades -for example, those with a cobalt addition light cuts of 0-13-1-55 mm (0-005-0-060 in) to reduce
or a high vanadium content-should be adopted for cutting forces and achieve the desired surface quality.
the more arduous duties. See Appendix 1 for the Care should be taken, though, in the finish-machining
strength. The greatest possible depth should be used for should be exercised when settings are being selected.
49
Table 5 Turning with high-speed-steel tools: feeds, speeds and tool angles
Cast iron
Soft grey 70-100 22-30 0-010 0-25 3 3-6 6
Steel
Non-ferrous
Aluminium 200 - 500 60-150 0-004 0-10 10-30 10-30 6-10
Others
Nickel alloys 5-50 1-15 0-010 0-25 5-8 5-15 6
50
5
Cast iron
K15-K30 175-250 55-75 0-032 0-81 3 4-6
Soft grey
K30 K40- 1 50 - 200 45-60 0-032 0-81 3 4-6
Steel
Free-cutting mild P15-P25 300 - 600 90-185 0-030 0-76 3-8 3-8 3-8
P25-P35 200-400 60-120 0-130 3-30 3-8 3-8 6-8
Non-ferrous
Aluminium K05-K25 6000 max 1 830 max 0-020 0-51 10-20 15-20 6-10
Aluminium alloys K05-K25 1000 max 305 max 0-020 0-51 10-20 10-20 6-10
Brass hard K05-K25 400-800 120-245 0-030 0-76 3-6 3-6 4-6
Bronze high-tensile K05-K25 250-500 75-150 0-030 0-/6 3-6 3-6 4-6
Others
Nickel alloys P25-P35 75-120 23-3/ 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6
P35-P50 40-80 12-25 O-015 0-38 3 6 3-6 4-6
K30-K40 40-80 12 25 0-01 5 0-38 3-6 5-10 4-6
Cast iron
Steel
Free-cutting mild P05 - P1 5 500 - 1 000 150-305 0-015 0-38 6-10 8-15 6-8
P15-P25 350-500 105-150 0-015 0-38 6-10 8-15 6-8
Up to 40 ton P05-P15 400-800 120-245 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 300-450 90-135 0-010 0-25 0-6 3-6 4-6
40 to 60 ton P0S-P15 300-375 90-115 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 250-300 75 - 90 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6
60 to 80 ton P05-P15 210-300 65-90 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 170-250 52-75 0-010 0-25 0-3 3 4-6
Over 80 ton P05-P15 1 50 - 1 80 45-55 0-005 0-13 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 125-150 38-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
Manganese P05 - P1 5 70-200 22-60 0-010 0-25 0-3 8-12 4-6
P15-P25 50 - 1 50 15-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 8-12 4-6
Stainless martensitic P05 - P1 5 300-450 90-135 0-008 0-20 0-3 0-3 4-6
P1 5 - P25 250-375 75-115 0-015 0-38 3-6 3-6 4-6
Stainless austenitic P05-P15 150-250 45-75 0-008 0-20 0-3 2-5 4-6
P15-P25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-015 0-38 0-3 3-8 4-6
K15-K25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-015 0-38 0-3 3-8 4-6
Non-ferrous
Aluminium K05-K25 6000 max 1830 max 0-004 0-10 10-20 15-20 6-10
Aluminium alloys K1 5 - K25 1 500 max 460 max 0-004 0-10 10-20 10-20 6-10
Brass soft K05-K25 500 - 1 500 150-460 0-015 0-38 3-6 6-8 6-10
Brass hard K05-K25 500-1000 150-305 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6
Bronze ordinary K05 - K25 500 - 800 150-245 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 6-8
Bronze high-tensile K05-K25 350-650 105-200 0-010 0-25 3-6 4-8 4-6
Others
Nickel alloys K05-K25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 3-6 4-6
K25-K35 60-120 18-37 0-01 5 0-38 3-6 5-10 4-6
Nimonics K05-K25 25-80 8-25 0-008 0-20 0-6 5-10 4-6
52
2
H -HSS
ft/min m/min in/tooth mm/tooth
C Carbide
-
Cast iron
H 50-80 15-25 0-025 max 0-63 max
Soft grey
150-250 45-75 0-010-0-015 0-25-0-38
C K05- K25
Close-grained H 40-60 12-18 0-020 max 0-51 max
125-200 38-60 0-008-0-012 0-20-0-30
C K15 K25
Malleable H 40-60 12-18 0-015 max 0-38 max
125-200 38-60 0-008 -0O1 0-20-0-30
C K15- 25, P
Alloyed H 25-45 8-14 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K15 -K35 60-150 18-45 0-010 max 0-25 max
Steel
80-100 25- 30 0-025 max 0-63 max
Free-cutting mild H
P05- P25 200-400 60- 120 0-010 max 0-25 max
C
H 50-70 15- 22 0-01 5 max 0-38 max
Up to 40 ton
C P15- P25 150-300 45- 90 0-010 max 0-25 max
H 30-50 9- 15 0-01 5 max 0-38 max
40 to 60 ton
C P15 P35 100-200 30 60 0-008 max 0-20 max
Non-ferrous
H 200-500 60- 150 0-030 max 0-76 max
Aluminium
C K05- K25 500 - 1 000 150- 305 0-020 max 0-51 max
Others
H-HSS
C- Carbide ft/min m/min in/tooth mm/tooth
Cast iron
Steel
Non-ferrous
Others
Nickel alloys H 10-50 3-15 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K15-40/P15-50 60-150 18-45 0-004 min 0-10 min
Nimonics H 5-30 1-5-9 0-008 max 0-20 max
C K05 - K40 20-80 6-25 0-003-0-006 0-08-0-15
Cast iron
Soft grey H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K05-K25 . + 5 + 5
Close-grained H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K15-K25 + 5 to + 5
Malleable H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K15-25/P15-25 to + 5 to + 5
Alloyed H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 8
C K15-K35 to + 5 to + 5
Chilled H + 3 to + 5 + 3 to + 5
C K05-K25 + 5 - 5
Steel
Free-cutting mild H + 8 to + 12 + 8 to + 12
C P05-P25 to + 5 to + 5
Up to 40 ton H + 6 to +12 + 3 to + 8
C P15-P25 - 5
40 to 60 ton H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C P15-P35 5 - 5
60 to 80 ton H + 3 to -I- 5 to + 5
C P15-P35 5 -10
Over 80 ton H + 3 to + 5 to + 3
C P15-P50 5 -10
Manganese H + 5 to + 12 to + 5
C P1 5 - P50 + 5 to + 10 - 5 to + 5
Stainless martensitic H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C P15-P50 5 to - 5 to
Stainless austenitic H j_
3 to + 8 -1-
3 to + 5
C P15-50/K15-40 to + 5 to + 5
Non-ferrous
Aluminium H + 10 to + 15 + 10 to + 15
C K05-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 10 to + 15
Aluminium alloys H + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
C K05-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
Brass soft H + 3 to + 5 + 3 to + 5
+ 5
C K1 5 - K25 + 3 to + 5 + 3 to
Brass hard H to + 5 to + 3
C K05-K25 to + 5 to + 3
Bronze ordinary II + 6 to + 10 + 3 to + 5
C K05-K25 + 6 to + 10 + 3 to + 5
Copper H 4 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
C K15-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
Others
Nickel alloys H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C K15-40/P15-50 to -I- 8 - 5 to + 5
Nimonics H + 3 to + 10 + 3 to + 8
C K05-K40 to + 8 to + 8
Cast iron
Soft grey 1 Sor H 100-150 30-45 90 10
Close-grained 1 S 80-90 25-27 118 10
Steel
Free-cutting mild 1 SorH 100-150 30-45 118 10
Non-ferrous
Aluminium 3 SorH 200-300 60-90 100 15
Others
Nickel alloys 1 or 6 SorL 5-40 1-5-12 130 6-12
Nimonics 6 SorL 5-30 1-5-9 130 6-12
Bakelite/vulcanite 4 or 2 S 100-150 30-45 90 10
* Refer to Table 12
56
5
Narrow
Standard Standard Standard Slow
land
helix core land helix
3. Theory of the
cutting process
A cutting tool should be designed to take maximum Reductions in shear strength, coefficient of friction,
advantage of the forces that the machine applies through hardness, strain hardenability and abrasive inclusions
either the tool or the workpiece. The cutting action in all contribute to improved tool life. Lowering shear
machine tools is not the same as that of a knife. This is strength, hardness or abrasive inclusions has no effect
apparent from their shape: a cutting tool is relatively on surface finish, which is usually improved by reducing
blunt and is able to cut because of the large forces the coefficient of friction or strain hardenability.
applied. Material is removed from the workpiece by a shearing
action which forms a chip of metal. The built-up edge
referred to in Fig 40 is characteristic of one of the three
1 Basic Considerations
1.3 Hardness
This factor also raises the cutting force required, thus
increasing a chip's thickness and the hardness of its
Apart from the causes just mentioned, abrasive wear In this illustration and others it is shown in a very
can result from the inclusion of abrasive components stylized manner: its precise form varies, but is more
in the microstructure. simitar to that shown in Fig 43.
58
-
*r^?^>
i"'iv-A"fc 'v
&%&
w~ *} .-7.* -
,;; '" ,--
feS^^S^. **;^\Hr
>;-V. -J^^^tSv!^$&iy't ?*M5>w
0*m^% rj^S3fc"Ti".; ySJyX ff'?/^
'{S-?Jl -.
*i"*''' ^*^
c
'.;'
sJ\ ',
#*c'
A> ; .~*,I
l&X \
'AV/ 1
y'j \
'
::;
"i'..
Fig 41-43
7V;ree fv/7e\v of chip. At the top is Type 1, the discontinuous or segmental chip. Type 2 is the
simple continuous chip, and Type 3 is the simple continuous chip with built-up edge.
basic types of chip that Hans Ernst* has shown to be cast iron, cast brass and other brittle materials. With
produced when metal is cut. They are as follows: these materials the rubbing action of the chip against
the tool-face may produce an equivalent frictional
Type I Discontinuous or segmental chip
coefficient as high as 1-4. The chip therefore has to
Type 2 Simple continuous chip
overcome high frictional forces, causing rupture of the
Type 3 Simple continuous chip with built-up edge.
brittle material at a point between the workpiece/chip
Two mechanisms are common to the formation of
junction and the area of contact between chip and tool-
all three types of chip: form of a
face. High chip-friction produces wear in the
a) Plastic deformation of the metal by the cutting
crater on the tool face at the area of contact. In
tool, resulting in the formation of the chip
addition, the high cutting forces cause work-hardening
b) Escape of the chip by sliding over the tool face
of the underside of the chip, which also increases the
against strong frictional resistance.
tool-face wear in the contact area. The segmental chip
is also commonly encountered in the machining of soft
materials when either the rake angle is too low or feed
Segmental
This the type usually obtained in the machining of
is
3 The 'Type 2' Chip - Simple Continuous
This is the most desirable type of chip for steels of all
* ERNST,HANS "Physics of Metal Cutting" Machining of Metals,
types, and also for other materials that do not fracture
American Society for Metals, 1938, pp 1-34.
59
:
Large
shear
angle <j>
Long path
of shear
Shear stress Ss
Tool
Compressive stress Sn
T
Workpiece
Fig 44
Correlation of the furious factors that influence chip and is the friction angle of the resultant force R t produced,
geometry. It can be seen that (top left: a large shear angle by the direct force N on the tool and the factional
produces a short path of shear and a thin chip, whereas a force F of the chip sliding over the toolface; tan equals
small shear angle has the opposite effects. Shear angle p, the coefficient of friction between the chip and tool-
</> is itself influenced by the machining constant C, the face. The diagram lower right shows the force system
friction angle I) and the rake angle y. of the tool. Their existing in the production of a Type. 2 chip.
of them measured as mean rallies along the shear Fs is shear farce along the shear plane.
plane Fa is compressive force in the shear plane.
60
while being separated from the parent metal. The
process of plastic deformation that takes place ahead
of the tool involves internal shear over a narrow zone,
extending from the cutting edge to the work surface.
Fig 45
Sections through a single-point tool, to indicate dis-
4 The 'Type 3' Chip - Simple tribution of the heat generated by the cutting process.
Continuous, with Built-up Edge The top illustration shows that the greater proportion
goes into the chip, and the lower one that highest tempera-
Some of the heat generated by the cutting process is
tures occur not at the tool point but some way back along
transmitted to the chip, some remains in the workpiece,
the top face.
and the remainder is concentrated at the tool tip. The
chip absorbs 70% of the heat, so the need exists to
(500 000 lb/in 2 ); normal temperatures can reach 600C off- usually attached to the underside of the chip.This
(1 1 12F) at the tip and up to 1 300C (2 372F) at the hard built-up edge adhering to the chip rubs with great
chip/tool interface (see Fig 45). The combination of force against the tool face, contributing to further
high pressures and virgin surfaces create ideal pressure- crater wear. The cycle then repeats itself. Each cycle
welding conditions, and small particles detach them- takes a very short time, and the built-up edges occur
selves from the chip and become welded to the tool. at close, regular intervals along the underside of the
very hard skin produced by the work-hardening and the The effect is roughness on the machined surface, as
continuous heating and cooling encountered in the if the chip had been torn from the metal. Moreover the
cutting operation. workpicce surface is work-hardened, making subsequent
Built-up edges can be either advantageous or detri- cutting operations more difficult. This cycle has a
mental lo the cutting process. If a small built-up edge serious effect on the tool: regular heating of the surface
forms and remains on the tool tip, it protects the tip when Ihe built-up edge breaks away, followed by the
from abrasive wear and insulates it from some of the insulation afforded by the new build-up, causes thermal
heat generated, so tool life is substantially prolonged. shock and reduction in toughness. But a bigger dis-
However, if the built-up edge continues to grow, it advantage is the fact that, when the built-up edge
first damages the surface of the workpiece and then, breaks away, it takes with it particles of the tool surface
61
Chip rubbing
top surface of tool
Built-up edge
takes part of tool surface
when breaking away;
repetition causes
breakdown of cutting edge
Parting-off tool
Effect of high chip pressure
on top face of tool
62
Multi-spindle drilling of the aluminium cylinder-head of a motorcycle: fourteen holes are drilled in
one downward
work-holding towards the operator
movement of the drill-head. For ease of loading and removal, the fixture is tilted
between cycles. Its hinged clamping-plate, on the left, incorporates hardened-steel bushes that act as drilling guides
64
(jp
4. Mechanics of
metal cutting
The total force involved in a single-point turning in turn spoil the surface finish and militate against
tangential, axial and radial (Fig 47). Tangential force, carbide or ceramic tools are used, because these ex-
the one normally used in calculations of tremely brittle materials can shatter. Although some
the largest, is
Fig 47
The three components of force acting
on a tool.
Axial force
Radial force
Tangential force
65
Losses in Losses in Power to Power available
motor h11%
''':
drive 18 feed 5/ for mach n ng 70% i i
Fig 48
Typical distribution ofpower in a lathe.
tion, tangential force must be reduced. This can be done and P is specific cutting pressure for the workpiece
by removing less metal per unit of time - by reducing material.
the feed, depth of cut or speed. Values of P for various metals are given in Table 14.
Aluminium 90 6-35 Example: To find the forces acting on a tool and the
HP required to take a cut 0-125 in deep with a feed of
Brass 140 9-85
0-040 in/rev cutting mild steel at 350 ft/min.
66
Force
350"
150-
"r-
VE +VE 45 Rake angle
F'g 49
tangential force
A graph showing that with progressive reduction of rake angle the
machining.
required rises, as therefore does the power requiredfor
67
.
fUjp
5. Cutting-tool materials
To cut effectively and provide acceptable tool life, the 1 High-Carbon Steels
cutting-tool material must of course be harder than the
(and Cast Alloy Steels)
material being cut. Cutting tools are generally classified
according to hardness. Materials most frequently en- These give the poorest performance of the cutting-tool
countered are materials listed, so their use is restricted mainly to
relatively soft workpiece materials and low rates of
High-carbon and cast alloy steels
metal removal.
High-speed steel (HSS) - hardness 62-68 Rockwell C.
High-carbon steels are still used for large form-tools,
- hardness 65 Rockwell C.
Stellitc
for both turning and milling, when more expensive
Cemented or sintered carbides
materials would be justified only for large outputs.
- hardness 88-93 Rockwell C.
Because of their size these larger tools are made from
Carbide ceramics (cermets)
castings rather than from the more usual rolled, drawn
Ceramics
or forged stock - hence the reference to cast alloy steels.
Diamond
Abrasion resistance
2 High-Speed Steels
Hot hardness
Toughness Originally these steels were made with 0-7% carbon
High compressive strength together with about 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and
High transverse rupture strength 1 % vanadium. The need for better hot hardness and
Chemical inertness abrasion resistance has led to the introduction of im-
High thermal conductivity proved steels with higher proportions of carbon and
Low thermal expansion other alloying elements (for example cobalt and more
None of the materials listed is outstanding in all these cellent substitute for tungsten, and molybdenum-base
properties. High-speed steel is usually poor in respect high-speed steels have gained wide acceptance as
68
(nearly 1 500F). In the overall sphere of cutting-lool proportions according to the cutting operations or
materials they occupy a position somewhere between workpiece materials for which they are intended.
and carbides - particularly in situations Tungsten carbide is particularly suitable for cutting cast
high-speed steels
where the production required is greater than can be iron and non-ferrous alloys such as copper and brass.
obtained from high-speed steels but where the difficulty Tungsten-titanium carbide is used for a wide range of
of operation could cause chipping of carbides. metals including steel, bronze and aluminium alloys.
The development of cemented carbides (in 1928) gave materials are bonded with nickel or iron, and in some of
rise to the biggest leap forward in cutting-tool perform- them a second constituent is molybdenum carbide.
ance since the introduction of high-speed steels. Classification of cemented carbides is a problem
Cemented carbides are relatively expensive, so carbide because each manufacturer adheres to his own specifica-
tips are usually brazed or clamped to steel shanks or tions of analysis, grain-size and so on. However, the
bodies. The such "carbide tools' consist of tung-
tips of user's choice is made easy by a system adopted by the
sten carbide or titanium carbide embedded in a matrix International Standards Organization (ISO). In this
system, set out in Table 16, the deciding factor is not the
of cobalt, and other alloying elements are added in
Key
Table 1 5 Constitution of high-speed steels C carbon
W tungsten
Mo molybdenum
Cr chromium
V vanadium
Application Nominal composition (% wt) Co cobalt
C W Mo Cr V Co
Molybdenum base
General tools, 0-80 1-50 8-50 4-00 1-00
0-85 6-00 5-00 4-00 2-00
light and
0-85 8-00 4-00 2-00
medium duty
Tungsten base
type of carbide but its application, and there are three In general, grades in the K group are straight tung-
groups with prefix letters P, M and K. (ISO recom- sten carbide/cobalt; those in the P group are based on
mendation R513-1966). tungsten carbide with additions of titanium tantalum
The number after the letter symbol rises as the tough- carbide; and those in the M group - intended for
ness of the carbide rises and the hardness falls: PIO is general applications - are based on titanium carbide or
tougher than P01, and K30 is harder than K40, for titanium tungsten carbide.
example. Manufacturers follow the ISO classifications
Steels and ferrous metals P01 Fine finish turning and boring. No vibration, high speeds,
with long chips small chip sections
Ferrous metals with long M10 Turning. Medium/high speeds, small/medium chip sectio
or short chips
non-ferrous metals. M20 Turning and milling. Medium speeds and chip sections
70
They have low thermal conductivity, and the carbides; their transverse rupture strength is higher than
carbide.
friction at the tool-chip interface is lower than with that of ceramics but lower than carbides. They are most
Very high cutting speeds, in the commonly used for cast iron and the lower-grade
other tool materials.
Nimonics.
range of 600-750 m/min (2 000-2 500 ft/min), are pos-
sible with ceramic tools, but they are brittle and their
ceramic tools is the lack of machine tools on which cutter and tool was made of one piece of metal through-
sufficiently high cutting speeds can be obtained; in the out. A great many tools are still made that way, but the
instances where sufficient speed is obtainable, spindle- widespread use of highly developed cutting materials
bearing sizes are usually inadequate, and so vibration has led to the growing popularity of tools in which the
of different material from the body. One
occurs. A ceramic tool must be made to work: tool cutting tip is
In some applications where carbide tips wear too rapidly As was already mentioned, some carbide tips are
but ceramics suffer from chipping, the most satis- brazed and others clamped in place. At the end of its
factory tool materials are the carbide ceramics. They are service life the brazed-on tip may be removed from the
aluminium oxide) and tool body and a new tip brazed in its place. Tools with
mixtures of oxides (usually
1200
71
brazed-on tips are used in a wide variety of machining
operations, among them turning, boring, reaming,
milling and drilling.
72
Table 17 Hardness conversions for steel: Vickers to Rockwell C
In the Brinell method, a hard-steel ball 10 mm The Rockwell A scale uses a diamond-cone pene-
diameter is applied hydraulically under a standard load trator with a minor load of 10 kg and a major load of
of 3 000 kg for not less than 30 seconds, to leave a 60 kg, and the 'B' scale has a hard steel ball of -& in
circular indentation in the surface of the specimen. The diameter with a minor load of 10 kg and major load of
Brinell Hardness Number is expressed as the load on 100 kg. The C scale, which is most often
the one used
the ball (kg) divided by the area of indentation (mm 2). for cutting-tool materials, uses a diamond cone and a
For convenience, a chart is used to give the hardness minor load of 10 kg, but its major load is 150 kg.
number relevant to the diameter of the indentation. Various manufacturers have their own preferences
The Vickers method is similar in principle, except about methods used for quoting hardness, but the
that a load of 10 kg or 30 kg is applied. A diamond Vickers 30 kg and Rockwell C scales are the most
pyramid is used for indenting, and the square impression popular in the context of cutting-tool materials.
is measured diagonally, for greater accuracy. The Unfortunately the two scales cannot be accurately
resultant figure is sometimes quoted as the VPN or correlated because the relationship varies with the
Vickers Pyramid Number. In the Rockwell tester material being measured, and can be influenced by
either a hard-steel ball or a diamond-cone penetrator is other factors. Moreover for the ultra-hard products
used,and the hardness number is indicated directly on a manufacturers usually quote one scale or the other.
load is again 10 kg. The difference in the depths of the In this chapter hardness figures are quoted in the Rock-
two indentations is taken as the measure of hardness, well scale for high-speed steel, Stellite and carbide, and
and an increase of 0-002 mm corresponds to a decrease the graph indicates Vickers figures for four groups of
These seven symbols are identified positionally thus- An open structure usually cuts longer - it acts as a
harder wheel - but other factors (cutting rate, surface
s silicate
74
tap
or crater wear, or a combination of them. They lead to Fig 52 is a typical graph of flank wear against
deterioration of and accuracy, and to
surface finish machining time; it shows that flank wear is initially
increased power requirement. Flank and crater wear rapid, then slower but steady until it reaches 089 mm
100-
80-
60-
40-
20-
"
'
""'""* l I i
10 20 30
Fig 52 Machining time - min
A typical curve of tool-wear against tool-life.
75
(0035 in) ; subsequently il accelerates disproportionately lead to the generation of high temperatures in the tool.
to the increase in machining time. Fig 53 indicates the maximum flank wear permissible
Additional modes of failure are exhibited by the more before regrinding, if optimum life is to be achieved.
brittle tool materials, for example carbides and If these flank-wear figures are exceeded, wear increases
ceramics disproportionately to the extra life obtained between
Crumbling cutting edges regrinds, and catastrophic failure is risked; this reduces
Thermal cracking the number of regrinds possible and therefore the
'Crazing' of flank and face overall tool life. Lower values of maximum flank wear
be in a generous and uninterrupted supply. 'Crazing' Some of the standards forjudging tool life are
of flank and face is usually the result of poor grinding
techniques during preparation of the tool tip; it is Volume of metal removed between regrinds
caused by thermal stresses due to the use of incorrect Cutting time between regrinds
or poorly maintained grinding wheels. Both factors Number of workpicccs machined between regrinds
Cutting speed (the maximum speed at which the
metal can be removed - known as the Taylor speed)
for a given tool life
VTn = C
where V == cutting speed
T= cutting time between tool regrinds, in
76
.
Cutting speed
Fig 54
The Taylor curve demonstrates that with increased
cutting speed the tool-life is decreased; this is true for
most materials. In the establishment of this curve the
parameters of tool material, tool geometry, feed rate,
Tool life
Fig 55
I The same values plotted on logarithmic scales
produce a straight line, and the slope of the line
. is the exponential factor n, which is used as a
; measure of a tool material's performance.
(Fig 54). If the points are plotted on a log-log scale they Values of the constant n are not readily available for
produce a straight line (Fig 55). the many makes and grades of carbide marketed.
The equation of a straight line on Cartesian co- Values in the range 0-167 to 0-41 have been published,
ordinates is but those for carbides in most common use lie between
y = mx + b 0-25 and 040* The value of the constant C is not easy
On a log-log scale it is to obtain but can be determined experimentally for
logy m logx j logb each material. The experimental conditions would have
to be arranged so that maximum permissible flank wear
The slope of the experimental V T line on the log-log
(Fig 53) is reached in one minute. Tourretf quotes
basis is negative, which means that the factor n is
values of C between 250 and 800.
negative. Therefore, if the absolute value of the slope is
The cutting speed (V,) forminimum-cost production,
n, the formula for the experimental log-log line becomes
and the corresponding cutting-edge life (Tm), can
logV = -n logT + logC
Reverting to the non-logarithmic form
V = T- x C Production Engineering Research Association of Great Britain,
Report No. 136.
or
tTOURRBT, r: The Performance of Metal Cutting Tools;
VT" =C Butlerworth Scientific Publications, London, 195S.
78
be related to any other cutting speed and corresponding 0-167. The example illustrated assumes a cutting speed
cutting-edge life as follows: of 120 m/min (400 ft/min) for a tool life of 30 minutes.
Vm Tm n = VT" A line drawn parallel to the existing lines on the graph
Therefore if we know C and the economic tool life shows that as cutting speed is reduced to 90 m/min
we can calculate the cutting speed, and vice versa. (300 ft/min) the tool life rises to 150 minutes, and if
Fig 56 is a typical example of a log-log tool-life/ cutting speed is further reduced to 60 m/min (200 ft/min)
cutting-speed chart. The value of n has been taken as the tool life becomes I 800 minutes.
Fig 56
A chart for determining the effect
of change of cutting speed on tool
life. This is plotted on logarithmic
79
tjjp
7 Factors affectin;
machinability
The characteristic or behaviour of a metal when it is the chip tears away from the parent metal. Brittle
being cut is called machinability - a property that materials can vary in grain size, and are difficult to cut
varies widely according to the type of metal. Machin- but relatively easy to finish.
reasonable tool-life presuppose good machinability. example its composition, its structure and the treatment
Another definition of machinability might be 'case of it has undergone before machining. Hardness is usually
obtaining good surface finish'. Some of the characteris- defined as a metal's resistance to indentation. An
tics that influence machinability are discussed in the indenter made of diamond or hardened steel is pressed
structure of a metal. Metals of similar microstructure of similar metals are related, so it is possible to predict
generally have similar machining properties, but small from data obtained whether a metal machines easily and
changes in microstructure can greatly affect machin- whether it can take a good finish. Hardness is related to
ability. Sections of the same bar, or of metal produced strength, and therefore the hardness number also gives
from the same 'melt' often display very wide differences some indication of the cutting pressures required.
This cannot be taken to indicate the likely machin- carried out to refine the microstructure or to modify it
ability of a metal, except that a regular intermediate to the form necessary for its eventual purpose. For
size grain gives the best results. Ductile metals may have instance, electrical properties can be changed, the metal
fine or coarse grain-structures, but they cut easily; can be made ductile or tough, and machinability can be
however a good finish cannot easily be obtained because influenced.
80
5 Metallurgical Condition due to required characteristics of the alloy, but in special
cases it may be as high as 0-6 %.
Manipulation
Production operations such as drawing, rolling and Lead (Pb) Lead in steels, from 0-15 to 0-35%, gives a
forging - - which sometimes call for pre-heating - have an very good free-machining metal without affecting the
important influence on the final structure of a metal, basic mechanical properties.
has undergone before deciding on the method of similar to that of carbon. High manganese-content
machining. steels are hard, and are difficult to machine because
machinability; the following are examples of elements Silicon (Si) Machinability decreases as silicon content
Carbon (C) Carbon steels with the best machinability Phosphorus (P) This element improves machinability if
have a carbon content of 0-3 to 0-6 %. Below this the content is between 0-02 and 0-06%, but the
range the steels are too ductile, and a good finish is benefit is not very great.
difficult to obtain; above it they are hard and
brittle, and difficult to machine. Other elements such as chromium, vanadium, nickel
and molybdenum are added to steel to improve heat-
Sulphur (S) Sulphur improves the machinability of steels, resistance, corrosion-resistance, hardness and toughness,
and is added in controlled quantities to give free- and other mechanical properties. All these elements
machining steels. Normally the quantity of sulphur reduce machinability, so in some cases alloys containing
added is from 01 to 0-3%, according to the them must be softened by heat treatment.
<3?
8. Machining characteristics
of various metals
So far we have dealt largely with the factors influencing which improves machinability. Lead enhances the
machining operations, without becoming deeply in- machinability of a steel without affecting its basic
volved in the practical considerations. Now we move on mechanical properties if the concentration is between
to the machine settings, mainly cutting speeds and feed 015 and 0-35%. Other elements that improve machin-
rates. Tables 5-12 contain the relevant data for turning, ability are selenium and tellurium.
milling and drilling of virtually all the common and
1.3 Alloy steels
exotic metals encountered in industry. The following
information on machining These contain small quantities of one or more of a
notes provide basic
number of elements, among which are chromium,
characteristics.
cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten and vanadium.
These elements increase hardness, toughness, wear
resistance and corrosion resistance, but the resulting
1 Ferrous Metals
alloys are usually more difficult to machine and their
1.2 Free-machining steels fluids, which are called 'soluble-oil emulsions' throughout
The addition of certain elements to low-carbon steels this book, combine the coolant properties of water with
improves their machinability. Sulphur above 0-05% some of of petroleum oil. The
the lubricant properties
reduces tearing or dragging and gives a better surface 'clear' emulsions used some grinding operations are
in
finish. A manganese content of between 1-0 and 1-90% similar but are translucent in appearance and have higher
82
;
are extremely difficult to machine; the addition of cause cutting pressures are low, and high rates of metal-
There are three types of cast iron - grey, white and high cutting speeds, good finish and long tool-life can
nodular - and they vary in their machinability be attained. Aluminium alloys containing lead are
easilymachined, too, and give a good surface finish.
1.6.1 Grey cast iron is easy to machine because it Pure aluminium and low-alloy grades cut easily but
contains free carbon in the form of graphite flakes. the chip tends to tear or drag from the parent metal, so
a good surface finish is less easy to obtain than with
1.6.2 White cast iron has carbon present as ccmentite* the harder alloys. Aluminium alloys containing about
it is hard and brittle, and is very difficult to machine. 10% silicon (included to improve casting and general
mechanical properties) can cause substantial tool-wear.
metals)
Materials containing copper are usually easier to 3.2 Nickel silver
Nickel silver a nickel-copper-zinc alloy which has
machine than ferrous metals. Within the range of is
materials are very soft, and the chip tends to drag from
metal; good surface finish is therefore 3.4 Nimonics
the parent
The Nimonics are a range of high-nickel alloys
difficult to obtain. A continuous helical chip is usually
developed specifically for high-temperature applica-
produced.
tions. Their main alloying elements are chromium,
iron and cobalt. Among the components made from
2.1.2 The group with moderate machinability includes
Nimonic alloys are gas-turbine blades, chain links of
aluminium-bronzes, tin-bronzes, leaded bronzes, naval
brass and other brasses containing less than about 35 % conveyor furnaces and exhaust valves in highly tuned
zinc. A continuous brittle chip is formed. car engines. The properties vary according to con-
stitution, but in broad terms the alloys are selected for
their high-temperature strength, oxidation resistance
2.1.3 The free-cutting group contains alloys in groups
2.1.1 and 2.1.2 which have been given improved and fatigue resistance. Some of them are relatively
ductile at room temperature, however, and can be
machinability by additional alloying elements such as
antimony or bismuth. This formed by spinning, pressing or rolling; others are
lead, sulphur, selenium,
group of materials gives a short chip. Outstanding
amenable to forging and extrusion.
among them is 'free-machining brass', a relatively
rendered by the high zinc 3.4.1. The Nimonic alloys present many
Machining.
hard alloy which is brittle
content and the presence of other elements. machining problems, however. They are very hard, so
extremely high cutting pressures are required. Negative
rake, which would normally be used on such hard
2.2 Aluminium and aluminium alloys
comparison materials, is impracticable since its effectiveness
Aluminium and its alloys machine easily in
depends on the reduction of the material's shear
with steels and cast iron. Cutting speeds are high be-
strength by the heat generated; because of their heat-
resistant properties, the high-nickel alloys are clearly
Iron carbide, Fc 3 C - a hard and brittle chemical compound of
unsuited to this technique.
carbon and iron.
83
:
In the machining of Nimonics the critical angle of The following notes on the selection of tool materials
the tool is the maximum rake - the combination of for Nimonics may be helpful
back- and side-rake. This is particularly important
since the high pressures exerted on the tool render For single-point tools (where the hardness of the
disposal of the tough chips very difficult; moreover, the alloy does not exceed 250-280 VPN) and for drills,
higher frictional heat generated between chip and tool- reamers, taps, dies and milling cutters, use high-
face increases the tendency to welding and crater wear. speed steel 18/4/1 or 5/6/2.
The important factor in the heavy roughing of Nimonics
is chip disposal: a heavy, continuous, helical chip For castings and roughing cuts, use high-speed
cannot be handled, so the side-rake must be reduced to a steel 1 8/4/1 or 5/6/2 plus cobalt.
degree where the heavy chip packs against the tool-
face, becomes embrittled and breaks when it curls back For the hardest Nimonics, tool materials con-
against the workpiece. This requirement of reduced taining 5 % each of cobalt, vanadium and chromium
side-rake applies to turning tools, screw-cutting tools, have been developed. If the cutting process is
taps, dies and all tools where a positive top rake is continuous and there are no intermittent shocks
possible without unduly weakening the cutting edge. (for example in turning, boring and reaming),
For rough cuts on cast surfaces, the cutting edge cemented carbide tools give the best results.
should not be too sharp: such a tool does not cut as
cleanly as a sharper tool, but is stronger and better
able to withstand the forces necessary to remove the
tough skin of the casting; this principle applies equally
4 Titanium
to the rough machining of all the harder Nimonics, for
which the roughing tools should generally have high Because of its high ratio and
strength :weight its
side cutting-edge angles. Details of these angles, and resistance to mechanical and chemical changes at
relevant speeds and feeds, are given in Tables 5 to 12. moderately elevated temperatures, commercially pure
Notes on page 105 deal with the cutting fluids used for titanium is widely used in the aircraft industry for
Nimonics. exhaust shrouds, engine firewalls and other heat-
It should be borne in mind that the Nimonics work- resistant applications. Because it readily combines with
harden very easily. To reduce this effect as far as oxygen to form an extremely adherent oxide film,
possible, every precaution should be taken to avoid titanium has a very high resistance to most corrosive
vibration during cutting. The roughing cut should leave materials and so is used extensively in the chemical
sufficient metal for reasonable finishing cuts to be taken, industry - as thin welded linings to mild-steel vessels or
since the tool must get under the work-hardened pipework, or in solid form for heat exchangers, valves
surface left by the roughing operation. and many other components.
when present in air as dry, finely divided particles; Constant, positive feeds should always be used, and
in the
the proportions of air and titanium in this there should be no 'dwelling', stopping or slowing
in fact, if
middle of a cut.
form are critical, there is even a risk of explosion.
Fire can occur also when the metal is cut at high speeds
4.1.1 Turning Tool materials can be high-speed steel,
without adequate and proper coolant, or when inferior
cast-alloy steel or tungsten carbide. Carbide tools may
cleaning procedures allow accumulations of swarf on
machines and surrounding plant. Dry grinding produces be necessary for heavy turning where the surface is
rough, but generally their use is confined to light,
a very hot spark-stream, so special precautions arc
comments on page 105 continuous cuts. The Super grades of high-speed steel
necessary here as well. (See the
regarding preferred cutting fluids.) are satisfactory, giving good results in turning where
large feeds can be employed.
Tool shapes vary considerably, according to the
radio-active for only a short time. The they permit cutting rates 25 % above those possible with
metal is used for charge/discharge machines high-speed and have less tendency to chip than
steel,
machinability : in respect of its galling and seizing many industrial uses include the following
characteristics
it is comparable to stainless steel. As a constituent of tungsten carbide for tools.
Tantalum has hardness values of 80/100 VPN in the In high-temperature vacuum furnaces.
annealed condition and up to 180 VPN after work- For the heating elements of electrical resistance
hardening. High-speed-steel tools are used, and furnaces - where temperatures are about 2 000C
carbides are not recommended owing to the tendency (3 630F).
of the workpiece to weld to the cutting edge. Special In thermionic valves and cathodes, and on the con-
care should be taken to grind the tools to the correct tacts of vehicle ignition distributors, horns and
angles, which are set out in Table 21 petrol-pumps.
Tantalum is very sensitive to choice of cutting fluid, For high-temperature components in rockets.
and requires a coolant containing a high percentage of As filaments for electric lamps.
chlorine. The suggested cutting oil for turning, drilling
and screw-cutting has a viscosity of 5 cSt at 50C Machining tungsten At ambient temperatures, tung-
(35 sec Redwood No. 1 at 140F; 51 SUS at 100F; sten is very difficult to machine because its hardness
1 -4E at 50C) and contains up to 40 % chlorine. values lie between 440 and 460 VPN. If it is machined at
86
In less exotic contexts the metal has applications in the
a temperature of about 400C (750F) - by local in-
electronics industry, where value as a 'getter' (see the
duction heating, for example - its machinability is con-
its
Since tools of high-speed steel are not adequate, special should be taken to grind the tools to the correct angle.
shown in Table 21. the most suitable are those containing a high percentage
of chlorine and having a low viscosity. For turning,
drilling and screw-cutting the recommended oil is
100F;l-4Eat50C).
Tungsten characteristics
At 20C the ultimate tensile stress ranges
1
from 6 210-14 175 kg/cm 2 (40-90 ton/in ) 5.5 Zirconium
2
in annealed condition, to 42 520 kg/cm
Zirconium is a ductile metal which is lighter than steel
(270 ton/in 2) in heavily worked condition.
The modulus of elasticity is 3 516 000 but has excellent corrosion resistance. This last pro-
kg/cm 2 (50x10 lb/in 2) and the melting perty, which is due to an oxide skin that forms on the
pointis3 400C(6 150F). surface and remains stable up to 850C (1 560F), has
in 8).
Zirconium of normal commercial purity
can be worked without difficulty. Usually it
Niobium is worked hot in the early stages, but cold
highly compatible with uranium; this makes it an excel- generally satisfactory, but tungsten-carbide can be
lent choice of 'canning' material for nuclear fast used, particularly for machining heavily scaled surfaces.
reactors that are cooled with the sodium-potassium Generous clearance angles must be employed, and the
alloy. There are few reactors of this type, however, and cutting edges must be kept sharp. See Table 21 for
the cooling technique is unlikely to become widespread. cutting angles and other machining data.
87
Table 1 8 Titanium turning: machining data
Depth of cut
roughing in 0-060 0-250 0-060-0-250
mm 1-51 6-35 1-51-6-35
Peripheral or corner
cutting-edge angle degrees 60 30 30
Chamfer degrees to 45 to 45 to 45
Tungsten carbide
Surface speed ft/min 160-190 80-120 55-95
m/min 50-58 25-37 1 7 - 30
Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-50 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1 -27 max 1 -27 max
Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-1 00 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max
Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-050 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1-27 max 1-27 max
Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-100 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max
High-speed steel
Surface speed ft/min 80- 1 00 40-70 25-60
m/min 25-30 12-22 7-5 -18
Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-050 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1-27 max 1 -27 max
Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-100 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max
89
8
5-45 3 5 15 30
Side cutting-edg e angle 2 }
2
Plan relief angle
10 3-5 5 15 15
Plan trail angle 1
} '
Cuuing-edge clearance
or relief angles 5 5-10 5 5 8 8
Finishing feed in/rev 0-0C5 max 0-003 max 0-003-0-006 0-005 max 0-005 max
mm/rev 0-13 max 0-08 max 0-08-0-15 0-1 3 max 0-13 max
'
'BS J 886 'DIN 6581 '^Depending on operation
.
i y
H *.
* /
v
/ / * m
- I
B
: :
tjp
9. Cutting fluids
deforming the metal is converted into heat, most of Reduction of tool/chip/workpiece temperatures can
which is retained in the chip. Further heat is generated be achieved both by conducting the heat away from the
by friction when the chip moves under high pressure cutting zone and by lubricating the chip/tool interface.
across the face of the tool, and some of this heat passes Reduced friction decreases the heat generated but also
from the chip to the tool. increases the shear angle, which in turn reduces chip
thickness and hence plastic deformation. The amount
of work done is therefore less, as is the heat generated.
An additional bonus is that less power is consumed from
Plate HI the driving motor: in effect, the machine's capacity is
a water-based clear solution (not an emulsion) in which A satisfactory liquid coolant must have high thermal
there is no mineral oil. Chemical and physical agents conductivity and high specific heat. Water fulfils this
pro vide excellent lubricating and anti-corrosionproperties, requirement and has the additional advantage of being
inexpensive, but it is a poor lubricant and therefore is
which give the fluid a remarkably wide variety of appli-
cations in both machining and grinding. The clarity of the not effective in reducing friction between chip and tool-
solution allows machine operators to see the cutting area. face. In addition it is corrosive to ferrous metals, so
For purposes of identification the formulation normally cannot be tolerated in expensive machine tools;
includes a small quantity of dye - green in this case. moreover, it tends to wash the lubricating oil from the
91
;
sliding and rotating surfaces of the machine, thus performance in respect of tool life, ease of filtration and
reducing smoothness of running and increasing wear. stability is often belter than that of conventional
Contamination of lubricating oil reservoirs by water is soluble-oil emulsions.
also a danger.
An alternative and relatively cheap coolant is a The three groups of cutting fluids are
mineral lubricating oil. It has the characteristics Soluble-oil emulsions operations where
Suitable in
required for lubricating the chip/tool interface, and is cutting speeds are very high and pressures on the tool
moving parts of the
also satisfactory for lubricating the are relatively low. Such conditions produce high chip-
machine tool and machine from
protecting the temperatures, so cooling is of paramount importance.
corrosion. The thermal conductivity and specific heat Chemical coolants Alternatives to soluble-oil emul-
of mineral oil are inferior to those of water, however, sions; they exist in two types:
and cannot be improved by additives. This disadvantage Type used solely in grinding, where transparency,
I is
can be countered to a certain extent by the use of a thin stability,good corrosion protection and easy filtration
oil rather than a thick one, because the thin one pumps of debris are the main considerations.
more easily, allows a greater flow and gives better Type 2, when used at high concentrations, has proved
dissipation of heat. superior in cutting performance to soluble-oil emulsions
To enhance the performance of mineral oils as at low concentrations it can be used also for grinding
lubricants in the cutting process (as distinct from their operations.
performance as coolants) certain additives are in- Neat cutting oils Straight mineral oils, or mineral oils
corporated to improve anti-friction properties. With with They are preferred where cutting
additives.
lower friction between chip and tool, the cratering pressures between chip and tool-face are very high,
tendency (partly caused by welding) is decreased. where the primary consideration is lubrication.
Because the chip comes away more easily, the degree of
plastic deformation is which further
also decreased, When cutting fluids are being formulated and manu-
reduces the heat generated. For very severe machining factured, great care is taken to avoid the inclusion of
operations, the additives employed are known as EP materials that might make the final product unaccept-
(extreme-pressure) agents; their function is fully able because of colour, smell, toxicity or unpleasant
explained in Section 6 of this chapter. skin effects. Equal care is taken to ensure that the
The excellent cooling provided by water can be product is not rendered unacceptable by reactions
utilized if the disadvantages of poor lubrication and between otherwise acceptable constituents. Any re-
corrosive tendency are overcome. This can be effected actions with the machine tool, its equipment, the work-
in two ways. The traditional method has been the piece or the operator must be anticipated and avoided
addition of a so-called soluble oil*, to create a mixture or at least minimized.
that combines the cooling properties of water with the
lubricating and anti-corrosion properties of oil.
In the past few years much development work has
3 Soluble-Oil Emulsions
been carried out to perfect a water-based coolant that
is a true solution containing no mineral oil, and the 'Soluble' oils, as already explained, do not in fact
result is the chemical or synthetic coolant. Chemical dissolve.They are fundamentally mineral oils blended
coolants were initially introduced to overcome prob- with emulsifiers when the blend is added to water and
;
lems concerning the clogging or 'loading' of grinding stirred, a dispersion of oil droplets in a continuous
wheels operating with emulsions. They have the phase of water is produced, forming an oil-in-water
virtue of retaining their transparency longer than the is the simplest type; modern soluble
emulsion. That
emulsions, and they filter more easily. The simplest and more complicated, however, and may contain
oils are
oldest type of chemical coolant consists simply of water more than one emulsifier. They usually include a
and corrosion inhibitors. A more recent type contains coupling agent (discussed shortly) to prevent separation
materials with lubricating properties. Such products are of the blend and to encourage a more rapid dispersion
used for general machining, and in this application their of the oil when added to water. Other constituents may
also be present, such as wetting agents, and foam and
corrosion inhibitors. In areas where the water or the
climatic conditions promote the growth of bacteria - or
Two points of terminology are worth noting. First, the term where workshop practice is not adequately hygienic -
'soluble' - although used throughout the industry- is a misnomer
because the oil forms an emulsion, not a solution, in water. bactericides may be included (see Appendix III).
Instead of dissolving like sugar in coffee, it exists as tiny droplets The emulsifier is usually a blend of petroleum sul-
suspended in the water phase. Second, the expression 'soluble
oil' is widely used haphazardly for both the water/oil blend and phonate and soaps, the latter having been produced by
the mineral oil product before it is mixed with water. For reacting a fatty acid and an alkali; sodium sulphonate
clarity, we use 'soluble oiP for the unmixed product and 'soluble-
oil emulsion' for the mixture. is one of the more suitable kinds. These emulsifiers
92
:
come into the chemical category of anionic materials, allergic to them. These coolants may also contain
and their constituent sulphonates and soaps may separ- corrosion inhibitors such as sodium nitrite or tri-
ate in unusually severe conditions of service - for in- ethanolamine to prevent the corrosion of ferrous metals
stance in the presence of acids. In some cases, therefore, by the emulsified blend.
non-ionic emulsificrs are used, either alone or in con- There are three groups of soluble-oil emulsions
junction with anionic emulsificrs, because they are
more stable. 3.1Milky soluble-oil emulsions
An emulsifier may not readily form a stable blend These are so-called because they produce opaque emul-
with mineral oil, so a coupling agent is needed to bind it sions having a milky appearance.
have phenolic compounds as their coupling agents: the These are used extensively for grinding. The clear
which gives the soluble oil a distinctive antiseptic smell. than do milky emulsions, and therefore they pro-
sifier
When concentrated emulsions are prepared, or when duce dispersions in which the oil droplets are smaller and
loss of water by evaporation leads to high concentration, widely distributed. There is less dispersion of the trans-
opaque; the result a
the quantity of phenolic compounds present may be so the fluid
mitted light, is less is
sufficient to irritate the machine operator's skin. translucent liquid rather than one that is, strictly, clear.
For these reasons coupling agents in the premium When the fluid is present in a relatively thin film the
observer can see through it and thus observe the work-
quality soluble oils of the major oil companies are not
phenolic compounds: instead, a more expensive but piece more clearly. The translucency is not permanent,
though, because after a time the tiny oil droplets tend
safer type of coupling agent of the higher alcohol type is
used. Materials of this type do not cause irritation to the to coalesce and form larger ones.
skin, eyes, nose or throat of operators and workshop These emulsions are less 'oily' than the milky variety
personnel - except, of course, in those who are already because they are usually mixed at a lower oil-to-
water concentration. Furthermore the emulsion formed heated to 50-60X (120-140F) and then rolled vigor-
is more stable because of its higher proportion of ously along the shop floor. Care is needed in heating the :
emulsifying agent, which lessens the likelihood of bung should be loosened, and no naked flame must be
separation and of consequent oil-deposition on the allowed near. Water may be added in doses of not more
surface of the grinding wheel. Less oil on the wheel than 2% (say a quart or litre to a full barrel). It is most
means that less grinding debris is retained on its surface, unlikely, however, that the original qualities of the oil
which therefore does not clog as much as it would with will be fully regained by this treatment. There is no
a milky emulsion. substitute for careful storage under cover at moderate
temperatures. Particular attention should be paid to the
3.3 'Extreme-pressure' (EP) soluble-oil emulsions siting and protection of bulk storage tanks for soluble
These - usually milky in appearance - were
fluids oil, since the contents are extremely difficult to deal
developed to bridge the gap between orthodox emul- with after separation has occurred.
sions, which are effective coolants but have poor If temporary out-of-doors storage is unavoidable,
lubricating properties, and neat cutting oils, which have barrels or drums of soluble oil should be laid on their
only moderate cooling characteristics but good load- sides; if they are placed upright, any water collected
carrying properties. around a bung may be drawn in as temperatures rise and
Improvement in the load-carrying performance of fall first expand on warm-
during the day. The contents
soluble-oil emulsions is achieved by the incorporation of ing and then contract on cooling, and bungs (even
additives of the sulphurized, chlorinated or sulpho- when sealed) may allow the accumulated water to seep
chlorinated types. Since the EP concentrate is diluted 10 past seals under these conditions.
to 20 times when the emulsion is prepared, the quantity Care is needed in handling and storing soluble oils at
of EP additive in the final emulsion is very small. Where all stages - during storage at the blending plant, during
the lubricating capabilities of soluble-oil emulsions arc transport and when on the user"s premises. After a
inadequate and the cooling properties of neat cutting container is opened, the oil should be protected from
oils insufficient, however, EP soluble-oil emulsions can contamination by dirt, by lubricating oils and by soluble
in many cases satisfy both requirements. oils of different type. The risk of incompatibility with
other soluble oils is very high indeed.
they should be stored, mixed and handled carefully. constant stirring. Water must never be added to oil since
this could result in the formation of an invert emulsion -
4.1 Storage and handling water dispersed in oil.
Most soluble oils, as delivered, contain a small quantity The water must be clean and of proper quality (see
of water to stabilize the blend and ensure rapid dis- later), and the oil rwater proportion carefully controlled.
persion and easy mixing when the oil is added to water. Containers used for mixing must be clean. It is generally
If during storage the temperature of the oil falls much considered poor practice to mix a soluble cutting oil in
below 0"C (32F), this initial water constituent may a machine's sump; far better results are achieved if
freeze and so become ineffective. Conversely, if the mixing is done beforehand in a clean tank.
temperature rises excessively the water may evaporate. Moderate quantities of emulsions -
up to 500 litres
When the ice melts or the vapour condenses, the water (say 100 gallons)- are easily mixed by hand. The items
docs not disperse evenly throughout the blend but falls needed arc an open mild-steel (not galvanized) tank
to the bottom, and so cannot fulfil its intended function. marked to show a known capacity of water, a can that
Subsequently the soluble oil will be found very difficult holds at one filling the correct amount of oil for that
to mix, and may even have separated to form a gel. amount of water, and a good-sized mixing paddle. A
In the absence of full blending facilities, operators wooden paddle about the size of a garden spade is very
cannot easily restore such an oil to its original condition. satisfactory. The tank is filled to the mark with water
In an emergency, if no other oil is available, though, and the oil is poured in slowly with constant agitation.
restoration may have to be attempted. Simple agitation For larger quantities a power-driven stirrer is useful.
of the oil is not likely to be successful, since the original Proprietary mixing devices working on the injector
blending was probably carried out when the compon- principle are available. The principle is shown in Fig 57
ents were passing through a controlled-temperature water flowing through the jet causes a pressure drop in
cycle. However, some soluble oils that have separated in the mixing chamber, and oil is drawn in through the
this way may be partially restored if the barrels are side tube. Most of these devices have a variable restric-
94
:
tor for oil flow, to control the strength of the mix, and 4.3 Water quality
On/off control Water in with the emulsifier in the soluble oil to form an insoluble
scum which floats on the surface of the emulsion.
This scum may not in itself be harmful, but in process
of formation it consumes part of the emulsifier; conse-
less than 200 ppm; for waters harder than that, the
The Mobrey Fluidmix brings together water and a because the proportion of dissolved solids is too high
soluble oil to form a soluble-oil emulsion. Concentration for stable emulsions to be formed.
can be adjusted instantaneously by a knob at the top of Care must be taken not to add more than the cal-
the housing. The pump is for use when water-pressure culatedamount of washing soda. Too much soda
is low. causes excessive alkalinity and hence a risk of soreness
95
. :
on the hands and arms of operators. When water is checking emulsion strength - an essential first step in
softened with soda, a precipitate forms which should the process of correction
be allowed to settle or should he removed by filtration; (a) Institute of Petroleum, method IP 137/55
the softened, precipitate-free water can then be used to 'Soluble Cutting Oils- Oil Content of Dispersions'.
prepare the emulsion. (b) American Society for Testing and Materials, method
ASTM 123/64
'Apparatus for Determination of Water Content by
4.4 Acidity and alkalinity
Distillation'.
The hydrogen-ion concentration, which is usually Two shortened, simple methods of checking emulsion
expressed as the pH value, is a measure of the acidity strength are used in small laboratories and workshops.
or alkalinity of a solution. The equipment required for the first is:
1 Measuring cylinder calibrated in millilitres, capacity
pH represents extreme acidity
25 ml.
pH 7 represents neutrality
2. Flat-bottomed flask of about 50 ml capacity with a
pH 14 represents extreme alkalinity
neck graduated from 0-10 ml in tenths of a ml.
The normal human skin has a pH value of between 3. A supply of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, of
5-5 and 5-6. Solutions with substantially higher or lower strength 20% by volume of concentrated acid.
values cause irritation, but the severity cannot be The method is to take 20 ml of the emulsion in the
predicted because some people are extremely sensitive measuring cylinder and transfer it to the flask. Add acid
while others have high tolerance. The pH value of to bring the level approximately to the 8 ml mark in the
mains water varies widely; London readings, for exam- neck. Stopper the flask and shake.
ple, vary from about 8-0 for river-derived water to Remove the stopper and submerge the flask in a water
perhaps 7-2 for well water. bath at least to the lower part of the neck heat the water
;
Opinions vary on optimum alkalinity for a soluble-oil to near boiling for 15 to 30 minutes, or until all the oil
96
;
Air
Water
Fig 60
The refractometer mentioned above functions on the cerned, and in the case of a solution it is affected by the
principle that when light passes from one medium to concentration since this controls the density. Here
another - say, from air to a liquid - its direction is solution Y is denser - more concentrated - than solution
changed slightly. This phenomenon is known as refraction X, which in turn is denser than water, so the angle of
the angle of refraction varies with the two media con- refraction increases from left to right.
97
4.6 Keeping emulsions clean bacterial degradation of the emulsion - hence to un-
Care taken in preparing a clean and stable emulsion pleasant odours and rusting.
is wasted if the coolant is transferred to machines with If a coolant system for either a single machine or a
dirty sumps. Moreover there is little point in trying to centralized system becomes infected by bacteria- and
deal with dirty emulsions which have become unstable this state of affairs can usually be recognized by the
and from which oil is separating. Machines should be smell - steps must be taken to clean the system. First the
regularly and thoroughly cleaned, and the emulsion coolant must be pumped out and discarded, and all
should be completely cleared of swarf, accumulated swarf and dirt removed. Particular attention must be
metal-dust, scale, rust and sludge. Particular attention paid to areas where 'fines' can collect: cast iron dust, for
should be paid to pockets in castings and also to the example, on the bottom of the tank and form an
will lie
pump well. Good housekeeping may appear expensive area of stagnant coolant where bacteria can multiply
in terms of labour and lost production time, but the freely. Pockets of bacteria left anywhere will multiply
effort is fully justified. Trials with neat cutting oil under rapidly, feeding on certain constituents of the emulsion
applies equally to soluble-oil emulsions. pumps) and allow it to circulate for 1 5 minutes. Special
Oily films sometimes appear on the surfaces of care must be taken in handling caustic soda solution.
emulsions. They are not always the result of emulsion After draining, fill the system with clean water, allow it
breakdown, but may indicate contamination from a to circulate for 10 minutes and drain again; then add
leaking gearbox, bearing or hydraulic system. When an justenough water, preferably hot, to cover the pump
oily film appears on a soluble-oil emulsion and no inlet;add bactericide. Circulate for at least one hour.
obvious signs of emulsion breakdown arc apparent -
Drain, then add the new emulsion.
such as 'dryness" of the fluid, or corrosion -the machine As pointed out earlier, the coupling agents used in
should be examined for oil leaks. some soluble oils act as bactericides. They are effective
Even when a clean emulsion has reached a clean only at relatively high concentrations, however; in
machine tool (or a bulk distribution system), care and soluble-oil emulsions, because of the dilution, they do
cleanliness are required. Machine sumps should not be not control bacterial growth. Special bactericides are
receptacles for cigarette ends, orange peel, stale sand- available for the purpose, and many users of soluble-oil
wiches, body wastes and unwanted rubbish. This warning emulsions add them to coolants as a routine precaution.
may seem superfluous, but it is necessary. Sumps are Bacterial degradation of soluble-oil emulsions is dealt
frequently so used, and such abuses lead to chemical and within Appendix I II.
98
4.7 Operating temperatures Coolant pipe
Since a primary function of the cutting fluid is to cool
the tool and the cutting area, the fluid becomes heated.
One object of cooling the work is to maintain dimen-
sional accuracy by keeping the workpiece within a Workpiece
given temperature range, thus limiting thermal dis-
Most high-precision machine tools are guaran-
tortion.
the chip.
without penetrating to the cutting area, and therefore The full benefits of a coolant can never he obtained so long
A gentle flood is more likely to asit is applied wrongly. It should be directed at the place
fails to lubricate the tool.
penetrate to the chip/tool interface. where cooling and lubrication are most needed - the
99
:
Fig 62
A ring-type coolant distributor is valuable for milling
work; it not only ensures effective distribution of the
fluid to the cutting edges but serves as a guard also.
consumed and more heat generated. A simple rule for should be flexible to ensure the best angle of direction.
determining the quantity of coolant required is As machining progresses, the coolant stream should
remain in the correct relationship to tool and work-
Horsepower required for the cut - gallons/minute.
piece, and not moved by vibration nor deflected by parts
If two supply pipes are available, the first should be of the machine. Fig 61 illustrates correct and incorrect
applied as just described and the second from below the methods of applying cutting fluids.
tool, directed into the cutting area with its flow un- In milling, drilling, reaming and tapping operations
obstructed by the chip. Alternatively, the second the ring-type coolant distributor is ideal (see Figs
stream can be directed along the top face of the tool. 62 and 63). Milling machines are usually adequately
Should the second stream (directed from below or cooled, because their cutters produce short chips so the
along the tool) cause splashing this is no reason for supply of coolant to the cutting area is not obstructed.
removing or reducing the supply; the main criterion On a drilling machine the coolant should be directed
must be satisfactory cooling and lubrication of the tool. down the hole being drilled, but it is often aimed at a
The remedy for excessive splashing is to fit splash- point some way from the end of the drill; furthermore,
guards. Coolant-supply pipes should be as large as is drills tend to throw off coolant centrifugally. The ring-
convenient (20 to 25 mm bore) and the outlet portion type distributor, however, sends coolant inwards,
Cutting- fluid
inlet
Fig 63
The ring distributor is excellent, too, in heavy-duty drilling operations, because it ensures that a copious supply of
coolant is aimed inwards towards the cutting edges. Again the ring itself functions as a guard.
100
the distributor serves also as an effective guard. of water-based coolants (true solutions) with a wide
range of applications and with a performance in many
cases superior to that of soluble-oil emulsions. Their
dilution is selected according to the machining operation
and the workpiece material, and they have the added
5 Chemical Coolants virtue that at high rates of dilution they can be employed
In recent years there have been interesting developments as high-performance grinding solutions. Typical dilu-
no tions are 20:1 for difficult operations and for work on
in the field of cutting fluids that contain little or
mineral oil. Initially the typical 'synthetic' coolant was a cast iron, 40:1 for general machining of medium-
at a time when methods were being The lubricating (anti-wear) properties are provided
It was formulated
sought to overcome the "loading' of grindingwheelswhen by a viscous polyglycol compound. Corrosion pro-
As was already mentioned, tection provided by a mixture of triethanolamine
is
oil-based fluids were in use.
the clear soluble-oil emulsions are used as
grinding and caprilic acid, and the formulation may include a
they tend to lose their clarity after a period in de-activator for cuprous metals.
fluids but
loading of the wheel, which leads to poor surface finish methods, not in general use, are titration and the use
and lower rates of metal removal. In addition, the oil of proprietary indicators such as Quantabs, which are
clings to the very small particles and makes filtration described below.
These problems do not occur with chemi- In titration a small amount of a coloured 'indicator'
more difficult.
grinding fluid is a plain soda solution, which has a reached. The resultant change of colour gives the
corrosion-inhibiting function and therefore protects the indication, and the quantity of added solution can then
machine from rust. Better fluids contain highly de- be correlated with the unknown strength of the cutting
101
Additives
Fatty oil
Chlorinated Sulphurized
Chloro- fatty oil Sulphur monochloride
paraffin fatty oil
(S ? CI 8 )
Additive
Sulphurized mineral oil: Sulphurized fatty oil:
mineral oil with elemental sulphur fatty oil with elemental
dissolved and loosely combined: sulphur fully combined
Up to 5.. sulphur if blending (Up to 18"',, sulphur)
reaction is at 60 C.
Up to 2 0; if at 160C.
MM
1 02
and fatty oil are quite effective for many operations.
(f) Sulphurized mineral oil
and sulphurized mineral oil The advantages are not great, and are confined mainly
(g) Sulphurized fatty oil
and sulphurized fatty oil brass and copper, where straight mineral oil may not
(k) Chloro-fatty oil
Sulpho-chlorinated fatty oil give the standard of finish required and the use of
(1)
more-active oils would cause staining.
where the lubrication and cooling experienced in the immediate cutting zone. Small
alloys in operations
are non-corrosive additions of the fatty oils just mentioned have the effect
requirements are not severe. The oils
of markedly improving anti-friction characteristics.
and stable, and if kept clean can be used almost
They lubricate all exposed moving parts, Under conditions of 'boundary' lubrication - when the
indefinitely.
and minor leakage into or from gear boxes, bearings rubbing faces are so heavily loaded that a straight oil
and hydraulic systems does not upset a machine's would be unable to keep the faces apart - the fatty
performance. additive forms a thin and highly tenacious layer of
have metallic soap, created by chemical activity between the
In the past, conventionally refined spindle oils
oils and as the fatty-acid molecules and the metal of the tool, the chip
been used as straight mineral cutting
base oil in additive-type cutting oils. However, the UK and the workpiecc. This layer has very low shear strength
Institute of Petroleum's Advisory Committee on Health
and continues to lubricate even after the normal oil
film has broken down. These fatty oils are known as
has recommended that solvent-refined oils be used for
all lubricants likely to come into contact with skin or
compounded oils.
most common types were lard and rape oil (a non- cation performance required, and neat oils containing
drying vegetable oil obtained from the seeds of the rape EP additives have to be used. An EP agent comes into
effect wherever minute asperities (high spots) on the
plant). Their use has declined, partly because they are
mating surfaces rub together and set up high frictional
now difficult to obtain and are expensive, but mainly
because modern additives blended with mineral oil are temperatures over extremely tiny areas. High tempera-
much more effective. Fatty oils are very polar and have ture causes the EP agent to react with the adjacent
- but they
high 'oiliness' - anti-friction performance
metals and create an anti-welding layer of solid lubricant
have poor anti-weld characteristics. They oxidize between the tool and the underside of the chip.
additives, used singly or as mixtures, produce five cutting inactive or mild if they do not.
This diagram illustrates the ways in which sulphur can be solution of elemental sulphur in a fatty oil such as
used as an additive in cutting oils. sperm oil; if the reaction is properly controlled, up to
103
18% sulphur can be fully combined, lo form a com- as are cutting fluids containing up to 40% chlorine.
pound with little or no sulphur remaining in the free or The chlorinated oils are used in the machining of
uncombined form. During a machining operation the Nimonics and nickel alloys, particularly in broaching
sulphur reacts with its metallic surroundings to form a operations. Carefully selected and blended oils of this
sulphide film of very low shear strength. type do not stain, and can be used satisfactorily with
yellow metals.
6.6 Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and
elemental sulphur 6.10 Blends of mineral oil, chlorinated paraffin and
The addition of elemental sulphur to an inactive sulphurized fatty oil
sulphurized fatty oil renders it active. Active sulphurized Cutting oils of this type combine the best properties of
oils have better EP properties than inactive ones, and chlorinated paraffins and sulphurized fatty oils: they can
are particularly suitable for machining the tougher be used for a wide range of materials and operations.
ferrous alloys. The amount of elemental sulphur that The anti-friction properties of the two oils combine to
can usefully be included in such oils is 0-5 %. give a good finish and good tool life, augmented by the
EP anti-weld properties of the sulphur. An interesting
6.7 Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized mineral oil fact is that two such additives sometimes display a
There are two types of sulphurized mineral oil, both pro- synergistic effect: their combined benefit to a cutting
duced by dissolving sulphur in specific mineral oils. In fluid is greater than the sum of their individual effects.
the first, the sulphur is dissolved in the oil at about
60C (140F) and up to 0-5% is taken up; the second 6.11 Blends of mineral oil and chloro-fatty oil
method involves mixing at 160C (320F) at which Chloro-fatty oils, produced by combining chlorine with
temperature up to 2% sulphur is dissolved. Both a synthetic fatty ester, are suitable for machining a wide
methods produce oils in which the sulphur is very range of materials and are non-staining to both ferrous
loosely combined; these oils are active and will stain
and non-ferrous metals. When blended with suitable
the yellow metals. Sulphurized mineral cutting oils have
base oils they are used for honing, grinding, turning and
good EP properties and are cheaper to produce than deep boring.
those containing sulphurized fatty oils; the latter,
although generally without such good EP properties,
6.12 Blends of mineral oil, chloro-fatty oil and sulphurized
have better 'oiliness' or anti-friction properties, and
fatty oil
usually give better tool-life and finish.
These oils are similar to good anti-
type 6.10, and have
friction and anti-weld They are suitable for a
properties.
6.8 Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and
wide range of materials and operations, and the best of
sulphurized mineral oil
them should not stain ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
This blend combines the oiliness of sulphurized fatty
Since the sulphur and chlorine are contained in separate
oils with the EP properties of sulphurized mineral oils,
additives, the formulation can be tailored to the user's
and is sometimes used in preference to type 6.6. Oils in
requirements.
this category are again of the active type, and therefore
are not recommended for use in the presence of the
yellow metals. They are very effective for the heavy-duty 6.13 Blends of mineral oil and sulpho-chlorinated fatty oil
Although chlorine is chemically more active than be blended which are inactive at room temperature but
sulphur, the EP effects of chlorides are not so good as are very active at the temperature of the cutting area.
those of sulphides. With metals or operations where Oils of this type are suitable for machining the toughest
104
operation, and affords the opportunity of finer control Sulphurized oils are not recommended because they
over very delicate machining tasks. cause discoloration of workpicces, and cutting oils
containing free sulphur are to be avoided because with
alloys destined for high-temperature applications the
7 Use, Care and Maintenance of Neat
chemical action can eventually lead to corrosion in
7.2 Maintenance
If the cutting fluid has to be removed after the
Neat cutting oils are more expensive than water-based
machining operation, chlorinated solvents should not
coolants, so it is both sound business sense and
be used in any circumstances. This is because chloride
hygienic to keep them in good condition. In particular,
stress corrosion can occur when a workpiece retains
neat grinding oils when kept clean have a useful life
residual chlorides and is subsequently heated or heat-
three or four times that of dirty, debris-laden oils.
treated; in time, premature metal fatigue sets in.
machining operations on these metals can be accom- particles, dirt, scalefrom workpieccs and sand from
plished without cutting fluids, but such practices castings - are undesirable for two main reasons. First,
sacrifice speed and finish. Cutting fluids are particularly contaminants frequently act as catalysts and cause
necessary when the heat cannot dissipate rapidly into reactions that result in the chemical breakdown of
the surrounding air - as in drilling, tapping, boring fluid. This causes splitting of emulsions or oxidation
of the oil - or both. Each leads to staining and corrosion
and reaming.
Most applications can be satisfied by EP soluble-oil of both machine and workpiece, and a shortening of the
emulsions, but neat oils may be necessary in some cases. useful life of the fluid. Secondly, recirculation of
Difficult operations such as broaching require neat oils contaminants reduces the quality of surface finish,
Filter media can be classed as of permanent or In addition to those designs there is a multi-chamber
disposable types. The first group includes perforated centrifuge, designed specifically for separation of
metal, woven wire and stacked hollow discs of com- liquids and solids. It contains concentric vertical
pressed paper or plastic; periodically the accumulated cylinders fixed alternately at top and bottom, to form
contaminants are scraped, shaken or flushed and in off, a labyrinth through which the fluidflows from the
some systems this takes place automatically when central inlet to the periphery. It has a greater capacity
the pressure-drop across the filter has reached a than the others for holding solids.
predetermined level. In the same category come the In the Hydrocyclone clarifier there is a centrifugal
media known as 'loose solids' - powders used to separating effect but no moving parts. This device is a
prc-coat a filter element with an artificial porous cake tall inverted cone in which the fluid enters tangentially
that is extremely effective in removing fine particles. at the widest part; it sets up a high whirling velocity
Some cutting fluids cannot be treated by this technique which throws the solids against the tapered wall of the
because active additives are removed along with the cyclone chamber. As the solids slide to their outlet
contaminants. at the bottom they lose rotary speed, but simultaneously
The disposable filler usually takes the form of a the cleaned fluid is guided into a vortex which impels
continuously moving sheet of filter material, which is it up through the middle of the cone and out through
thrown away with the contaminants after passing a 'clean' port at the top.
through the filter zone. In the most common version a
sheet of muslin is fed from a roll past a cascade of
fluid. 10.2 Chip breakers
Magnetic separation, of course, can be applied When ductile metals are machined on a lathe they
only to ferrous swarf. Tn one type of separator the produce long, helical chips which often become en-
magnetic unit is a drum : as the fluid flows over it, the tangled in the tool and the toolholder. As a result the
swarf adheres and is carried round until removed by cutting area becomes obstructed and the coolant is
a scraper bar, from which it drops on to a chute leading unable to reach it. The most common remedy is for the
to a separate receptacle. In another form of separator operator to remove the chips periodically with a rake,
the fluid passes over the lower end of a magnetized but this is time-wasting and can be dangerous if the
conveyor, which raises the swarf clear of the fluid in machine is not stopped also ; it causes the cutting area to
the holding tank. be isolated from the coolant for a large proportion of
In many filters the only force acting on the fluid is the cutting time.
gravity. In some, however, a partial vacuum is employed A more satisfactory solution is to use a chip-breaker.
on one side of the element so that air pressure forces This is either an integral part of, or an attachment to,
the fluid through from the other. In one technique the tool, according to tool design and size. A chip-
the contaminated fluid is pumped directly through breaker interrupts the passage of the chip, which is
in several ways. Perhaps the simplest is that in which chip, instead of forming a long helix, is continually
wet swarf is spun in a basket to fling out the fluid but ruptured into short pieces which can be easily removed.
retain the metallic material for later disposal. Fig 66 shows some standard types of chip-breaker.
106
10.3 Reclamation plant
Grooved
Methods of reclamation vary from simple settlement
tanks to complex filtration and purification systems.
Clamped-on of emulsions.
For effective sterilization, soluble cutting fluids
107
Elevator
Conveyor to storage
VW WW i , i
vvw vwv
t r .
W\Ai
Elevator
Holding
bin
Skip hoist
\ Swarf tray
Centrifuge \ \ I \ \
Line oil
heater
ra an
Lagged Wash water
holding
tank Purifier
=Water out Clean oil to
Pump machine shop
Sludge out.
Fig 67
This is a typical automated swarf-processing and oil- swarf leaves the centrifuge it contains only about 2%
reclamation plant. Swarf is fed in at top left to the swarf moisture; from here it passes to the appropriate holder,
drip-tray, where large parts (such as bar ends) are while the reclaimed oil is filtered, settled, sterilized and
removed before the swarf enters the pulverizer. When stored before being returned to the machine shop.
108
Fig 68 3l
A smaller plant for reclaiming neat oil. Healers in the
Heaters
i^^warf^oil^-i
tank at top right have the effect of thinning the oil so that
solids separate more easily and centrifuging is facilitated.
Sediment
drain-cock
Collection
Alfa- Laval
?' I
v tank
tanK centrifuge
.^--^ai
~:fe
r~-----;-
%XAZ
-V_:
recovery value. Small quantities, however, are relatively should be avoided in a simple plant of this type because
easily treated with simple plant, such as that shown the separated water would then need neutralizing with
diagrammatically in Fig 69. The discarded emulsion is alkali before it could be run into sewers. Some experi-
treatment found.
an emulsion-splitting reagent is added and the mixture is
from the pipe For larger machine shops and rolling mills, more
is agitated and aerated by compressed air
then allowed to stand for 24-48 hours, elaborate plant is needed since large quantities of
P. The mixture is
weir W. Valves V 2 are then opened and the separated ated heavily with the splitting reagent and possibly with
deterioration products of the emulsifier additive.
water is pumped into tank C, where it is aerated again
of the oil contains Special burners have been devised to utilize such waste
and allowed to stand so that the rest it
common salt and occasionally strong acids. The latter ence in this field is essential.
Fig 69
Schematic diagram of a plant for splitting soluble-oil
emulsion into oil and water before disposal. Operational
details are given in the accompanying text.
1
Appendix I
Equivalent viscosities
Eq u i valent tern peratu res
Cutting speeds and diameters
33 30 36 1-23
36 40 39 1-31
38 5-0 42 140
41 60 46 1-48
44 7-0 49 1-57
46 8-0 52 1-66
49 90 56 1-75
52 10 59 1-84
55 11 63 1-93
58 12 66 2 02
61 13 70 2-12
65 14 74 2-22
68 15 78 2-33
71 16 81 2-44
75 17 85 2-55
78 18 90 2-65
82 19 94 2-76
86 20 98 2-88
90 21 102 2-99
93 22 107 3-11
97 23 111 3-22
101 24 115 3-34
This table may be used for approximate conversion from one viscosity scale to another,
A T THE SA ME TEMPERA TUBE
Equivalent temperatures
32 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 392
I
l |
MINI
MM
I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I
II
I I I I I I I
II
! I i
I
I
I
I
I I I I
I
I
I
I I
II
II I I II
I I
I I I I
i
I I I
mm
II II I I I I
I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
c
110
Cutting speed - m/min 4 Workpiece diameter - mm
200 150 50 40 30
200 T
150
20
100-
10
50
075
400 ,
300
05
200
100
various dermal ailments. There are four main types of the skin. In the first it is the hair follicles that become
oil-induced skin diseases, which can occur singly or in blocked; in the second, the sweat ducts and sebaceous
combination. They are dermatitis, oil folliculitis, oil glands. The symptoms are 'blackheads' which may
acne and finally keratoses and warts. In rare cases the cause little or no discomfort, but the more susceptible
last two - keratoses and warts - may become malignant operator may suffer also from boils or even carbuncles.
(cancerous). The rarity of this condition in comparison In this instance neat cutting oils are the culprits, and
with the other skin conditions was established beyond the disease is more common in the hairier parts of the
question by a committee set up by The Institute of body, especially where oil-soaked clothing has been in
Petroleum in 1967. prolonged contact with the skin. It follows, too, that
hairier people with oily skins may be particularly
susceptible.
Soluble cutting oils are more commonly the cause slight indeed, hut machine operators and setters are
than are neat oils, and the presence of abrasive metal advised to seek medical advice immediately any spots or
swarf is a contributory factor. It is worthy of mention sores appear. Although the hands are most likely to be
that the skin's ability to resist dermatitis depends to a infrequent contact with oil, the skin of the scrotum seems
considerable extent on adequate 'recovery time' - the particularly sensitive - mainly because of the chafing of
period of non-exposure to oil. oil-soaked clothing.
112
of exposure to oil. If contracted during the exposure Prevention of Skin Diseases
period, too, they may persist for some lime.
Education
Ail employees should be informed of the hazards of
work with cutting oils. Any official notices should be
prominently displayed, and literature on the subject
Keratoses and Warts should be distributed to all employees. (In the UK, for
Prolonged exposure to certain oils may lead to localized example, the Factory Inspectorate leaflet 295 and
thickening of the skin (keratoses) or warts. Generally notice SHW 397 are recommended).
these are not malignant, but warts may occasionally
or malignant ulcers may develop on otherwise normal Employees with a tendency to dermatitis should be
skin. The lesions may appear on the exposed skin of the excluded from work with cutting oils.
than other parts of the body, and this emphasizes the even underwear, according to the degree of exposure.
need to avoid carrying oily rags in trouser pockets. Laundering facilities must be available and overalls
Although exposure to oils over a period is an essential should be dry-cleaned, since conventional laundering
factor, skin cancer is slow to develop and may not has been shown to be inadequate for removing oil.
appear until long after exposure has ceased. The risk is Clothing should be changed regularly and frequently.
small but early treatment is nevertheless essential, and
machine operators and setters must be warned to seek Cleanliness
medical advice immediately any abnormal growths, Good washing facilities and showers should be available,
hard spots or sores appear on their skin, particularly together with changing rooms and lockers where
on or near the scrotum. working clothes can be kept. Barrier and cleansing
Polycyclic aromatics, some of which are known creams should be available to employees both before
carcinogens, would be expected to be present in most and after work.
unrefined cutting oils. The concentration of these types
of compound is reduced by 'solvent' refining, and it is Machinery
recommended that all oils used as neat cutting oils Machinery should be adapted to minimize contamina-
should be solvent-refined. Soluble oils (water-based tion of employees; measures include proper control of
emulsions) appear to be less hazardous than neat oils oil flow, correctly positioned splash guards, filtering of
as regards carcinogenicity; nevertheless the same metallic swarf and the avoidance of unnecessary
precautions should be adopted to avoid exposure. handling of oily components.
113
Appendix III
Bacteria are widely distributed in nature, and are present 6-5. Nocardia is found in systems operating at somewhat
in the atmosphere, the soil and natural water. In higher bulk temperatures, 55-60C (1 30-140F) and can
favourable conditions they arc capable of multiplying increase the acidity to a pH value of about 4-5.
at phenomenal rates as compared with animal or plant When a system becomes infected with sulphate-
cells. It is hardly surprising that soluble-oil emulsions reducing bacteria it develops the obnoxious smells
do not remain completely sterile for any length of time. associated with putrefaction. Bacteria of the species
Most species of bacteria arc completely harmless - they Desulphovibrio desulphuricans are frequently found to be
can neither utilize the components of soluble-oil responsible; this species thrives in the absence of
emulsions nor infect human beings. A few, however, oxygen, and is described as anaerobic. Thus the foul
have undesirable effects and can cause problems such, smells of hydrogen sulphide are produced mainly in
as dermatitis, emulsion breakdown and foul odours. stagnant soluble-oil systems, particularly where the
emulsion has a surface layer of oil that tends to exclude
oxygen. The hydrogen sulphide arises from reduction of
either the inorganic sulphates that occur as water
Types of bacteria hardness or the petroleum sulphonate component of
Pathogenic bacteria of the genera Staphylococcus and the soluble oil.
Streptococcus can cause skin infections. Machine Any of the symptoms just described would indicate
operators working with soluble-oil emulsions are the presence of bacterial infection. Bacterial examina-
rendered susceptible to skin infections because of the tion could be used to confirm, and perhaps identify, the
combination of the de-fatting effect of soluble-oil species. Where a soluble oil is being degraded, or
and the abrasive action of metallic swarf.
emulsifiers where a noticeable loss of anti-corrosion properties
High standards of personal hygiene and the use of has been detected, a check on the pH of the system
barrier creams should prevent the occurrence of such would be advantageous.
problems. A more difficult situation arises when a
Two of the more common bacteria found in infected Cleanliness and good housekeeping in machine shops
soluble-oil systems belong to the genera Pseudomonas do much to avoid bacterial infection, and their
and Nocardia. They can degrade the amine inhibitors, importance cannot be overstrcsscd. Various physical
anionic emulsifiers and mineral oil components found techniques can be employed to keep the bacteria
in typical soluble oils, and thus cause loss of anti- population at an acceptably low level. Heat treatment,
corrosion properties, increase in acidity and deteriora- centrifuging and filtration can be used to advantage,
tion of the emulsion. These bacteria thrive in well- although economic considerations may restrict their
aerated systems, and are termed aerobic. Pseudomonas use to systems containing large volumes of soluble-oil
is most frequently found in systems operating in bulk emulsion. Chemical sterilization with bactericides is
114
.
2, 2' methylene
J. bis (4 chlorophenol)
C 14 H 29 Br"
2, 2' methylene
bis (3, 4, 6 trichlorophenol)
Tetradecyl
Fig 70 pyridinium bromide
Examples ofphenolic bactericides.
CH,
be carefully selected. Phenols, for example, are effective
against most pathogenic bacteria and are the fore-
runners of many modern bactericides, but are readily
phenolic products.
To be acceptable, a bactericide must fulfil several
115
N
N .N-
Of ci- ^f\- //
+ HCI
: N-
(colourless)
Fig 72
This illustrates the chemical action of the Red Spot Test, the reduction of a tetrazolium salt, and depends on the
which is used to monitor the efficiency of bactericide development of a pink or red spot on a prepared test
effect on the emulsion in service. The cost of providing Studies of the degradation of soluble oils under
sufficient bactericide to cover the use of the soluble oil service conditions have shown that most infected
at a high dilution might prove prohibitive. Continued systems respond well to a bactericide treatment of
use of the same bactericide may produce resistant 400 ppm of 40% by weight sodium salt of 2,2' methylene
strains of bacteria. bis (4, chlorophenc). This acts as an effective bacterio-
Bactericides can be added to the soluble-oil system stat (that is, it prevents multiplication) for Pseudomonas,
as a shock treatment when infection occurs. The treat- and as a bactericide for most other bacteria that infect
effect of the bactericide must be monitored. Research work has led to the development of a shop-
It would appear from studies of systems infected with monitor the efficacy of bactericide
floor control test to
bacteria that a process of continued rc-infection occurs treatment on an infected emulsion. The method is
from the residual oil left in the system whenever the known as the Red Spot Test and depends on the
emulsion is changed. As far as possible the system should development of pink or red coloration on a prepared
be designed to avoid traps that might retain coolant. test plate, as the result of the reduction of a tetrazolium
An effective treatment, however, is the use of a bacteri- salt. This is shown in Fig 72. The reaction is non-
cide in the form of a detergent sterilizer solution to specific, however, and would not distinguish between
cleanse the system. Such a solution may contain a harmless and troublesome bacteria; it is nevertheless
quaternary ammonium salt, which has bactericidal valid insofar as a large bacterial population occurs only
properties. Thorough cleansing in this manner, com- when a species of bacteria is capable of utilizing the
bined with the use of a suitable bactericide in the components in the soluble oil. The test would be used
fresh charge of soluble-oil emulsion, should overcome mainly to monitor an infected system that has been
most bacterial infection problems. treated with a bactericide.
116
Glossary
This book, by its nature, serves as a glossary of many dissociation of constituents. Instead, one end of each
Index can be regarded molecule soluble in oil, the other end in water; the
terms used in machining, and its is
as virtually a dictionary of general terminology. For molecules form links between the oil and water, to give
or continuity, however, various virtually the same effect as the types just mentioned.
reasons of brevity
expressions in the text have been left unexplained. In industry, anionic emulsifiers are the most common
Consequently the following glossary has been compiled, because they are the cheapest and because they exhibit
giving some of the terms most likely to need clarification. an alkaline characteristic that tends to inhibit corrosion
and to reduce an emulsion's deterioration from micro-
bial and fungal attack. Non-ionic agents are less
Additives Agents included in a fluid either to give it a are hardly used at all, because they are the most
two media to create the emulsion. Bactericide and bacteriostat A bactericide is a substance
such that capable of destroying bacteria, whereas a bacteriostat
In a non-ionic emulsifier the structure is
no anions and cations are formed, so there is no prevents the proliferation of bacteria.
117
;
Carbide A carbide tool is made from material in Feed The rate at which a cutting tool advances along
Carbides occur naturally in steel, but with sintering delivered is referred to as the head of water. It derives
the concentration of metal carbides is much higher from the effective height of a column of water giving
than in any hardened steel, so the tool is harder. the same pressure.
Catalyst Strictly, this is a substance that promotes a Helical The difference between helical and spiral is
chemical reaction but is not itself involved in it, and not clear, even in the best dictionaries. To many people
therefore remains unchanged. The term is commonly there is no difference, but the impression among
used to denote any substance that accelerates a chemical
engineers who feel strongly about words is that a
reaction.
helix is like a coil spring while a spiral is like a watch-
spring. That convention has been adopted throughout
Centres: plain and running The 'centres' from which this book.
Chlorinated paraffin This is a hydrocarbon compound inevitably exposed to the air for long
Oxidation Oil is
in which one or more of the carbon atoms have been
periods, and in most cases can do so without ill effect.
replaced by chlorine. Such compounds are fully
However, it deteriorates if it absorbs oxygen, because
compatible with mineral o^is, and form a convenient
the resultant chemical activity leads to breakdown. The
source of the chlorine required as an EP agent under
emulsifiers in soluble oil are often prone to oxidation,
conditions of high temperature and pressure.,
and the result of such action is the formation of a skin
on the surface. This can interfere with settings in some
Coefficient offriction a load having a weight
If is W mixing devices.
maintained in uniform sliding motion on a flat surface
by a force F, the ratio F/W is the coefficient of friction.
Precipitate The solid deposit known as precipitate is
This, in strict terms, is the coefficient of sliding friction often formed by chemical change in a liquid. For
it is almost always less than static friction, which relates instance, when sodium carbonate is added to hard
to the force required to start the motion from rest.
water the 'hardness' salts are converted to insoluble
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, which fall
De-activators Some of the additives used in neat oils,
to the bottom of the container as a precipitate.
emulsions and solutions tend to corrode copper and
the copper alloys. In some cases the unwanted effects Polarity This is a characteristic, particularly of fatty
can be minimized by the use of de-activators, which oils, by which one end of a molecule is strongly
render the metal more resistant to attack. attracted to metal surfaces. The result is a powerfully
adherent film of the material, which is known as an
Electro-chemical machining This, in effect, is the adsorbed layer.
opposite of electro-plating. Metal from the workpiece
is stripped by an electric current in a corrosive solution. Solenoid A solenoid is a coil of wire surrounding an
The stripping can be made very selective by virtue of the iron core that is free to slide. When current passes
shape of the cathode, and the process is useful for through the coil the core is pulled to themiddle posh ion,
shaping metals that are not readily amenable to and this action is used for operating switches or lifting
118
Solvent-refined oils Basically, mineral lubricants are sheet-metal is cold-rolled. This characteristic is
refined from crude oil by a process of distillation in occasionally put to good use in metal-forming opera-
which the constituents are boiled off at their appropriate tions, and the degree to which a metal is subject to it
characteristics, to provide a very flexible approach and is expressed in terms of a one-centimetre cube: if the
allow precise selection of lubricants. temperature difference between the faces is 1 deg C, and
one calorie passes between these faces each second, the
Spark erosion A method of removing metal by local conductivity is one cal/m s deg C. The value is also
high-density electrical sparking caused when a direct quoted in Btu/ft h deg F and W/m deg C.
current passes from the workpiece to a cathode of
appropriate shape. The debris is flushed away by a flow
Transverse rupture strength Since the harder tool
of light oil, which also acts as the dielectric fluid in the
materials tend to be brittle, their resistance to bending is
process. In time the workpiece takes up the inverse
an important factor in selection. The property is
shape of the cathode. The method is applied to metals
expressed as transverse rupture strength, and is
that are difficult to shape by conventional methods.
measured by a test in which a standard bar rests
Stable oils Stable oils are those with a long storage life terms of a liquid's resistance to flow, it is strictly the
and a long working life: they do not deteriorate early. resistance to internal shear. For practical purposes it is
The term is relative, though, because an oil that could be measured by the time taken for a standard amount to
stored in barrels for two years or more might deteriorate flow through a standard orifice at a given temperature.
quickly when spread at high temperature in thin layers - The standards vary from country to country; tradition-
say in a rolling bearing. ally the units have been Redwood seconds in UK,
Saybolt seconds in USA
and Englcr degrees on the
Strain hardenability Some metals have the property of Continent of Europe. Recently there has been a move
becoming harder when stressed beyond the elastic limit, towards the world-wide standardization of centistokes
as for example when a wire is drawn through a die, or as the measure of viscosity.
ERRATUM
119
Index
Note: the letter G denotes that the expression appears in the Glossary
120
Cancer, skin 113 Copying devices 12
121
Drilling Fluidmix, Laycock 95
data 56, 57 Folliculitis 112
gun-26 Forces, cutting 58, 60, 65, 66, 67
Drilling machines 22 Form tools, high-carbon steel for 68
multi-head 24, 26 Free-machining steels
multi-spindle 63 composition 81
pillar 22 data 50 et scq
radial 22, 23 machinability 82
;/.ve 99 Grain
Ernst, H 9, 59, 61 of grinding wheels 74
Evaporation 94, 96 structure, of metal 80
Expansion, thermal 68 Grinding 29
Extreme-pressure (EP) cutting fluids 94, 101, 103, 105 abrasives 74
filters 32
fluids 31, 93, 101, 105
Failure of cutting edges 62, 64, 76
wheels, identification markings 74
Fatty oils 101, 102, 103, 104
Grinding machines 29
Feed G centreless 31, 39
effect on cutting force 61
cylindrical 29, 98
mechanisms, lubricants for 41
internal 84
Feeds data spindle bearings 30
drilling 57
surface 29, 30
milling 49, 53, 54
Gun-drilling 26
turning, high-speed-steel tools 50, 88
niobium 90 Brinell 73
tantalum 90 conversion tables 73
titanium hot 68
milling 88, 89 Rockwell 73
turning 88 tool, effects of temperature 71
tungsten 88 tool materials 68
zirconium 90 VPN 73
Filters for grinding fluids 32 workpiece materials 58, 80
Filtration 106 Hardness of water 95
to control bacteria 114 Heat generated by cutting 61
Fire hazard, machining titanium 85 Heat treatment
Flank wear, of tools 58 of metals 80
maximum permissible 76 of coolants 114
122
Helical G titanium 85, 88, 89
machining 19 up-cut 19
turret 12 machining 87
Laycock 'Fluidmix' 95 tool and machining data 90
Lead screws 10, 11 Nocardia bacteria 114
lubricants for 41 Nodular cast iron 83
123
Quaternary bactericides 115 Strain hardening 49, 58, 59, 84, G
Sterilization of cutting fluids 107, 114
Rake angles 43 et seq Streptococcus bacteria 114
exotic metals 90 Sulphurized cutting oils 101 et seq
Nimonics 83 Sulphur in steels 81
Rake, effect on cutting force 67 Surface-active materials, cationic 115
Rape seed oil 103 Swarf separation 108, 109
Reclaiming cutting oils 107 et seq Swarf types, illustrated 48
Red Spot Test 116 Synergistic additive effects 104
Refractometer 97, 101 Synthetic coolants 91, 92, 101, 109
Rockwell hardness 73
Rupture strength, transverse 68, 71, G Tangential cutting forces 65, 67
Tantalum
Salts characteristics 85
quaternary ammonium 115, 116 machining 86
sodium 115 tool and machining data 90
tetrazolium 116 Taylor, F W 9, 76
Segmental chip 59 Temperature
Separating soluble oil from water 108, 109 additive blending 102, 104
124
Vibration 46, 65, 67, 71, 84, 85 Wear, tool 58, 61, 64, 75 et seq
Vickers Pyramid Number 73 Wetting agents 92
Viscosity of lubricants 40, 86, G Work-hardening 49, 58, 59, 84, G
equivalents 110 Worms, lubricants for 41
variation with temperature 40
Yellow (cuprous) metalssee also Copper and Brass
Warts 112 cutting fluids for 103
Water machinability 83
acidity and alkalinity 96 machining data 50 et seq
coolants 91, 105 staining of 103, 104, 105
effect on cutting speed 9
hardness 95
separating from soluble oils 108
125
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