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Machine Tools, Metals

and Cutting Fluids

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This book was originally conceived as a set of
lecture notes for engineers engaged in the
marketing of cutting fluids. During the
background researches it was found that ^H
serious omissions existed in the copious
bibliography of metal-machining. Some books.
\
for example, assume that readers have a
detailed knowledge of machine tools and ,ys
machining processes, although in fact many
post-graduate students and managerial staff in
industry have no such intimate acquaintance
with production plant. Other publications give
machining data for only a limited range of
workpiece materials; no modern treatment of
this subject, however, can afford to ignore the
high-performance metals being used more and
more in the aeronautical and allied industries.

Machine Tools, Metals and Culling Fluids has


been produced both to fill these gaps in
technical coverage and to present a major oil
company's up-to-date outlook on cutting fluids.
It is aimed at a broad readership - production
engineers, students, non-technical
administrators in industry and graduates in
technical disciplines that do not involve close
familiarity with machine tools.

The text begins with simple descriptions of all


the conventional machines, and progresses to
more complex considerations of tool geometry
and cutting theory. After a chapter on the
mechanics of metal-cutting comes detailed
treatment of tool materials, tool wear,
machinability and the whole range of
workpiece materials - including the so-called
'exotic' metals. Then follows a comprehensive
section embracing every aspect of cutting
fluids - physical and chemical formulations,
applications, maintenance, reclamation and
disposal. In the Appendices the subjects of skin
ailments and the bacterial degradation of
water-based cutting fluids are sufficiently
important to justify separate coverage.

(See inside back cover - HF and Industry)

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Machine Tools
Metals and
Cutting Fluids

Plate I
A complex workpiece being turnedfrom mild-steel bar on
an automatic lathe. The coolant here is 'neat' cutting oil.

Of the three main 'families' of cutting fluids (the others


are emulsions and solutions) neat petroleum oils are used
for the heaviest and most complex machining operations.
They should be supplied in copious quantities, to remove
the heat generated by cutting. Chemical and physical
properties are chosen to suit particular applications, and
the formulations are determined by the nature of the
machining operation, the tool material and the workpiece

n
metal.
Machining note: This component's profile has been
machined by the form-tool in the background. An internal
thread is being cut by the tap on the right, which is

entering a hole just drilled, while a secondary turning


operation is in process at the left. The completed com-
ponent will be cut from the bar by the parting-off tool at
lower left.
:

Acknowledgements

The British Petroleum Company Ltd expresses its gratitude for the data, technical advice and assistance provided by
machine-tool manufacturers, specialist industries and research centres during the preparation of this book. The

editors have drawn on material published or provided by the following organizations additional to those mentioned
in the text, and this is gratefully acknowledged

American Society of Lubrication Engineers


American Society of Testing and Materials
British Standards Institution

Christy and Norris Ltd


Deutsche-Industrie Normen
Brown Tools Ltd
Firth
GKN Bolts and Nuts Ltd
Henry Wiggin and Company Ltd
Imperial Metal Industries Ltd
Institute of Petroleum
International Standards Organization
Laystall Engineering Co. Ltd
Machine Tool Industry Research Association
Machine Tool Trades Association
Murex Welding Processes Ltd
Production Engineering Research Association
Triumph Engineering Co. Ltd orf / i-i

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ACCESSION >Jo.

88630
Lfc>S No. XUC
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BP Trading Limited
Britannic House
Moor Lane
London EC2Y 9BU

Set in 9 on 1 2 pt Times Roman


Printed in England by Macaulays Printing Service Ltd

Design and technical illustration:

John Hartley and Partners Ltd

Photography
Main graphic illustrations: Donald Page
Toolpoint close-ups on page 63 : PER A

MP 432/1972
t=JP

Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1 Machine Tools 10

1 Centre Lathes 10
2 Capstan and Turret Lathes 12
3 Vertical Boring Machines 13

4 Automatic Bar Lathes 13

4.1 Single-spindle 13

4.2 Multi-spindle 15

4.3 Swiss type 15

5 Chucking Automatics 15

6 Milling Machines 18

6.1 Horizontal 18

6.2 Vertical 19
6.3 Universal 19
6.4 Milling machines in general 19
7 Drilling Machines 22
8 Deep-Hole Boring Machines 26
9 Shapers 26
10 Slotters 27
11 Planers 27
12 Grinding Machines and Processes 29
12.1 Cylindrical grinders 29
1 2.2 Surface grinders 29
12.3 Centreless grinders 31

12.4 Miscellaneous grinding operations 31

12.5 Lubricants and coolants for grinding machines 32


13 Broaching Machines 32
14 Gear-cutting and Finishing Machines 33
14.1 Gear-cutting methods 33
14.1.1 Milling 33
14.1.2 Broaching 33
14.1.3 Shaping and planing (non-generating) 33
14.1.4 Gear shaping 34
14.1.5 Gear planing 34
14.1.6 Hobbing 35
14.2 Gear-finishing methods 35
14.2.1 Gear-tooth grinding 35
14.2.2 Gear shaving 36
15 Horizontal Boring, Milling and Drilling Machines 37
16 Machining Centres 39
17 Machine-Tool Lubrication 40
Chapter 2 Geometry of Cutting Tools 43

1 Standardized Nomenclature 43
2 Definitions of Cutting-Tool Nomenclature 43
3 Influence of the Components of Shape 45
3.1 Cutting-edge rake 45
3.1.1 Positive side-rake 45
3.1.2 Negative side-rake 45
3.1.3 Cutting-edge back-rake 46
3.2 End and side relief angles (DIN) 46
3.3 Clearance angles (DIN) 46
3.4 Nose radius 46
4 Tool Setting on Lathes 46
5 Tables of Machines and Tool-Setting Data 49

Chapter 3 Theory of the Cutting Process 58

Basic Considerations 58
1.1 Shear strength 58
1.2 Strain- or work-hardenability 58
1.3 Hardness 58
1 .4 Abrasiveness 58
The Type 1 Chip - Discontinuous or Segmental 59
The Type 2 Chip - Simple Continuous 59
The Type 3 Chip - Simple Continuous, with Built-up Edge 61

Chapter 4 Mechanics of Metal Cutting 65

1 Component Forces and Power Requirements 65


2 Effect of Rake on Cutting Force 67
3 Effect of Feed on Cutting Force 67

Chapter 5 Cutting-Tool Materials 68

1 High-Carbon Steels (and Cast Alloy Steels) 68


2 High-Speed Steels 68
3 Stellite 68
4 Cemented (Sintered) Carbides 69
5 Ceramics 70
6 Carbide Ceramics (Cermets) 71
7 Integraland Throw-Away Tool-tips 71
8 Measurement of Hardness 72
9 The Identification Marking of Grinding Wheels 74

Chapter 6 Tool Wear and Tool Life 75

1 Tool Wear 75
2 Tool Life 76
1

Chapter 7 Factors Affecting Machinability

1 Microstructure
2 Grain Size
3 Hardness
4 Metallurgical Condition due to Heat Treatment
5 Metallurgical Condition due to Manipulation
6 Chemical Composition 81

Chapter 8 Machining Characteristics of Various Metals

Ferrous Metals 82
1.1 Plain carbon steels
1 .2 Free-machining steels

1.3 Alloy steels


1 .4 Chromium stainless steels

1.5 Nickel-chromium stainless steels 82


1 .6 Cast iron 83
1.6.1 Grey cast iron 83
1.6.2 White cast iron 83
7.6.5 Nodular cast iron 83
Non-Ferrous Metals 83
2.1 Copper alloys: brasses and bronzes (the yellow metals) 83
2.1.1 The difficult group 83
2.1.2 The group with moderate machinability 83
2.1.3 The free-cutting group 83
2.2 Aluminium and aluminium alloys 83
Special-Purpose Alloys 83
3.1 Nickel and nickel alloys 83
3.2 Nickel silver 83
3.3 Nickel-chromium iron 83
3.4 Ni monies 83
3.4.1 Machining 83
Titanium 84
4.1 Machining titanium 85
4.1.1 Turning 85
4.1.2 Milling 85
Other Special Metals 85
5. Tantalum 85
5.2 Molybdenum 86
5.3 Tungsten 86
5.4 Niobium 87
5.5 Zirconium 87
Tables of Tool and Machining Data
Chapter 9 Cutting Fluids 91

1 Functions of Cutting Fluids 91

2 The Three Families of Cutting Fluids 91

3 Soluble-Oil Emulsions 92
3.1 Milky soluble-oil emulsions 93
3.2 Clear soluble-oil emulsions 93
3.3 'Extreme-pressure' (EP) soluble-oil emulsions 94
4 Preparation, Use and Maintenance of Soluble-Oil Emulsions 94
4.1 Storage and band ling 94
4.2 Preparation 94
4.3 Water quality 95
4.4 Acidity and alkalinity 96
4.5 Controlling emulsion strength 96
4.6 Keeping emulsions clean 98
4.7 Operating temperatures 99
4.8 Applying the fluid 99
5 Chemical Coolants 101
5.1 Synthetic grinding fluids 101

5.2 Chemical cutting fluids 101


5.3 Controlling solution strength 101

6 Neat Cutting Oils 101


6.1 Mineral oils 103
6.2 Fatty oils 103
6.3 Blends of mineral oil and fatty oil 103
6.4 Extreme-pressure (EP) additives 103

6.5 Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized fatty oil 103

6.6 Blends of mineral sulphurized fatty oil and elemental sulphur


oil, 104
6.7 Blends of mineral and sulphurized mineral oil
oil 104
6.8 Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and sulphurized mineral oil 104
6.9 Blends of mineral oil and chlorinated paraffin 104
6.10 Blends of mineral oil, chlorinated paraffin and sulphurized fatty oil 104
6.11 Blends of mineral oil and chloro-fatty oil 104
6.12 Blends of mineral oil, chloro-fatty oil and sulphurized fatty oil 104
6.13 Blends of mineral oil and sulpho-chlorinated fatty oil 104
6.14 Clear neat cutting oils 104
7 Use, Care and Maintenance of Neat Cutting Oils 105

7.1 Operating temperatures 105


7.2 Maintenance 105
8 Fluids for Machining Nimonic Alloys 105

9 Fluids for Machining Titanium 105


10 Maintenance, Reclamation and Disposal of all Coolants 105
10.1 Clarification systems 106
10.2 Chip breakers 106
10.3 Reclamation plant 107
10.4 Disposal of soluble-oil emulsions 107

Appendix I Equivalent viscosities; equivalent temperatures;


cutting speeds and diameters 1 10

Appendix II Oil-induced skin diseases 112


Appendix III Uses of bactericides and bacteriostats in

water-based cutting fluids 1 14

Glossary 117

Index 120
5
6 :

List of tables 1 Criteria of tool performance and controlling factors 8

2 MTIRA rationalized range of machine-tool lubricants 41

3 Characteristics of BS 4231 oils 41

4 ASTM and ASLE equivalents of machine-tool lubricants 41

5 Turning with high-speed-steel tools:


feeds, speeds and tool angles 50
6 Rough turning with tungsten-carbide tools:
feeds, speeds and tool angles 51

7 Finish turning with tungsten-carbide tools


and tool angles
feeds, speeds 52
8 Rough milling: speeds and feeds 53
9 Finish milling: speeds and feeds 54
10 Milling: tool angles 55
11 Drilling: general data 56
12 Drilling: drill types and feed ranges 57
13 Factors in chip formation 59
14 Specific cutting pressures 66
1 Constitution of high-speed steels 69
1 Classification of cemented carbides 70
17 Hardness conversions for steel: Vickers to Rockwell 73
18 Titanium turning: machining data
19 Titanium milling: tool data
20 Titanium milling: machining data 89
21 Exotic metals tool and machining data
: 90
22 Equivalent viscosities 110

List of photographs Plate I: Neat cutting oil Frontispiece

Crankshaft machining 15
Gear-shaping 33
Centreless grinding 39
Types of swarf 48
Multi-spindle drilling 63
Flank wear and crater wear 64
Form-milling 72
Vertical broaching 78
Plate II: Soluble-oil emulsion Facing 82
Internal grinding 84
Plate III: Synthetic coolant Facing 91
Boring machine 93
Cylindrical grinding 98
Plate IV: Skin cancer Facing 112
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Table 1 Criteria of tool


Bra?ing Type
performance, and medium
]
i

Composition
controlling factors Bracing
i

technique :
Physical ptoperties i

Tipped

Stiffness I
Material
Sha
Damping Cross-section

Tool Form angles etc

Setting position
Rough Tip
Machining Edges k surfaces

Efficiency ol Material
stock removal
Sn rf "eat
, treatment
Rate of
Combined carbon i

stock removal
Carbide material
Tool life I F'T. JS Lr :io^ * ':

Material Segregation
Non-ferrous
Non-metallic
Work inclusions
Form Structure
Grain si^e
Proportions Physical
properties
Rigidity

Surface
condition Foundation
Rigidity
Frame
p Horizontal
mm Damping
Tool mmmmmmmmwmmmmwm Headstock
setting Ver c3 | |
Accuracy
Tool- holding
Angular device

Finish
Machining
Machine mmmmm
Condition
Design
i Slides
Rigidity

Accuracy

Surface finish Surface finish

Dimensional _, '
Speed Lubrication
" Cuttmt.i Drive
accu'acy " conditions
MM Feed
Foed
Rate of surface
Depth mechanism
production

Chucks etc
! Tool life
Typo of bearing
Rate of flow
Rigidity
1

Temperature Spindle
Accuracy
Application
Cutting fluid Neat oil
i
i
Lubrication
composition

Type
Composition
Soluble oil Corrosion etc
Dilution

Aqueous
.

tjp

Introduction

Metal machining, like most techniques used in industry, increase in cutting speed. The resultant importance
developed from fairly crude beginnings. Today's attached to the use of cutting fluids has perhaps led
machine tool can be said to stem from a crude some production engineers - and even some oil-com-
machine constructed in about the year 1 500 for boring pany representatives - to think that these fluids will
gun barrels; the disadvantage of this machine was that solve all machining difficulties. Too often, engineers try
the tool followed the profile of the casting - which was to overcome their problems by making a change of
invariably irregular. The first reliable book on the cutting fluid, usually going to one containing more
subject of metal-working was published in about 1540. additives, without examining all the other factors in-
Since then, of course, there have been many signifi- volved. The limitations of this attitude are underlined in

cant developments, particularly from the 19th century the abridged table of factors and criteria in typical

onwards. A study of drilling torque requirements machining operations, published in Dr Galloway's


formed part of the research carried out by Coquilhat in paper Machine-Tool Research, Design and Utilization^
1851, and this work led to further investigation by and reproduced here as Table 1
Clarnival, who in addition studied the influence of It would be impracticable to consider all the possibili-
cutting fluids. By 864
1 the significance of tool geometry ties raised in the table whenever a machining problem is
on the cutting process was recognized, and in 1898 the encountered, but the table does demonstrate that many
discovery by Taylor-White of high-speed steel was a factors in addition to the cutting fluid might have to be
notable step forward in tool materials. Other significant taken into account to give the best solution to a machin-
milestones were Krupp's investigations into carbide ing problem. In a book like this, though, it is practicable
materials during the first World War and the consequent - and indeed highly desirable - to consider all the factors
production in 1928 of the first carbides suitable for affecting the efficiency of metal machining. Only the
cutting tools: ceramic cutting tools were introduced in orthodox processes are dealt with. Techniques such as
1950. electro-chemical machining, spark erosion and ultra-
Investigations into related aspects of metal machining, sonic machining have their place in industry - and are
such as chip formation and cutting fluids, proceeded finding their way into volume-production plants - but
concurrently with other research work. In 1906 F W they do not come within the scope of this book. Our
Taylor presented his paper On the Art of Cutting treatment therefore falls into the following categories:
Metals* and in 1905 Brookes had taken the first Machine tools, their types and purposes
photographs of chip formation at the cutting edge, Geometry of cutting tools and theory of the cutting
showing that shearing takes place. More recently ME process
Merchant, in collaboration with Hans Ernst, has in- Cutting-tool materials
vestigated the cutting process, and both of them have Workpiece metals and their machining character-
published many papers on their findings. One of the istics

more noteworthy papers by Ernst, published in 1938, Cutting fluids


showed that three fundamental types of chip are formed
in the cutting process. New York Meeting of American Society of Mechanical
As long ago as 1883, Taylor showed that a stream of
Engineers; ASME Transactions: 28, 31.
t galloway, D F, 1961 James Clayton Lecture; Institution of
water flooding the cutting area permitted 30 to 40% Mechanical Engineers, London.
;

tjp

1. Machine tools

The primary function of all machine tools is to remove da Vinci (1452-1519) contain drawings of many
metal, in order to produce an object of precise shape and machine tools, among them a lathe with 'pole' drive (a

dimensions from a rough form. The machine tool treadle operating a crank). It is an intriguing commen-
applies the necessary force and the correct relative tary on the importance of machine tools that many of
movement between tool and workpiece for the removal Leonardo's inventions, including his machine tools,
of the unwanted material. A machine tool capable of could not be made because there were no machine tools
performing every type of machining operation could with which to fashion them. However there is evidence

possibly be designed but such a machine would be that crude lathes driven by water or animal power, and
forbiddingly large, and a complex piece of engineering; based on his designs, were in existence in the 1500's.

in addition it would be highly uneconomic, since only a Not until the late 18th century did lathes made of
small part of its potential could ever be realized during metal, with sliding toolrests, come into being. In

the greater part of its life. England in 1810 Henry Maudslay constructed a lathe
Design has tended to point the other way: machine that incorporated a lead-screw and so made possible the
tools are designed to perform the minimum variety of manufacture of a variety of machine tools. Thirty years

machining operations, and in this way maximum later the lathe was well established.
efficiency is achieved. A degree of versatility is attained 1 shows a modern lathe of simple design
Fig it com- :

in many types of machine tool , but almost always in one a bed or frame, a fixed headstock, a carriage that
prises

specific respect. Mining machines, for example, may be moves on longitudinal slideways, and a tailstock whose
universal - capable of vertical, longitudinal and trans- position is adjustable along the bed. The headstock
verse milling. embodies a spindle and its bearings, gears to adjust the

One result of this design philosophy is that machine speed of the spindle, and gears or belts connecting the
tools are essentially simple in operation. This may not gear-change system to a power source (usually an
be apparent when one looks at an automatic lathe, which electric motor).
probably carries out many operations on a workpiece The carriage incorporates a horizontal saddle and a
however, if we analyse its performance we see that, with vertical apron, and the toolholder is mounted on a
turrets holding different types of tool, a series of cross-slide on the saddle. Beneath the toolpost is a

essentially simple turning operations is being performed. secondary slide which can be swivelled through a small
The following brief descriptions of the more common angular movement and locked, so that a taper or
types of machine tool emphasize this fundamental chamfer can be machined by operation of the secondary
simplicity of the machining operations employed in slide. The work-holding device is mounted on the head-

industry, and of the machine tools that perform them. stock spindle, and takes the form of a multi-jaw chuck
or a spring-sleeve device called a collet (both of which
grip the sides of the piece) or perhaps a face-plate to
which the piece is bolted. The workpieces may be of
1 Centre Lathes irregular shape - for example complicated castings or

The machine
lathe can be considered as the primary forgings thatmust be machined on only some of their
tool; historically, from which nearly all
it is the one surfaces - so some chucks can be tightened
the jaws of

others have been developed. The records of Leonardo independently. Long components are mounted between

10
Figl
This illustration of a typical modern centre-
lathe shows details of the transmission and Spindle drive
gear system inside the headstock. The
driving motor is beneath the headstock, and
multiple belts convey drive to the pulley at
the left. In the plan view at the top are seen
the speed-selection gears for the main
spindle, together with multi-plate clutches for

starting and reversing.

A workpiece would be mounted


between centres, and driven by
a carrier arm clamped to it.

Headstock

The two lower views show (right) the


gearbox cover removed, and (left) the gears
for selecting feeds and threads for the saddle.
(The Colchester Lathe Company Ltd)

11
a conical 'centre' inserted in the headstock spindle and a the machining operations performed on these lathes are

similar (usually stationary) one in the tailstock. In some longitudinal - drilling, boring, tapping, threading and
instances the spindle is hollow, and this allows a long long-turning.

component or bar stock to be held in the chuck, with The differences between capstan and turret lathes arc

only part of it projecting into the cutting zone. as follows. In the capstan lathe (Fig 4) the head is

The lathe illustrated in Fig 1 can turn external dia- mounted on a short slide; this in turn mounted on a
is

meters, face-turn, drill, bore, produce screw-threads and base which can be moved to any desired position and
both external and internal tapers, and part-off com- clamped to the bed. The head therefore has a short
ponents. With the gap-bed chuck .lathe (Fig 2) most stroke, which makes for rapid manipulation, especially

of these operations are possible, and so is the machining since the head indexes automatically at the end of each

of large, flat surfaces. In modern production techniques withdrawal stroke. Usually a separate saddle carries a
many lathes are controlled automatically. One practice simple toolpost for parting-off finished components. In

is to employ hydraulic copying devices, in which a the turret (Fig 5) the saddle for the head is mounted
stylus follows the profile of a template or a master directly on the bed, the length of which governs travel.

component and the tool traces out the same outline on Such a lathe normally has a conventional toolpost
the workpiece. Another involves numerical control, in between the turret saddle and the headstock.
which coded signals on a punched tape arc translated Most capstan lathes have hollow hcadstock-spindles
into movements of the lathe. so that work can be produced from bar stock. In this
case the chuck takes the form of a collet, which is
opened rapidly to allow the bar to move forward, and
2 Capstan and Turret Lathes then quickly closed for machining. Normally a succes-

In these machines the tailstock of the orthodox lathe is sion of similar components is machined from the bar,

replaced by an assembly carrying a turret-type head, and at the completion of each cycle the component is
and each indexing movement of the turret brings a parted-off and the bar is moved forward to produce the

new tooling set-up into the machining position. A wide next. If long bars are to be machined, a carrier is pro-

range of attachments can be bolted to the faces of the vided for them beyond the headstock. These machines

turret.The heavier attachments carry a sleeve that are sometimes automated either completely by the use of

registers with a pilot bar projecting from the headstock, numerical control, or partly by the use of copying
to act as a guide and support during heavy cuts. Most of attachments.

Chuck

Fig 2
A Lang gap-bed chuck lathe of older design. Some chucks a workpiece can be greater than the height of the spindle
are self-centring, but this has four jaws which are axis above the slideways. The cross-slide can be used for

tightened independently, so the workpiece need not be of machining large, flat surfaces, and the tool-slide would be
regular shape. Because of the gap in the bed the radius oj usedfor fine longitudinal adjustments or manualfeeds.

12
Column
Tool-holding
turret

Facing
slide
unit

Fig 3
Vertical borers such as this machine perform
much the same duty as lathes, but offer
greater ease of loading and unloading with
heavy or large workpieces.
(Thomas Ryder and Sons Lid.)

3 Vertical Boring Machines Between sequences an automatic feeding device


pushes the bar through the loosened chuck, where it is
A vertical borer is in effect a large, sturdy lathe with its
end-located by a stop. The chuck then closes on the bar,
main axis vertical instead of horizontal. Machines in
and the machining operations begin again. At the com-
this category were originally designed for boring
pletion of the sequence the workpiece is parted-off, and
operations on large workpieces unsuitable for machin-
the bar is again fed to the stop.
ing on centre lathes. The word 'boring' is retained in
Bar automatics are made in a very wide variety of
their name, although modern machines can perform
designs, but they can conveniently be divided into two
most turning operations. The majority of such machines
groups - the turret type, in which some of the tools are
have a maximum swing of between 38 and 60 cm (15
at stations around a fixed or movable turret; and the
and 24 in) but some large borers with a maximum swing
Swiss type, in which all the tools are on rocking arms.
of 5 m (16 ft) and above are used for large castings.
The main designs in the first group are the single-
spindle and multi-spindle automatics.

4 Automatic Bar Lathes 4.1 Single-spindle (Fig 6)

An automatic lathe (commonly known as an auto) per- This has a single rotating spindle, and hence deals with
forms the same operation as a simple lathe but, as the only one piece of bar or stock. The cutting tools, drills or

machine's name suggests, once it is set up the operations taps are held in a multi-station turret, and only one tool
are carried out automatically. In contrast to the centre at a time is in the cutting position. On completion of
lathe, it requires workpieces of regular section - round, each operation the turret withdraws and indexes to
square or hexagonal. The bar is fed through the hollow bring the next cutting tool into position. There are
spindle of the headstock and is secured at one end by the normally six stations on the turret, permitting six con-
chuck, which automatically fixes it accurately on the secutive operations to be performed on the workpiece.
rotational axis of the machine; its free end is supported Additional external operations, including parting-off,
on rollers. Bars arc theoretically of any length, but are performed by toolposts movable on slides attached
practical considerations usually limit them to about 5 m to the machine bed. Operation of these cross-slide tools

(16 ft). can be co-ordinated with movements of the turret head.

13
Turret locking
Main slideway
handle

Capstan rest

Capstan slide block


Fig 4 and 5
The capstan lathe and the turret lathe share many on a secondary slide which can be positioned on the main
features, but the main difference is in the mounting of the bed, whereas on the turret lathe (below) it moves directly

hexagonal tool-holder. On the capstan lathe (above) it is on the bed. (H. w. Ward and Company)

Spindle Pilot bar Toolpost Rear tool post

Headstock
Intermediate saddle

Turret

Turret
clamp
lever

Saddle
locking
lever

Feed gearbox

Intermediate
saddle apron Star handle for
Turret saddle Turret apron turret operation

14
4.2 Multi-spindle (Fig 7) 5 Chucking Automatics
These have a number of workpiece spindles arranged in Many components, because of their shape or the
a circular carrier round the main horizontal axis of the machining required, cannot be turned from bar stock.
machine: the number varies according to the type of Consequently they must be fed to the work area from
machine - four, five, six or eight - and every spindle the front, as in orthodox turning. The automatic lathes
carries its own bar. Opposite each spindle position is a for this purpose are known as chucking automatics or

machining station set up to perform one or more semi-autos. The single-spindle version has developed

operations; the stations are, in effect, on a static from the turret lathe, and the main variation is that
longitudinal 'turret'. after the work has been fed to the chuck - either
After each operation the spindle carrier indexes round manually or, more usually, by an automatic handling
the main axis, moving the spindles from one station to device - a full cycle of operations is initiated the chuck
:

the next. Thus, in a six-spindle automatic, six bars are is locked, the machine started, the machining performed
machined simultaneously, each undergoing a different and the spindle stopped ready for reloading.
operation. At the first station, unmachined bar receives The multi-spindle chucking auto, on the other hand,
the initial operation while at the sixth station the final has been developed from the multi-spindle bar machine.
operation takes place and the completed workpiece is The major differences are that in the former each spindle

parted-off. As in the single-spindle automatic there are carries a chuck which can hold a casting or forging
cross-slides for external machining and parting-off. On (possibly of irregular shape) and that the spindles have
large six- and eight-spindle machines as many as six independent drive enabling them to be stopped at the
cross-slides can be fitted; 12 to 14 operations can there- loading station. Thus a new piece can be loaded into one
fore be carried out in the ful I cycle. chuck while machining is still in progress at the others.
A development of this idea is the multi-spindle vertical

machine with six or more stations. Such machines are


widely used for quantity production of parts such as
4.3 Swiss type
automobile brake drums and clutch housings. They are
This differs from the designs just described in that there usually designed so that spindles can be operated in-
are no tool-slides and no turrets. The tools arc mounted dividually; for example, some stations can be used for
on rocking arms, and since they cannot move parallel turning operations on the main axis of rotation while
with the work axis, tool-feed is provided by longitudinal the remainder are used for operations such as drilling
movement of the spindle head. and lapping, not necessarily on the main axis.

A stage in the machining of a crankshaft. For facing the


flanks of this main-bearing journal there are two cutting
tips on one tool-body. The coolant is a neat cutting oil.

15
Speed-change Tool-slides
mechanism
Bar-feed and
collet mechanism Turret

Turret slide

Turret camshaft
and indexing
mechanism

Speed-change
trips

Gearbox and drive


from motor
Worm-drive shaft
for camshafts Backshaft

Fig 6 and 6a
In the single-spindle automatic lathe the
work is machined from a long bar that is fed
from the left-hand end through the spindle.

Two or more tool-slides are disposed

radially around the collet, and further tools


are mounted on a turret whose slide moves
longitudinally. In the machine illustrated the

turret has its axis at an angle to the bed.


The mechanisms for controlling the feeds,
speeds and movements of the various parts
are shown 'ghosted'.
(Herbcrt-BSA Lid)

16
Fig 7 and 7a
For very high rates of production the
multi-spindle automatic lathe is pre-
ferred. In some, such as this Wickman
machine, the volume of swarffrom the
cutting zone justifies the inclusion

of an automatic swarf-removal con-


veyor in the base of the machine.
Tools are mounted both on radially
disposed slides and on end-working
slides around the axis of the spindle
drum.

End-working Upper camshaft


Spindle drum tool- slides assembly
Tool -stroke
setting block
Bar-feed
adjustm

Swarf
conveyor

Collet and
bar-feed cams Range-change Constant-speed
Main camshaft gears shaft
17
:

6 Milling Machines work. milling, on the other hand, the


With climb
cutter revolves downwards and the chip is thick at the
Milling machines differ from lathes in that the work-
start of the cut and thin where the tooth leaves the work.
piece is usually stationary and the cutting tool rotates.
On a high-powered rigid machine, climb milling could
The milling machine produces mainly flat surfaces -
be advantageous because higher cutting speeds can be
although complicated curved surfaces are also pro-
used and tool life may be increased. A backlash
duced, for example turbine blades and all types of gear
eliminator is essential for this type of milling; it
and thread forms.
eliminates 'play' between the screw and nut driving the
Milling machines are essentially very rigid and strong,
table, and is necessary because the tool tends to pull the
and the combination of structural rigidity and high
work along and could cause chatter marks if play
torque gives higher rates of metal removal than are
existed.
normal with lathes. The milling cutler has a number of
Milling machines can be classified by the range and
cutting teeth on its periphery, and each cuts for only a
orientation of their movements and by their basic
small part of the cutting cycle. There are five main
design. In the first classification there are three general
kinds of milling cutter - plain mills (Fig 8), face mills
types
(Fig 8a), side and face mills (Fig 9), form mills (Fig 1 0)
and end mills (Fig 1 1) - and two milling actions (Fig 1 2).
6.1 Horizontal (Fig 14)
In conventional or up milling, the teeth revolve upwards
as the work is fed into them; the chip produced is thin at This machine is known as the horizontal type because

the start of the cut and thick where the tooth leaves the the axis of the cutter is horizontal. Whereas the work-

Fig8

Fig 9

Fig 8a

Fig 10 Fig 11

Fig 8-11
Milling cutters are shaped according to application. One cutters (Fig 10) whose peripheries are ground to the

version, the plain, cylindrical or 'slab' mill (Fig 8), has appropriate form. The end mill (Fig 11), oriented at right
its axis parallel to the work; the face mill's (Fig 8a) is at angles to the main work surface and to the direction of the
right angles. For the simultaneous cutting of two faces at work's movement, is used for cutting slots and grooves.
mutual right angles the side-and-face cutter (Fig 9) is Cutters with shanks are gripped in collets; those with
used. Continuous profiles can be machined by form- bores are mounted on arbors.

18
Fig 12 and 12a
When the workpiece and the milling cutter move in opposite directions the action is known
as 'up' milling, and each chip is thin where the tooth enters the work. In 'climb' or 'down cut' milling,

on the other hand, the two move in the same direction so the chip is thick at the start of the cut.

table can be moved manually or automatically in the tool tableways can be cut. Face cutters enable large,

and transverse directions, it cannot


longitudinal, vertical flat surfaces to be milled.

be swivelled about This type of machine


its vertical axis.

is normally used for milling flat surfaces, slots and 6.3 Universal (Fig 15)

keyways, and is capable of high rates of metal removal. horizontal but the
In this machine the cutting axis is

table has an extra range of movement: it can swivel


6.2 Vertical (Fig 14a) about its vertical axis through a sweep of approximately

45. This provides the facility for cutting helical forms.


Here, too, the work-table can be operated horizontally,
vertically and transversely but it cannot be swivelled
6.4 Milling machines in general
about its With end-mill cutters on this
vertical axis.
The on pages 20 and 21, which show the
type of machine, the bottoms and sides of holes and illustrations

keyways can be machined and the tee slots for machine- distinctions between vertical, horizontal and universal

Fig 13
Milling machines are made in various configurations, and
one of the virtues of the bed-type machine shown here is
that it has a long table. It can be equipped with a column

on each side, to give independent machining operations on


two faces of the workpiece.
19
Fig 14

These illustrations show Cincinnati


knee-type milling machines. In each,
the table moves longitudinally during a
cut, and is adjustable for height and
fore-and-aft position. Work is held in
a vice or fixture, or clamped to
the table, where the fixing bolts

register in T-section slots. Fig 14


shows a horizontal miller: its cutters
are mounted on an arbor which runs -
with axis horizontal - in the housings
above the table. Fig 14a is a vertical

miller: here the cutter has its axis


vertical, but the movements of the
table are the same as before. The
universal miller in Fig 15 has a table
which can swivel about a vertical axis,
in addition to the normal movements
in three dimensions.

Fig 14a

20
Overarm Arbor inner support

Arbor outer support

Column or
headstock
Universal
dividing-head

Table
traverse
handwhee!

Dividing-head
drive gears
for helical
milling

II Swivel housing

Cross-feed
engaging lever

Vertical feed
Rear hand crank
cross-feed
hand c Feed-rate
change lever

Rea
rapid
I eve Coolant return pipe

Knee containing lumn base containing


Fig 15 table-drive gearing telescopic tubes coolant reservoir

21
orientations, are all of the knee-type machine, which is For higher outputs the bed-type miller (Fig 13) is more
one of three basic designs of milling machine. In the likely to be used: its table has only longitudinal move-
knee-type layout the tool spindle is mounted on a rigid ment, and the spindle carrier is housed in a vertically

column, in front of which is a vertically adjustable movable head on a rigid column. The main feature is

'knee' carrying the work-table. This type of machine that the machine has a long table which is well-supported
is favoured for small-to-medium components in batch for the whole of its length. As with the horizontal
production. knee-type machine, whenever a long arbor is used it is

supported end by a sturdy overarm projecting


at the free

across the table from the top of the column.


Occasionally the bed-type milling machine is used in
an alternating programme: while a component is being
machined at one end, another is being removed at the

other and replaced by a blank workpiece. Bed-type


machines are available in duplex form, with a column
on each side of the table. With this arrangement both
sides of a workpiece can be machined in one pass.
The piano-miller, the third basic design, is illustrated

on page 28; it is a portal or bridge-type machine for


milling very long and very large workpieces. Its name

Spindle comes from the fact that it has the same general size
head and appearance as the planing machine (deal t with later).
Modern milling machines are extremely versatile,
and those with provision for three-dimensional feed
Pillar
can be programmed for numerical control through
punched tapes; with such control, complicated shapes
can be produced extremely accurately with a minimum
of supervision. At the other end of the production scale
are the machines suitable for jobbing work, in which
flexibility of application is important. An adaptation of
the horizontal knee-type machine in this category is the
turret-type machine, in which the spindle drive is carried
through an angularly adjustable turret so that irregular
workpieces can be machined without being supported
on inclined fixtures. Turret-type machines also offer a
very flexible approach, by virtue of the ease with which
the angles can be changed.

7 Drilling Machines
The machine comprises a work-table and a
drilling

drill-head mounted on a vertical column. If the drill-


head has only vertical adjustment on the column the
machine is called a rigid or pillar drill (Fig 16); when the
drill-head can move along an arm, which itself can
rotate round the vertical column, the machine is called

a radial drill (Fig 17). Pillar drills can drill in only one
axis,and the workpiece must be accurately positioned.
The radial drill, on the other hand, can be adjusted
along its arm, which can swing through 360 around the
column. Thus there is an annular area in which any
Fig 16
number of holes can be drilled without the workpiece
On the orthodox rigid (pillar) drilling machine the table
being moved. During a drilling operation the cutting
has no horizontal movement; after the operator has raised
tool, while rotating, is fed manually or automatically
or lowered it to suit the height of the workpiece and the
into the stationary workpiece. In addition to drills,
vertical travel of the drill, he positions the workpiece or
various cutting tools are used, among which are
its holding device, and may then clamp it to the table.
(Herbert Boring and Drilling Ltd)
reamers and tapping tools.

22
Fig 17
This is the radial drill, on which the
drilling head can be moved radially
along the arm, which in turn can be
swung around the pillar. Thus one
drilling bit can be used to drill several

holes in one workpiece while the

workpiece remains in one position.


(Town Woodhouse Lid)

Traversing
spindle head

Centralized
controls

Swivelling
arm

Column

Adjustable
table

23
Constant-speed
motor
Variable-speed
motors, direct
drive to spindles

Gearbox for
Electric speed selection
speed-change
selector

Hand feed

Automatic feed

Multi-drill heads

Table

Table height
adjustment

Fig 18
In some operations -particularly batch-production work drilling machine offers this facility: the workpiece is
several groups of drilling!reaming! tapping operations fixed in a jig, which the operator passes along slideways
have to be performed on one component. The multi-head between the work-stations.
(Herbert Boring and Drilling Lid)

24
Piping to hydraulic
controls

Turret slide

Column and
spindle drive
gearbox
Turret

Speed selection
(six spindles)

Control
cabinet

Depth stops

Work table

Push-button
controls

Gearbox and drive


to lead-screw
for longitudinal Gearbox and drive
movement to lead-screw
for transverse
Bed movement

Fig 19
A Middlesex turret drill. All operations are in the same numerical control - such that a wide range of operations

vertical axis, but the movements of the turret and the is performed, producing a precise, repeatable though

table are arranged in a sequence - perhaps under complicated pattern.


(Middlesex Machine Tool Co. Ltd)

25
The drilling head, usually a self-contained unit in- 8 Deep-Hole Boring Machines
corporating an electric motor, has gears for varying the
A 'deep' hole is usually defined as one whose depth is
rotational speed and in some cases for applying feed to
more than ten times its diameter. There are several
the drill. Drill sizes vary from 0025 mm (0001 in) to
reasons why the machining of such holes is often beyond
about 76 mm (3 in). Tapping attachments, used for the
the scope of standard twist - the coolant finds
drills
production of internal threads, embody automatic
difficulty in reaching the cutting zone, and swarf does
reversing mechanisms that unscrew the tap when the
not clear easily; cutting speeds and feeds must be low
operator releases downward pressure.
because of a long drill's poor torsional strength;
The drilling machines described arc those most com-
dimensional and directional accuracy are lacking; and
monly and more refined ones have been
used, but larger
surface finish is poor.
developed, some of them with a number of drilling
As a result, special techniques and machines have
heads (Fig 18). In the automobile industry multi-head
been developed for boring deep holes. In one method -
machines arc used for producing all the drilled and
known as gun drilling - the cutter is mounted at the end
tapped holes in engine castings, in automatic sequence.
of a tube through which coolant is fed. In another the
Another type is the turret drill (Fig 19), in which the
coolant passes down the space between the workpiece
drilling head has a number of spindles but only one
and the tube on which the cutter is mounted, and the
drilling position.The work-table has movement in two
coolant flushes swarf away through the bore of the
horizontal directions, however. The spindles, which are
tube; the tube is centralized by guide pads, which are
indexed to the work position in sequence, hold tools of
lubricated by the coolant. A third technique involves a
different sizes or types, so enabling complex holes or
cutter mounted end of two co-axial tubes, with
at the
hole patterns to be produced.
coolant fed through the annular space between them;
The turret drill is especially suitable for conversion to
this tool can be used on standard lathes and borers.
numerical control. Since the work-table is moved
longitudinally and transversely by a programmed tape,
9 Shapers
holes of the same or various sizes can be produced with-
out jigs, in exact relationship to a datum point. Further- In the pillar-type shaper (Fig 20) the tool reciprocates
more, large quantities of identical components can be across a stationary workpiece. The toolhead, which is

produced. Operation is automatic once the machine has mechanically or hydraulically driven, follows a straight
been set, loaded and started. cutting path with a single-pointed tool; the forward

Toolholder

I. '"T^

Work-holding vice

Table

Table support

Fig 20
The pillar- type shaper. Its ram
has a simple short-stroke recipro-
cating action, and the table on
which the work-piece is mounted
is given a lateral feed to produce a Saddle
plane surface. The tool is mounted
in a hinged toolholder, so that the

tool swings free during its return. (Builer Machine Tool Co. Lid)

26
Ram Column

Fig 21
The slotter. Here again the movement is a
simple short-stroke reciprocation, but in a
vertical direction. This machine, originally

designed for cutting slots and keyways in the


bores of components, can also be used for
cutting gears mounted on indexing heads.
(Butler Machine Tool Co. I-td)

Rotary table

Gearbox

Longitudinal
slideway
Transverse
slideway

stroke is the cutting one, and the return merely an idling except that its toolhead reciprocates vertically to give
stroke. A hinge on the toolholder enables the tool to the cutting action. Its main purpose is to cut slots

lift during the return stroke and so to slide lightly across or grooves - usually keyways in components to be
the vvorkpicce; the return stroke is quicker than the keyed to shafts - but it is also used to cut other forms.

cutting stroke. Some heavy-duty machines are equipped The tool is same width as the slot. Cutting
generally the
with power-lift for the toolholder. takes place only on the downward stroke, and the tool-
On some shapers, tool feed is applied mechanically holder swings clear during the return stroke; at the end
or manually to the work-table, horizontally and at of the return stroke the table feeds forward to provide

right angles to the stroke of the tool ; on travelling-head the requisite depth of cut. On some slotters the work-
shapers the cross-feed is obtained by traversing the ram. holder is capable of rotation through 360 on a vertical
Depth of cut is regulated by vertical adjustment of the axis, so that vertical slots can be machined in angular
workpicce table or the toolholder. Blind keyways or relationship to each other. A curved surface can be
slots in holes can be cut, as can the teeth of spur and generated by virtue of a limited amount of workpiece
helical gears. (Special purpose gcar-shapers are des- rotation relative to the cutting tool.

cribed on page 34).


11 Planers
10 Slotters The planer (Fig 22) is the opposite of the shaper, in that

The slotting machine (Fig 21) is similar to the shaper. its table moves past one or more stationary cutting tools.

27
Cross-slide Cross-slide
elevating drive elevating
gearbox

Cross-slide
Quill type
milling head Slide head
and drive balance
weight

Pendant
control
station

Feed drive for


Ram type cross-slide head
milling head &
for drive
ide heads

Table drive
gearbox

Fig 22 and 22a


Most commonly the planer (lower) is the kinematic to a hinged tool-holder. The piano-miller (upper) is

inversion of the s/iaper, in that the workplace moves but employed for milling a very long component: instead of a
the tool remains static. One or more tools are mounted on static tool the cross-slide carries a milling head, and the
toolholders on the cross-slide, and they are given cross- table is given a slow feed instead of reciprocation.
feed while the table reciprocates. Thus are produced one or
(Butler Machine Tool Co. Ltd and
more planed surfaces. As with the shaper, the tool is fixed John Stirk and Sons Ltd)

28
As in the shaper, the toolholder is hinged to allow the (and their developed versions, centreless grinders), but
tool to lift during its return stroke. On modern planers there are also many special-purpose machines.

the toolholders are lifted by solenoids and in some the

hinge mechanism is an added safety measure in case of 12.1 Cylindrical grinders (Fig 23)

solenoid failure. Planers are used primarily for pro-


Here the workpiece rotates between centres mounted on
ducing large, fiat surfaces; together with vertical and
a reciprocating bed; the grinding wheel runs at high
horizontal borers, they are among the largest of the
speed on a fixed head, and the workpiece moves back
machine tools.
and forth across the face of the wheel. Rotation of the
workpiece relative to the wheel produces a cylindrical
12 Grinding Machines and Processes component.

In grinding operations, metal is removed by an abrasive


12.2 Surface grinders (Fig 24)
wheel rotating at high speed in contact with the work-
piece. In effect the grinding wheel is a tool with a great In operation these are similar to horizontal or vertical

number of cutting points. Sec page 74 for notes on the millers, in that the workpiece is firmly secured by bolts

identification marking of grinding wheels. or magnets to a flat table that reciprocates or rotates

There are two basic types of grinding machines in horizontally beneath a vertical or horizontal rotating

general use - surface grinders and cylindrical grinders wheel.

Diamond Wheelhead
down feed

Work cradles Wheel spindle


driving motor

Workhead
Tailstock

Table start/stop Table swivel


adjustment

Finger-tip control
for diminishing
feed

Workhead speed
control

Grinding wheel
Table speed control cross feed with
micro-adjustment

Fig 23
This is the cylindrical grinding machine, in which the axes finish and lack of dimensional control, so the wheel's

of the wheel and the slowly rotating workpiece are working surface is trued by a diamond dressing- tool,

parallel. During a cut the table traverses longitudinally; which on some machines comes into operation auto-
between working strokes the wheelhead is fed forward to matically at intervals. The position of the wheelhead is

reduce the workpiece diameter until the required dimen- automatically adjusted to restore dimensional control.

sion is reached. Wheel-wear could lead to poor surface (Churchill Machine Tool Co. Ltd)

29
Table Table traverse Belt-driven
speed control wheel head
assembly

Cross saddle

- Wheelhead slide

Grinding wheel

Saddle
Table traverse
handwheel

Cross-feed
handwheel
Vertical wheel-feed
handwheel

Push buttons for


hydraulicpump and
wheelhead drives
Base containing
electricmotor
and hydraulic
pump for table
traverse

Fig 24 (above)
In this lightweight horizontal-spindle surface grinder the Spring loaded Driving belt
grinding wheel rotates at high speed and the wheelhead
sleeve for axial
location
remains static. A combination of table reciprocation and
fine cross-feed produces very high finish on a flat surface.
In some surface grinders the wheel is mounted with its

axis vertical, in the manner of a vertical milling machine.


(A. A. Jones and Shipman Ltd)

Fig 25
The bearings for grinding wheels need to be extremely
accurate, because grinding itself is an accurate operation.
These two sectional views through typical bearing
assemblies show how designers minimize working
clearances. In the top view is an assembly incorporating
angular-contact ball bearings, which are kept at optimum
pre-load by springs between their housing sleeves.

Fig 26
This shows a section through a plain-bearing type, in

which adjustment is effected manually by taper-seat Tapered housings


for plain bearings
housings. Fig 26

30
12.3 Ccntreless grinders The term 'lapping' also refers to the practice of rubbing

Centreless grinding involves the application of two two components together with an abrasive medium
wheels running on almost parallel axes. The component between them, to produce accurately matching faces
to be ground rests on a narrow rail between them, and and fine clearances.

the gap between their peripheries determines its finished

diameter. One of the wheels performs the grinding and


the other is known as the control wheel. (See page 39.)
In one version of the technique the components are
of plain, unshouldered outline, and they feed themselves
Retriever
continuously through the gap by virtue of the screwing
slideways
action of the tilted axes of the wheels. The gap is not
parallel but slightly tapered, so the components are
progressively reduced in size until they reach the
designed dimension at exit. This technique is excellent

for the high-volume output of small shafts.


Through-grinding cannot be used for shouldered
components, so plunge-grinding is employed. During
the cut the working wheel is fed in until the correct
diameter of component is reached. In this case the gap
is parallel, but the crossed axes of the wheels serve a
useful purpose in that the component is held against a
shoulder, ensuring that the diameter is ground along
Retriever
the desired length.
chuck
12.4 Miscellaneous grinding operations
Over the years various techniques of abrasive machining
have been evolved to satisfy a very wide variety of Broach
production requirements, some for giving high surface
finish, some for extremely fine dimensional control,
some for intricate forming and profiling, and some for
three. Developments in abrasives and grinding
all
Work
machinery have in some cases enabled precision to be table
combined with relatively high rates of metal removal,
moreover, and in recent years grinding has become a
major stock-removal process.
Among the special-purpose equipment in use are
machines for grinding the complex of cam-
profiles

shafts, for thread-grinding full threads on hardened tap


blanks, and for plunge-grinding gear teeth without
preliminary machining. Internal-grinding machines of
very advanced design are in use for producing accurate
bores in bearing housings, for example. The grinding
of drill-flutes takes place on an adaptation of the
horizontal-spindle surface grinder, while the ends of
small coil-springs are ground flat between a pair of
wheels running on the same axis.

Honing and lapping are two widely used derivations


from the orthodox grinding processes. Honing is
performed by shaped abrasive stones pressed lightly
against pre-machined surfaces; normally it is carried
out to give a controlled surface finish (not necessarily
ultra-fine) or close dimensional control, but it is being
Fig 27
developed into a stock-removal technique as well.
completed
In broaching operations a working cycle is in
Lapping is used for the production of flat surfaces on
one single stroke of a cutting tool. This machine is a
light or easily distorted components; it is a process in
pulled
vertical broacher, on which the broaching tool is
which the component lies on a rotating flat abrasive
downwards through a blank resting on the work table.
plate and is given a random movement over the surface. (Coventry Ciauge and Tool Co. Ltd)

31
;

12.5 Lubricants and coolants for grinding machines 13 Broaching Machines


Tableway on precision grind-
lubricants are important
ing machines, since any erratic movement of the table In a broaching operation the metal is removed by a

produces a ripple or some unwelcome pattern on the succession of teeth, usually formed on a single long
workpiece. Bearing lubricants need to be carefully piece of metal known as a broach. The advantage of
selected, too, because grinding-wheel spindles rotate at this technique is that an operation can be completed at

very high speed, and if great accuracy is required the one pass or stroke, with each tooth taking the shape

clearances between spindle and bearing (Figs 25 and 26) wider or deeper than its predecessor until the last one
have to be very small. Therefore the bearing lubricant reaches the desired form. A keyway produced on a
has to be of lower viscosity than that for normal slotting machine, for instance, requires many strokes of
machine-tool applications, and has to be reinforced the ram, but a broach with as many cutting edges as
with additives to compensate for any lack of load-carry- the slottcr strokes required can finish the job in one pass
ing properties. while removing the same amount at each cut.
The cutting fluid used in grinding becomes heavily The technique is employed in two forms. One is
contaminated with both the fine metal particles re- internal broaching, in which a circular hole is gradually
moved from the workpiece and the abrasive particles developed into the shape required ; the other is surface
and bonding material of the grinding wheel. Because it broaching, in which the tool cuts into the side or
is so fine this debris tends to remain in suspension, and edge of the workpiece.
so is recirculated. This reduces the effectiveness of the Broaching machines are used for making internal and
cutting fluid and hence the quality of the finish, so the external slots, grooves, splines, gear teeth and miscel-
cutting fluid has to be filtered continuously. Most laneous sections. In most machines the broach moves
modern grinding machines are equipped with magnetic and the workpiece is stationary, but in a few - particu-

and other filters, and with settlement tanks for the fluid larly very large ones - the roles are reversed. Some
some arc even fitted with coolers. machines are vertical (Fig 27) and some horizontal (Fig

Pull-Head
Broach outer Work -holder
support

Broach support table

Coolant pump and


tank

Fig 28 and 28a


Horizontal broaching machines are very similar to their
vertical counterparts, hut may be preferred by reason of
Main motor their very long stroke, for instance.
(Coventry Gauge and Tool Co. Ltd)

32
:

28). Although some are operated mechanically, hy- gear blank. The following are typical of non-generating

draulic operation is preferred because of low cost and methods


flexibility of control. Broaches can be pulled or pushed
past the workpieces; pulling is more general for slender 14.1.1 Milling Gears can be cut on a standard milling
broaches because of the risk of bending. machine by a cutter having the shape of the inter-teeth

Broaching tools are expensive, and their use is space, and with the aid of a dividing head. For faster

only if the quantity, complexity and dimen-


justified production the dividing head can be geared to index the
sional repeatability of the product warrant the cost. The blank through one tooth-pitch automatically after each
technique has become indispensable for producing gas- pass of the cutter.

turbine rotors, and is used to form both the 'fir-tree

root' of blades and the corresponding female forms in 14.1.2 Broaching This is a useful method for the pro-

the hub. In such work, great accuracy and interchange- duction of small internal gears; as we have seen, it can

ability of components arc necessary. perform the complete gear-cutting operation in a single
pass. The technique can be used for producing various
types of gears but, because of the high cost of broaches,
14 Gear-Cutting and Finishing Machines is economic only for long runs.
Planing, turning and milling are clearly defined machin-
but the term gear-culling embraces 14.1.3 Shaping and planing {non-generating) Gears can
ing operations,
several machining processes - with the obvious excep- be cut on orthodox shaping and planing machines, as
tion of turning. they can on milling machines, by cutters having the
shape of inter-teeth spaces and with the aid of dividing
14.1 Gear-cutting methods heads.

An important factor in gear-cutting is the machining In the special-purpose gear-shaping and gear-planing
method chosen. The cutting tool may be of precisely the machines, on the other hand, generating methods are
shape of the metal to be removed from between teeth, employed; the cutters are virtually gears themselves. If a
or the tooth form may be 'generated' when metal is cylindrical blank of readily deformable material is

rotated against and meshed with a gear, the teeth press


removed by a tool of special form meshing with the

In the gear-shaping process the cutter reciprocates at


high frequency. Meanwhile both it and the workpiece

rotate slowly, as though in mesh. The workpiece in this

instance is a small straight-toothed gear.


33
out mating teeth of correct form on the blank, and the the concept has also been adapted for rolling teeth
result is known The blank and the
as a conjugate gear. directly on to bar stock by deformation.
meshing gear need not be of the same diameter, pro- Gear-generation methods are accurate, rapid, versa-
vided they have the same effective linear speed at the tile and economic for the quantity production of gears.
pitch circles* and so long as the circumference of the The cutting tools may reciprocate, as in gear-shaping
blank can give a whole number of teeth. This 'theor- and gear-planing, or they may rotate, as in hobbing.
etical' gear is employed as a cutter in gear generation;
14.1.4 Gear-shaping This method, which is used to
The pitch circle is a gear's effective size, and lies between the
peak and root circles. produce both finished gears and those to be finished by
shaving or grinding, generates the teeth with a cutter of
relevant form having the same basic data as the gear
that it cuts. The operation is carried out on a gear-
shaping machine (Fig 29) so-called because it resembles
the normal shaper in having a two-phase cutting
action - the cutting stroke and the relief stroke. Cutter
and blank rotate in phase during the shaping motion,
as if they were gears in mesh.

Cutter 14.1.5 Gear-planing Most gear-shaping machines have


circular cutters of conjugate form. In the Sunderland
process, however, a rack-shape cutter (the conjugate
rack) cuts with reciprocating motion, across the peri-
phery of the blank, and also traverses tangentially. It

advances radially until the full depth of tooth is reached.


Workpiece
The rack is short relative to the circumference of the
gear blank, so it is withdrawn after the rolling motion
has operated for one or more complete pitches, and is

Fig 29 and 29a


Gear-shaping is favoured for internal
short gears and where hobbing, for
instance, cannot be employed because
of inadequate follow-through space
on the component. This is a high-
speed reciprocating action by a cutter
that revolves slowly 'in mesh' with the
teeth being formed on the rotating
blank as depicted in the inset above.
(Sykes Machine Tool Co. Ltd)

Rotation controller
Cutter

Work table

Workpiece

Index gearbox

34
returned along the tangential path to the starting point. of the teeth to be formed on the gear blank, in an
arrangement resembling the relationship of a worm and
14.1.6 Hobbing (Fig 30) This is used mainly for the a worm-wheel. Longitudinal flutes in the worm, cut
quantity production of finished gears. The cutting tool, across its thread, form the cutting edges. With the hob

termed a hob, has its axis at nearly 90 to the helix angle fed parallel to the axis of the gear and along the path of
the gear teeth, a form conjugate to the cutting tool is

Hob head generated on the blank. Hobbing is a constant-velocity


process with no indexing and no return stroke; cutting
is continuous and there is no wasted time, a fact that

contributes to high-speed production.

14.2 Gear-finishing methods


For producing gears to very high standards of accuracy
and finish a further process may be required, either
because the cutting process has shortcomings or be-
cause subsequent heat treatment distorts the component
or impairs the finish. Gear-grinding and gear-shaving
are the methods most widely used.

14.2.1 Gear-tooth grinding The 'Matrix' gear-grinding


machine operates on a principle similar to hobbing, but

the grinding wheel is of very large diameter relative to


the blank; this wheel has a continuous helix formed on
Workpiece Hob worm. The
its periphery, in the shape of the conjugate
blank is fed tangentially across the grinding wheel, and
Fig 30 and 30a
rotates in step with the helix; at the same time it is
One of most popular machining processes for the
the
rolled back and forth laterally across the wheel, to
volume production of gears is hobbing. Both the work- and allow the wheel to hold
distribute the cutting action
piece and the tool rotate at steady speeds, and the form
its form for a reasonable time. This process can be used
of the cutter is designed to take into the account its
for gear-tooth finishing or for forming gears directly
feed from one end of the blank to the other. The inset is
from a blank.
shown from a different viewpoint.
(Sykes Machine Tool Co. Lid)

Hob feed cylinder

Tailstock

Hob slide

Work table

35
Crowner
Cross-slide lead-screw

Cross slide

Knee and up-feed motor

Up-feed control

Fig 31 and 31a


In gear-shaving the cutting tool (see below) has
the same basic form as the rough-cut gear it is
machining. The cut is very light, and the purpose

of the process is to give the teeth a high-quality The 'Orcutl' process involves a grinding wheel whose
finish. The teeth are 'crowned'' by a slight periphery is shaped to match the space between two
rocking action of the cutter, to give gears the teeth on the gear. It grinds the flanks of two adjacent
proper running clearance during service. In the teeth in one pass, and then the gear indexes to bring the
view below, the workpiece is a gear-cluster, next pair of flanks into position. In the 'Maag' method
and the machine is set up for only one of the two grinding wheels are used, each formed to match a
gears on it. tooth-flank. One wheel moves in and grinds a flank,
(Sykes Machine Too] Co. Ltd)
then moves out to make room for the second to advance
and grind the other flank. In these two systems the
Live centres wheels can be dressed continuously to maintain the
correct form, and the in-feed is automatically increased
to compensate for this dressing.

14.2.2 Gear-shaving (Fig 3 1


) The shaving tool is funda-
mentally a gear with a tooth form having the same
basic data as the gear to be shaved. Its teeth have
grooves cut across the flanks, in planes at right angles to
the axis of the cutter; these grooves form the cutting
edges, but because only a small amount of metal -
between 003 and 008 mm (0001 and 0-003 in) - is to be
removed, they merely 'shave' the teeth. The semi-
finished gear, which is mounted on live centres, is

brought into mesh, and power is applied to the shaving


tool to drive the gear.
Component, driven When mesh and
Shaving head in rotating, the tool passes axially so
by shaving tool
as to process the whole width of the gear. The number of
Shaving tool, driven passes complete movements across the gear face - is

by main motor usually two, four or six. Shaving produces a very good

36
Counterbalanced
Fig 32 pendant support arm
Boring machines range from the very
small to the very large. This is a
modern heavy-duty horizontal borer:
its table has movement in two direc-

tions, and the work-spindle head is


A Main drive
positioned vertically on the column. motor
wide range of cutters can be employed.
(Giddings and Lewis-Frascr Lid)

Feed drive
motor

Saddle

Saddle supports

Levelling screws

reaming, tapping and facing; the spindle


surface-finish, and is claimed to give about 50% im- drilling,

performs these operations axially, under horizontal


provement in the overall gear accuracy.
powered traverse. Back-facing and back-boring can also
be performed, with the spindle retracting into the head-
stock. The column is usually a stationary element giving
rigid support for, and precise guidance to, the head-
15 Horizontal Boring, Milling and Drilling
stock in its vertical traverse. The bed, also a stationary
Machines member, does for the saddle what the column does for

Machines in this category (Fig 32) consist of five basic the headstock. The saddle is mounted on the bedways,
elements - hcadstock, column, bed, saddle and table. and its travel is parallel to the axis of the spindle.
Theheadstock contains the horizontally mounted work- Workpieces are fixed to the table, which has two axes
spindle, and all power for machining comes from a of motion: it can travel with the saddle along the bed-
motor mounted on the rear of the hcadstock. Opera- ways, but has independent motion at right angles to the

tions that can be performed include boring, milling. saddle traverse. Such machines as these have either

37
Elevating unit

Counterbalance
chains Spindle drive motor

Gear case and


oilpan

Head assembly

Arm
Adapter case

Pendant

Chuck spindle

Control panel

Console

Hydraulic power unit


actuates
1. Table and saddle
traverse
Saddle supports 2. Arm elevating
3. Arm clamps
4. Tool changing
5. Indexing fixture
(when fitted)

Fig $3
The 'machining centre' is the name given to a machine
tool with a very wide range of capabilities. Various
tools and and their
cutters are carried in the magazine,

selection and operation are part of a programme that

includes the positioning of the table and work-head, and


the selection ofspeeds andfeeds.
(Giddings and I-ewis-Fraser Ltd)

38
:

numerical or manually set automatic control. On tools. It can perform, in sequence, operations such as
manual machines all functions are controlled from a centring, twist-drilling, spade-drilling, tapping, reaming,

pendant push-button station which can be swung by the boring and milling. Tt does away with the need for

operator to any position around the workpiece; on jigs, virtually obviates the risk of mistakes due to the

numerically controlled machines, of course, the func- human element, and carries out many related operations

tions are all governed by punched tape. on one or more faces of the workpiece at one clamping.

Although the advent of numerical control has not In the version illustrated its three main elements are
radically altered the appearance of these machines, it the tool-holding matrix, work-head and work-table.

new thinking on the design of the All movements and all cycles are numerically controlled
has necessitated
individual elements and the transmissions. With such
- the indexing of the matrix to present the correct tool
control has come the need for improved standards of
in the right sequence
repetitive accuracy, rigidity and reliability. A few years
- the movement of the tool from its matrix to the head
ago horizontal boring, milling and drilling machines did
- the vertical adjustment of the head on its column
only what their names implied. Today, with more - the positioning of the table in two horizontal
power available at the spindle, greater load-carrying
dimensions
capacity and a wider range of attachments, they are - the selection of the speeds and feeds
being used to much greater advantage.
- the machining operation
- the return of the tool to its place in the matrix.

In other designs the tools arc mounted on a turret


16 Machining Centres rather than held in a magazine. Sometimes the tool-

The name 'machining centre' has been given to a changing function is automatic, and sometimes it is

machine tool (Fig 33) that carries a large number of done manually.

Centreless grinding. Between the


two wheels is a rail on which rests
the workpiece - in this case a long
holt about to have its plain portion
ground. One wheel performs the

grinding, and the other is a


'control' wheel. The diameter of a
shouldered component such as the
one illustrated is controlled by the
inward plunge of the grinding
wheel.

39
:

17 Machine-Tool Lubrication from kinematic viscosity in centistokes, and in the


Lubrication of machine tools is outside the scope of this American system the basis is Saybolt Universal Seconds
publication, but a few comments may be useful. The and, more recently, kinematic viscosity in centistokes;

lubricants required in machine tools are normally these several of the oils in one range have corresponding
- grease for electric motors grades in the other. In each of these rationalized ranges,
- lubricating oils for bearings incidentally, there are pairs of oils having the same
- lubricating oils for gearboxes viscosity but different properties because they have to
- hydraulic oils, generally petroleum-based but in satisfy different requirements; for example, one oil has
some cases non-flammable synthetic types extreme-pressure properties, but another of similar
- slideway lubricants. viscosity has not. It is important to note that the
Various authorities have collaborated with machine- viscosity of oil varies with temperature, so every
tool manufacturers and oil companies to produce viscosity figure must relate to a stated temperature.
rationalized ranges of lubricants. One recommended In the continuing development of machine tools, the
range has been drawn up in Britain by the Machine world's manufacturers and research establishments have
Tool Industry Research Association (MTFRA), and devoted a great deal of study to the lubrication of slide-
another in the USA by the American Society of ways. This is because, in the interests of dimensional
Lubrication Engineers (ASLE). accuracy, rapid production and low wear of bearing
MTIRA has allocated numbers to 12 selected oils, surfaces, the aim is to combine great freedom of sliding
from which nearly all requirements can be met (Table 2). movement with negligible deflection under load. One
Machine-tool lubricants are selected from the 18 approach to this is the hydrostatic bearing, in which
standardized viscosity grades (Table 3) in British lubricant under pressure is fed to the sliding surfaces
Standard Specification 4231:1967, Viscosity Classifica- and then recycled: the stiffness of petroleum oil (its

tion for Industrial Liquid Lubricants. resistance to 'compression' under load) is extremely
ASLE has selected ten oils (Table 4) with designations consistent, and the accuracy of linear motion is therefore
that correspond to 'viscosity numbers' allocated by the very high. Another approach is to use air as the lubri-
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). cant, in a manner similar to the principle of the hover-
In the British system the BS numbers are derived craft.

40
Table 2 MTIF

Type of lubricant*
Table 2
MTIRA rationalized range of
MTIRA machine tool machine-tool lubricants
t> Viscosity grade no: BS 4
Table 3
Functions Characteristics of BS4231 oils

General lubrication
Table 4
Bearings, spindles
ASTM and ASLE equivalents

Hydraulics

Feed mechanisms

Elevating and lead screws

Gears, worms

Slideways

Table 3 Char

British
Standard
grade
designation

3
5

7
10
15

22
32

46

100
150

220
320
460

680
1000
1500
Table 2 MTIRA rationalized range of machine-tool lubricants

Type of lubricant*
Plain universal oils may Oils with superior resistance to Oils with superior Oils with superior performance
have a small additive corrosion, oxidation, wear load-carrying as slideway lubricants
content and foaming properties

MTIRA machine tool oil 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

BS 4231 32 150 10 15 32 68 150 680 32 220


t>Viscosity grade no:

Functions

General lubrication

Bearings, spindles

Hydraulics

Feed mechanisms

Elevating and lead screws

Gears, worms

Slideways
m
Table 3 Characteristics of BS4231 oils Table 4 ASTM and ASLE equivalents
British Mid-point Kinematic Corresponding ASLE nomenclature Viscosity limits 3fc All oils should be highly refined

Standard kinematic viscosity ASTM and application Saybolt universal seconds and have
least 60
a viscosity index of at

viscosity at100F (37-8C)


grade viscosity limits
designation Centistokes at cStat100F(37-8C) number
100F(378C) min max mm max C> Approximate kinematic
viscosity centistokes at tOOfp
(37.8'C)

2 2-2 1-98 2-42 32 S-32 Spindie lubricant 29 35


3 3-2 2-88 3-52 36 % These grades correspond to
4-6 4-14 5-06 40 ASLE recommendations
5

6-8 6-12 7*48 50 Correspond to MTIRA


7 recommendations
10 10 9-0 11-0 60 S-60 Spindle lubricant 54 66
15 15 13-5 16-5 75

22 22 19-8 24-2 105 S-105 Spindle lubricant 95 115


32 32 28-8 35-2 150 H-150 Hydraulic fluid 135 165
W-150 Combined hydraulic fluid
and slideway lubricant

46 46 41-4 50-6 215 H-215 Hydraulic fluid 194 236


68 74-8 315 H-315 Hydraulic fluid 284 346
W-315 Slideway lubricant

100 100 90 110 465


150 150 135 165 700 H-700 Hydraulic fluid 630 I/O These tables give the machine-tool
lubricants recommendations of the
220 242 1000 W - 1 000 Slideway lubricant 900 1100 UK's Machine Tool Industries
320 352 1500 Research Association (MTIRA) and
320
506 2150 the American Society of Lubrication
460 460 414
Engineers (ASLE). The viscosities
are quoted in British Standard grade
680 680 612 748 3150
designations and in viscosity
1000 1000 900 1100 4650 numbers of the American Society
1500 1500 1350 1650 7000 for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

41
tj?

2. Geometry of
cutting tools

All cutting tools - whether single-point or multi-point, Cutting-edge side-rake (DIN) is the angle between a line

and whether of rotary or linear cutting action - have parallel to the base and one parallel to the top face,

basically similar cutting edges, but the precise geometry measured in a plane at 90 to the side cutting-edge angle.
of each tool-point is determined by various factors such
as tool material and workpiece material. Recommended Cutting-edge back-rake (DIN) is the angle between a

angles for all the commercially available materials are line parallel to the base and one parallel to the top face,

given in tables elsewhere in this book. measured in a plane parallel to the side cutting-edge
A great deal of research has been carried out to deter- angle.

mine the ideal shape of the single-point cutting tool.

Although research continues, a stage has now been Maximum rake (BSS) is the maximum angle between the

reached at which standards for the shape of tools can base and the top face, measured in a plane at 90 to the
be laid down. Of necessity, such standards call for base. (The direction of maximum rake is always at right
standard nomenclature. A simple turning tool and its angles to the direction of zero rake.) The angle is
terminology is shown in Fig 34. positive if the face slopes downwards from the culling
edge, and negative if the face slopes upward.

1 Standardized Nomenclature
This aspect of tool geometry has only relatively recently
been standardized. Two well-known systems of tool
nomenclature are those defined in Deutsche Industrie
Norm (DIN) 6581 (May 1966) and British Standard
1886:1952. The latter is similar to the 'maximum rake'
system, in which the quoted figure is the maximum rake
produced by a combination of side-rake and back-rake.
Figs 35 and 36 detail the correct nomenclature
according to these standards. From a practical point of Base
view, each system is satisfactory so long as the terms
used are completely understood.

2 Definitions of Cutting-Tool
Nomenclature Fig 34
Angle or rake is positive if the top 'face' inclines down- These are the common terms used in reference to a simple

wards from any cutting edge; if the face inclines up- turning tool. The basic cutting form is repeated in most
wards from any cutting edge the rake is negative. other machining devices.

43
Side cutting-edge
wedge angle Plan trail angle ncluded plan angle

Maximum rake
plan angle

X/ \ Plan approach angle

Side cutting-edge
clearance angle

Secondary
side cutting-edge
clearance angle

Front cutting-edge
clearance angle

\
Cutting -edge Secondary Front cutting-edge
side rake front cutting-edge wedge angle
clearance angle

Plan relief angle

Side relief angle

Side clearance angle Nose radius


Side
cutting-edge
angle
Fig 35 and 36
In these illustrations two standardized Cutting-edge
sets of nomenclature - the British
back rake
BSS and the German DIN - for a
typical single-point cutting tool are
/
shown. The tool is assumed to be 7
oriented with its shank at right angles
to both the face of the workpiece
and the direction of motion during DIN
feed. End clearance angle Fig 36

44
Maximum-rake plan angle (BSS) is the angle between a Plan relief angle (DIN) or plan trail angle (BSS) is the
line parallel to the side of the shank and the direction of angle between the front cutting edge and a line at 90 to
maximum rake, measured in a plane parallel to the the side of the shank, measured in a plane parallel to the
base. base. In the case of a bent tool this angle is measured
from the straight side of the shank.
Wedge angle (DIN) is the included angle between the
top face and the side relief-angle face measured at 90 to Side cutting-edge angle (DIN) or plan approach angle
the appropriate cutting edge (90 minus the sum of side (BSS) is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
relief and cutting-edge side-rake angles). side of the shank, measured in a plane parallel to the
base.
Included plan angle (BSS) is the angle between the front
cutting edge and the side cutting edge measured in a

plane parallel to the base.

3 Influence of the Components of Shape


Relief angle(DIN) or clearance angle (BSS) is the angle
between a line at 90 to the base and the tool flank 3.1 Cutting-edge rake
immediately below any cutting edge, measured in a plane
at 90 to that edge. 3.1.1 Positive side-rake gives the tool a sharp edge but
tends to weaken it. Positive side-rake is used for machin-
Clearance angle (DIN) or secondary clearance angle ing most low and medium-tensile steels, cast iron,

(BSS) is the angle between a line at 90 to the base and aluminium alloys and similar materials.

that portion of the tool flank below the relief angle or


clearance angle (respectively) measured in a plane at 90 3.1.2 Negative side-rake is used where very hard
to any cutting edge. materials are being cut or intermittent or shock loads

Radial Helix
rake angle

Peripheral
secondary
clearance
Section A-A ang e
|

Chamfer
secondary
clearance angle

Chamfer
Corner/
angle
radius
Secondary
"^\\h"~~ side clearance
Radial angle
rake
N Side
clearance
angle
Fig 37 Section C-C
The milling cutter and its cutting-edge nomenclature.

45
Land
Body
clearance
diameter
Chisel-edge

Heel
Diameter

Core or web
Chisel-edge thickness
angle

Cutting edge
Lip
clearance
angle

Rake (helix)
angle at Fig 38
periphery
Nomenclature of the drill-point.

are applied to the tool. Most cemented carbide tools normally taken right up to the cutting edge, since this

have negative side-rake. would weaken it.

3.1.3 Cutting-edge back-rake In the machining of 3.4Nose radius


ductile metals or materials that tend to tear, a large The nose radius blends the front and side cutting edges.

built-up edge of workpiece material on the tool (see A large nose radius usually gives an improvement in

page 58) should be avoided; the remedy is a positive surface finish but if it is too large there is a danger of
back-rake. Generally the back-rake increases with the vibration, which causes chatter marks to appear on the
softness of the workpiece material. A small amount of machined surface. Other advantages of generous nose

building-up protects the cutting-edge, so the back-rake radii are improved tool life and the possibility of in-

should not be so great as to eliminate the build-up creased feeds and higher turning speeds. The foregoing
entirely, as this would tend to expose the tool tip to comments on tool shape refer to single-point cutting

unnecessary wear. tools.

Negative back-rake is sometimes used where the


cutting operation is intermittent, as when the tool has to
cross an aperture, because the greater sturdiness helps
to withstand shock.
4 Tool Setting on Lathes
3.2 End and side relief angles (DIN) If a tool is not properly mounted in the tool holder, all

These reduce the contact area with the cut metal, and the care taken in its design and manufacture will have
hence friction between tool and workpiece. The end and been wasted. Single-point cutting tools must always be
side relief angles should be the same wherever possible. set up so that the cutting edge is exactly in line with the
Relief angles should increase with the softness of work- axis of rotation, which is usually horizontal (Fig 39). If
piece materials. the tool is not set accurately, all its angles are altered
relative to the workpiece. If the cutting edge is set

3.3 Clearance angles (DIN) below the horizontal axis the tool tends to dig into the

These provide clearance between the tool and work- workpiece (or the workpiece tries to climb over the
piece below the relief angles. The clearance angle is not tool), probably with disastrous results. Any vibrations

46
set up can both damage the cutting edge and mar the with the minimum possible overhang. Odd, misshapen
surface finish. If, on the other hand, the cutting edge is pieces of packing should not be used to bring the cutting
setabove the horizontal axis the flank rubs against the edge to the horizontal axis. The practice of tilting the
workpiece; this spoils the finish and causes wear of the tool to achieve accurate centre-line setting is bad,
flank and nose, with a significant reduction in tool-life. because in the first place the tool/workpiece geometry is
Tools should be firmly secured on a good foundation affected and, secondly, part of the tool is unsupported.

Vertical centre line


of workpiece
Correct tool Transverse centre line
setting of workpiece
Line connecting axis of
workpiece and cutting edge
Line normal to Y-Y at point
of contact between tool
and workpiece

Back rake 5

Effect of
setting tool
too low

1 -5 mm
06 in

Actual
back rake130'

Actual
end relief 8 3 30'
Effect of
setting tool End relief cancelled out.
too high Interference causes wear on
end relief face and damage
to surface finish
Actual
back rake 830'

1-5 mm
06 in

Fig 39
In a turning operation the tool geometry can be seriously upset if the tool is not in
line with the axis of the workpiece.

47
f**AAA
"^VV\^rvvvt
'/**

The type oj swarfproduced in machining varies with the workpiece material and nature and severity of the cutting action.
Five typical kinds are shown here. (Left) Mild steel: continuous helical swarf from a single-point turning operation.
(Right) Cast iron chips produced in a hobbing operation.

Mild steel: tangled swarffrom turning

Brass: miscellaneous chips produced by milling Aluminium: swarffrom face-milling

48
5 Tables of Machining and Tool-Setting Data

Practical Notes for Machining

The machine and tool sellings in the following tables are roughing cuts, whereas shallow cuts arc preferable for
those generally agreed by the industry, and they cover finishing, to reduce both the cutting force and the risk of
all normal requirements. In many instances the range tool chatter.

is wide, however, particularly in respect of feeds and


speeds, so the following notes have been prepared to
help users in making the most suitable choices for the Milling
circumstances.
The recommendations in the tables can be only a very
general guide because of the great variation in the type

Turning and design of milling cutters.


Feeds quoted are those for face-milling; for other
High-speed-steel tools operations the feeds used are usually reduced as follows:

In general, cutting speed has a greater effect on the life


For sidc-and-face or end-milling, decrease the
of high-speed-steel tools than feed or depth of cut. These
listed speeds by 40%
two depend on the machine's power and rigidity as well
milling, decrease the listed speeds by 60%.
For form
as the tool's size and strength.
For rough turning, the highest metal-removal rate is Where special cutters having finishing or 'wiper'
achieved by using the maximum feed and depth of cut, blades are used, it is often practicable to exceed the

and keeping the speed low to give reasonable tool life. quoted finishing speeds.

In finish turning it is desirable to use the highest For rough milling the depth of cut should be as great

speeds quoted, together with fine feeds and shallow cuts. as is allowed by the horsepower and rigidity of the
The standard grades of high-speed steel (such as machine, and by the strength of the cutter.

18/4/1) should be used in the easier conditions listed; Finish milling, on the other hand, necessitates

super grades -for example, those with a cobalt addition light cuts of 0-13-1-55 mm (0-005-0-060 in) to reduce

or a high vanadium content-should be adopted for cutting forces and achieve the desired surface quality.

the more arduous duties. See Appendix 1 for the Care should be taken, though, in the finish-machining

correlation between surface speed, diameter and of work-hardening materials.


rotational speed. The harder grades ofcarbide quoted should be used in
conjunction with the higher speeds, lower feeds and
Sintered tungsten-carbide tools smaller rake angles.
Choice of the depth of cut depends primarily on the Each type of workpiece material may have a wide
machine's power and rigidity, and the tool's size and range of properties (as with the Nimonics), so discretion

strength. The greatest possible depth should be used for should be exercised when settings are being selected.

49
Table 5 Turning with high-speed-steel tools: feeds, speeds and tool angles

Material Cutting speed Maximum feed Cutting Cutting End and


(finishing only) edge edge side
back side clearance
rake rake angles
ft/min m/min in/rev mm/rev degrees degrees degrees

Cast iron
Soft grey 70-100 22-30 0-010 0-25 3 3-6 6

Close-grained 50-70 15-22 0-010 0-25 3-6 6-10 6

Malleable 40-60 12-18 0-010 0-25 3-6 10-14 6

Alloyed 30-50 9-15 0-010 0-25 3-6 6-14 6

Chilled 10-25 3-8 0-040 1-02 3 6-8 3

Steel

Free-cutting mild 80-150 25-45 0-015 0-38 8-12 15-20 6

Up to 40 ton 50-80 15-25 0-010 0-25 8 14-18 6

40 to 60 ton 40-60 12-18 0-010 0-25 8 10-14 6

60 to 80 ton 20 - 40 6-12 0-008 0-20 5-8 5-10 6

Over 80 ton 10-20 3-6 0-008 0-20 5-8 5-10 6

Manganese 5-20 1 -6 0-010 0-27 -5-5 5-15 6

Stainless martensitic 30-60 9-18 0-015 0-38 8 10-15 6

Stainless austenitic 15-40 4-12 0-015 0-38 5-8 5-15 6

Non-ferrous
Aluminium 200 - 500 60-150 0-004 0-10 10-30 10-30 6-10

Aluminium alloys 100-250 30-75 0-004 0-10 5-15 5-15 6-10

Brass soft 1 50 - 400 45-120 0-015 0-38 3 3-6 6

Brass hard 100-150 30-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 6

Bronze ordinary 100-200 30-60 0-015 0-38 3-6 8-12 6

Bronze high-tensile 50 - 1 00 15-30 0-010 0-25 3. 6-8 3-6

Copper 150-300 45-90 0-015 0-38 5-15 15-30 6

Others
Nickel alloys 5-50 1-15 0-010 0-25 5-8 5-15 6

Nimonics 5-30 1-9 0008 0-20 5-8 5-15 6

50
5

Table 6 Rough turning with tungsten-carbide tools:


feeds, speeds and tool angles
Materia ISO* Cutting speed Feed Cutting Cutting End and
edge edge side
(maximum) back side clearance
rake rake angles
ft/min m/min in/rev mm/rev degrees degrees degrees

Cast iron
K15-K30 175-250 55-75 0-032 0-81 3 4-6
Soft grey
K30 K40- 1 50 - 200 45-60 0-032 0-81 3 4-6

Close-grained K1 5 - K30 150-200 45-60 0-020 0-51 3 4-6


K30-K40 125-175 38-55 0-020 0-51 3 4-6

Malleable K15-K25 150-250 45-75 0-020 0-51 3 4-6


P15-P25 150-250 45-75 0-020 0-51 3-8 4-6

Alloyed K05 - K1 5 80-275 25-85 0-015 0-38 3 4-6


K15-K25 60-150 18-45 0-020 0-51 3 4-6

Chilled K01 - K1 15-40 4-12 0-080 2-03 0-3 4-6

Steel
Free-cutting mild P15-P25 300 - 600 90-185 0-030 0-76 3-8 3-8 3-8
P25-P35 200-400 60-120 0-130 3-30 3-8 3-8 6-8

Up to 40 ton P15-P25 250-350 75-105 0-025 0-63 0-3 0-3 4-6


P25-P35 150-200 45-60 0-130 3-30 0-3 3-8 4-6
P35-P50 100-150 30-45 0-130 3-30 0-3 3-8 4-6

40 to 60 ton P15-P25 200-250 60-75 0-025 0-63 0-3 0-3 4-6


P25-P35 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-062 1-59 0-3 3-8 4-6
P35-P50 80 - 1 20 24-37 0-080 2-03 0-3 3-8 4-6

60 to 80 ton P15-P25 120-200 37-60 0-025 0-63 0-3 0-3 4-6


P25-P35 70-100 22-30 0-050 1-27 0-3 3-8 4-6
P35 P50 - 40-80 12-25 0-080 2-03 0-3 3-8 4-6
Over 80 ton P15-P25 1 00 - 1 20 30-37 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P25-P35 50-70 15-22 0-020 0-51 0-3 3-8 4-6
P35-P50 30-50 9-15 0-020 0-51 0-3 3-8 4-6

Manganese P25-P35 50-150 15-45 0-015 0-38 -3-3 0-10 4-6


P35 P50 - 30-100 9-30 0-020 0-51 -3-3 0-10 4-6
Stainless martensitic P15-P25 200-300 60-90 0-015 0-38 0-3 0-3 4-6
P25-P35 100-150 30-45 0-030 0-76 0-3 3-8 4-6
P35-P50 80-120 24-3/ 0-030 0-76 0-3 3-8 4-6
Stainless austonitic PI 5 - P30 150-220 45-67 0-015 0-38 0-3 3-8 4-6
P30-P50 70 - 1 50 22-45 0-025 0-63 0-3 3-8 4-6
K25-K40 50-120 15-37 0-035 0-89 0-3 6-12 4-6

Non-ferrous
Aluminium K05-K25 6000 max 1 830 max 0-020 0-51 10-20 15-20 6-10

Aluminium alloys K05-K25 1000 max 305 max 0-020 0-51 10-20 10-20 6-10

3-6 6-8 6-8


Brass soft K15-K25 500-1000 150-305 0-050 1-27

Brass hard K05-K25 400-800 120-245 0-030 0-76 3-6 3-6 4-6

Bronze ordinary K05-K25 400 600


- 120-1 85 0-040 1-02 3-6 3 - 6 6-8

Bronze high-tensile K05-K25 250-500 75-150 0-030 0-/6 3-6 3-6 4-6

Copper K15-K25 500-1000 150-305 0-050 1-2/ 10-15 20-30 6-10

Others
Nickel alloys P25-P35 75-120 23-3/ 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6
P35-P50 40-80 12-25 O-015 0-38 3 6 3-6 4-6
K30-K40 40-80 12 25 0-01 5 0-38 3-6 5-10 4-6

Nimonics K25-K40 15-50 4-15 0-015 0-38 0-6 3-8 4-6

'ISO classification carbide application group


51
5
6

Table 7 Finish turning with tungsten-carbide tools:


feeds, speeds and tool angles

Material ISO* Cutting speed Feed Cutting Cutting End and


edge edge side
(maximum) back side clearance
rake rake angles
ft/min m/min in/rev mm/rev degrees degrees degrees

Cast iron

Soft grey K01 -


K1 250-500 75-150 0-008 0-20 3 4-6
K15-K25 200-400 60-120 0-010 0-25 3 4-6
Close-grained K01 - K1 5 200-350 60-105 0-008 0-20 3 4-6
K15-K25 175-325 55-100 0-010 0-25 3 4-6
Malleable K05 - K25 200-400 60-120 0-010 0-25 3 4-6
P05-P25 250-450 75-135 0-010 0-25 0-3 3-8 4-6
Alloyed K01 - K1 120-225 37-70 0-005 0-13 3 4-6
K15-K25 100-200 30-60 0-008 0-20 0-3 3 4-6
Chilled K01 -K15 20-50 6-15 0-040 1-02 0-3 4-6

Steel

Free-cutting mild P05 - P1 5 500 - 1 000 150-305 0-015 0-38 6-10 8-15 6-8
P15-P25 350-500 105-150 0-015 0-38 6-10 8-15 6-8
Up to 40 ton P05-P15 400-800 120-245 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 300-450 90-135 0-010 0-25 0-6 3-6 4-6
40 to 60 ton P0S-P15 300-375 90-115 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 250-300 75 - 90 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6
60 to 80 ton P05-P15 210-300 65-90 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 170-250 52-75 0-010 0-25 0-3 3 4-6
Over 80 ton P05-P15 1 50 - 1 80 45-55 0-005 0-13 0-3 0-3 4-6
P15-P25 125-150 38-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 0-3 4-6
Manganese P05 - P1 5 70-200 22-60 0-010 0-25 0-3 8-12 4-6
P15-P25 50 - 1 50 15-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 8-12 4-6
Stainless martensitic P05 - P1 5 300-450 90-135 0-008 0-20 0-3 0-3 4-6
P1 5 - P25 250-375 75-115 0-015 0-38 3-6 3-6 4-6
Stainless austenitic P05-P15 150-250 45-75 0-008 0-20 0-3 2-5 4-6
P15-P25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-015 0-38 0-3 3-8 4-6
K15-K25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-015 0-38 0-3 3-8 4-6

Non-ferrous
Aluminium K05-K25 6000 max 1830 max 0-004 0-10 10-20 15-20 6-10

Aluminium alloys K1 5 - K25 1 500 max 460 max 0-004 0-10 10-20 10-20 6-10

Brass soft K05-K25 500 - 1 500 150-460 0-015 0-38 3-6 6-8 6-10

Brass hard K05-K25 500-1000 150-305 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 4-6

Bronze ordinary K05 - K25 500 - 800 150-245 0-010 0-25 3-6 3-6 6-8

Bronze high-tensile K05-K25 350-650 105-200 0-010 0-25 3-6 4-8 4-6

Copper K05-K25 500-1500 150-460 0-015 0-38 10-15 20-30 6-8

Others
Nickel alloys K05-K25 1 00 - 1 50 30-45 0-010 0-25 0-3 3-6 4-6
K25-K35 60-120 18-37 0-01 5 0-38 3-6 5-10 4-6
Nimonics K05-K25 25-80 8-25 0-008 0-20 0-6 5-10 4-6

"/SO classification carbide application group

52
2

Table 8 Rough milling: speeds and feeds

Material Tool ISO* Cutting speed Feed


mat'l

H -HSS
ft/min m/min in/tooth mm/tooth
C Carbide
-

Cast iron
H 50-80 15-25 0-025 max 0-63 max
Soft grey
150-250 45-75 0-010-0-015 0-25-0-38
C K05- K25
Close-grained H 40-60 12-18 0-020 max 0-51 max
125-200 38-60 0-008-0-012 0-20-0-30
C K15 K25
Malleable H 40-60 12-18 0-015 max 0-38 max
125-200 38-60 0-008 -0O1 0-20-0-30
C K15- 25, P
Alloyed H 25-45 8-14 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K15 -K35 60-150 18-45 0-010 max 0-25 max

H 5-15 1-5-4-5 0-030 max 0-76 max


Chilled
C K05 -K25 10-40 3-12 0-015 max 0-38 max

Steel
80-100 25- 30 0-025 max 0-63 max
Free-cutting mild H
P05- P25 200-400 60- 120 0-010 max 0-25 max
C
H 50-70 15- 22 0-01 5 max 0-38 max
Up to 40 ton
C P15- P25 150-300 45- 90 0-010 max 0-25 max
H 30-50 9- 15 0-01 5 max 0-38 max
40 to 60 ton
C P15 P35 100-200 30 60 0-008 max 0-20 max

H 15-30 4-5 9 0-010 max 0-25 max


60 to 80 ton
C pir> P35 50-150 15 45 0-008 max 0-20 max

H 5-15 1-5 4-5 0-010 max 0-25 max


Over 80 ton
C P15 P50 25-100 8 30 0-006 max 0-1 5 max
5-15 1-5 -4-5 0-004-0-010 0-10-0-25
Manganese H
5 - 1 00 4-5 -30 0-004-0-008 0-10-0-20
C P15 -P50 1

H 30-50 9 -15 0-015 max 0-038 max


Stainless martensitic
P15 -P50 50-200 15 -60 0-008 max 0-20 max

15-35 4-5 -11 0-006-0-015 0-15-0-38


Stainless austenitic
P15-50K15-40 30-150 9 -45 0-004-0-008 0-10-0-20

Non-ferrous
H 200-500 60- 150 0-030 max 0-76 max
Aluminium
C K05- K25 500 - 1 000 150- 305 0-020 max 0-51 max

Aluminium alloys H 100-250 30- 75 0-030 max 0-76 max


C K05- K25 300-600 90- 185 0-015 max 0-38 max
0-030 max 0-76 max
Brass soft H 200 - 400 60 120
0-012-0-015 0-30-0-38
C K15 K25 350-500 105 150

Brass hard H 100-200 30 60 0-025 max


0-010-0-012
0-63 max
0-25-0-30
C K05 K25 200-400 60 120

Bronze ordinary H 80-120 25 37 0-030 max 0-76 max


K05 K25 250-400 7b 120 0-010-0-012 0-25-0-30
C
Bronze high-tensile H 40-60 12 -18 0-025 max
0-010-0-012
0-63 max
0-25-0-30
C K05 -K2b 1 50 - 300 45 -90

Copper H 80 - 1 30 25 -40 0-020 max 0-51 max


300 - 600 90 -185 0-012-0-015 0-30-0-38
C K15 -K25

Others

Nickel alloys H 5-40 1-5-12 0-015 max 0-38 max


C K15-40/P15-50 40-100 12-30 0-010 max 0-25 max
H 5-25 1-5-8 0-015 max 0-38 max
Nimonics
K05-K40 10-50 3-15 0-004-0-008 0-01 -0-20
C
'ISO classification carbide application group.
53
Table 9 Finish milling: speeds and feeds

Material Tool ISO" Cuttin g speed Feed


mat'l

H-HSS
C- Carbide ft/min m/min in/tooth mm/tooth

Cast iron

Soft grey H 60-100 18-30 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25


C K05 - K25 250-350 75-105 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25
Close-grained H 50-70 15-22 0.005-0-010 0-13-0-25
C K1 5 - K25 1 50 - 300 45-90 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25
Malleable H 50-70 15-22 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25
C K15-25/P15-25 150-300 45-90 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25
Alloyed H 30-50 9-15 0-005-0-010 0-13-0-25
C K15-K35 100-200 30-60 0-004-0-008 0-10-0-20
Chilled H 5-20 1-5-6 0-015 max 0-38 max
C K05-K25 20-50 6-15 0-010 max 0-25 max

Steel

Free-cutting mild H 90-120 27-37 0-010 max 0-25 max


C P05-P25 300-800 90-245 0-004 min 0-10 min
Up to 40 ton H 60-90 18-27 0-008 max 0-20 max
C P15-P25 200-500 60 - 1 50 0-004 min 0-10 min
40 to 60 ton H 40-60 12-18 0-008 max 0-20 max
C P15-P35 150-300 45-90 0-004 min 0-10 min
60 to 80 ton H 20-40 6-12 0-006 max 0-15 max
C P15-P35 100-250 30-75 0-004 min 0-10 min
Over 80 ton H 10-20 3-6 0-006 max 0-15 max
C P15-P50 50-150 15-45 0-003 min 0-08 min
Manganese H 5-20 1-5-6 0-004-0-006 0-10-0-15
C P15-P50 20-150 6-45 0-004-0-006 0-10-0-15
Stainless martensitic H 40-60 12-18 0-008 max 0-20 max
C P15-P50 100-350 30-105 0-004 min 0-10 min

Stainless austenitic H 20-40 6-12 0-006-0-010 0-15-0-25


C P15-50/K15-40 60-200 18-60 0-004-0-006 0-10-0-15

Non-ferrous

Aluminium H 300-700 90-215 0-005 max 0-13 max


C K05-K25 750-2000 230-610 0-005 max 0-13 max
Aluminium alloys H 150-350 45-105 0-005 max 0-13 max
C K05-K25 400-750 120-230 0-005 max 0-13 max

Brass soft H 300 - 500 90-150 0-01 5 max 0-38 max


C K15-K25 450-700 135-215 0-008-0-010 0-20-0-25

Brass hard H 150-250 45-75 0-010 max 0-25 max


C K05-K25 300-600 90-185 0-008-0-010 0-20-0-25
Bronze ordinary H 100-150 30-45 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K05-K25 300-600 90-185 0-008-0-010 0-20-0-25
Bronze high-tensile H 50-100 15-30 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K05-K25 200-500 60-150 0-008-0-010 0-20-0-25
Copper H 100-150 15-45 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K15-K25 500-700 150-215 0-010-0-012 0-25-0-30

Others
Nickel alloys H 10-50 3-15 0-010 max 0-25 max
C K15-40/P15-50 60-150 18-45 0-004 min 0-10 min
Nimonics H 5-30 1-5-9 0-008 max 0-20 max
C K05 - K40 20-80 6-25 0-003-0-006 0-08-0-15

"ISO classification carbide application group


54
I

Table 10 Milling: tool angles

Material Tool ISO* Radial Axial rake


mat' rake or
angle helix angle
H HSS
C carbide degrees degrees

Cast iron
Soft grey H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K05-K25 . + 5 + 5

Close-grained H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K15-K25 + 5 to + 5
Malleable H + 5 to + 10 + 5 to + 10
C K15-25/P15-25 to + 5 to + 5
Alloyed H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 8
C K15-K35 to + 5 to + 5

Chilled H + 3 to + 5 + 3 to + 5
C K05-K25 + 5 - 5

Steel

Free-cutting mild H + 8 to + 12 + 8 to + 12
C P05-P25 to + 5 to + 5
Up to 40 ton H + 6 to +12 + 3 to + 8
C P15-P25 - 5

40 to 60 ton H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C P15-P35 5 - 5

60 to 80 ton H + 3 to -I- 5 to + 5
C P15-P35 5 -10
Over 80 ton H + 3 to + 5 to + 3
C P15-P50 5 -10
Manganese H + 5 to + 12 to + 5
C P1 5 - P50 + 5 to + 10 - 5 to + 5

Stainless martensitic H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C P15-P50 5 to - 5 to

Stainless austenitic H j_
3 to + 8 -1-
3 to + 5
C P15-50/K15-40 to + 5 to + 5

Non-ferrous
Aluminium H + 10 to + 15 + 10 to + 15
C K05-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 10 to + 15
Aluminium alloys H + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
C K05-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
Brass soft H + 3 to + 5 + 3 to + 5
+ 5
C K1 5 - K25 + 3 to + 5 + 3 to

Brass hard H to + 5 to + 3
C K05-K25 to + 5 to + 3
Bronze ordinary II + 6 to + 10 + 3 to + 5
C K05-K25 + 6 to + 10 + 3 to + 5

Bronze high -tensile H + 3 to + 6 to + 4


C K05-K25 to + 5 to + 5

Copper H 4 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12
C K15-K25 + 10 to + 15 + 8 to + 12

Others
Nickel alloys H + 3 to + 8 + 3 to + 5
C K15-40/P15-50 to -I- 8 - 5 to + 5

Nimonics H + 3 to + 10 + 3 to + 8
C K05-K40 to + 8 to + 8

"ISO classification carbide application group


55
Table 11 Drilling: general data

Material Type Feed Cutting speed Point Lip


of range* angle clearance
drill* angle
ft/min m/min degrees degrees

Cast iron
Soft grey 1 Sor H 100-150 30-45 90 10
Close-grained 1 S 80-90 25-27 118 10

Malleable 1 S 70-80 22-25 118 10

Alloy 1 or 6 Sor L 50-70 15-22 118-130 12

Chilled 1 Sort. 10-25 3-8 1 1 8 - 1 30 10

Steel
Free-cutting mild 1 SorH 100-150 30-45 118 10

Up to 40 ton 1 SorH 80-110 25-35 118 10


40 to 60 ton 1 S 45-70 14-22 118 10

60 to 80 ton 1 or 6 SorL 30-45 9-14 125 12

Over 80 ton 1 or 6 SorL 10-25 3-8 130 6-12


Manganese 6 SorL 5-20 1-5-6 130-140 6-12
Stainless martensitic 1 S 30-50 9-15 118 10
Stainless austenitic 1 SorL 15-40 4-5-12 118-130 10

Non-ferrous
Aluminium 3 SorH 200-300 60-90 100 15

Aluminium alloys 3 SorH 150-250 45-75 100 15

Brass soft 2 SorH 150-250 45-75 118 15

Brass hard 2 S 100-200 30-60 118 15

Bronze ordinary 1 or 2 S 100-200 30-60 118 15

Bronze high-tensile 1 or 2 SorL 70-100 22-30 118 10-15

Copper 5 S 100-200 30-60 100 15

Others
Nickel alloys 1 or 6 SorL 5-40 1-5-12 130 6-12
Nimonics 6 SorL 5-30 1-5-9 130 6-12
Bakelite/vulcanite 4 or 2 S 100-150 30-45 90 10

Other plastics 4 s 100-250 30-75 90 10

* Refer to Table 12

56
5

Table 1 2 Drilling : drill types and feed ranges

1 Standard drill for general purposes 2 For brass, phosphor-bronze and


gun-metal

Narrow
Standard Standard Standard Slow
land
helix core land helix

3 For aluminium and light alloys 4 For plastics

Standard Narrow Narrow


Extra
land land
quick core
helix

5 For copper 6 For manganese and high-tensile materials

Narrow Slow Thick Standard


Quick Standard
land helix core land
helix core

Drill diameter Feed ranges

L-Light S-Standard H- Heavy


in/rev mm/rev in/rev mm/rev in/rev mm/rev
inches

0-001 -0-002 0-04 -0-06 0-002- 0-004 0-06-0-10


1-50- 2-50 Hand Hand
0-002 -0-004 0-05 -0-10 0-004- 0-006 0-10-0-15
2-55- 400 Hand Hand
< - ss
0-04-0-08 0-003 -0-006 0-08 -0-15 0-006- 0-009 0-15-0-23
4-10- 5-50 0-001 -0-003'
ft-*
0-05-0-10 0-004 -0-008 0-10 -0-20 0-008- 0-012 0-20-0-31
a--k 5-60- 800 0-002-0-004
0-08-0- 1 0-006 -0-010 0-15 -0-25 0-010- 0-016 0-25-0-41
21 J 8-10-11-50 0-003-0-006
0-10-0-20 0-008 -0-012 0-20 -0-31 0-012- 0-020 0-31 -0-51
2^1 9.. 11-60-14-50 0-004-0-008
S* - a
0-10-0-23 0-009 -0-013 0-23 -0-33 0-01 3 - 0-022 0-33-0-56
S-tt 14-75-17-50 0-004-0-009
0-13-0-25 0-010 -0-014 0-25 -0-36 0-014- 0-024 0-36-0-61
17-75-21 00 0-005-0-010
0-13-0-28 0-011 -0-015 0-28 -0-38 0-015- 0-026 0-38-0-66
21-25-2400 0-005-0-011
g-ls
0-15-0-31 0-012 -0-016 0-31 -0-41 0-016- 0-028 0-41-0-71
24-25-28-75 0-006-0-012
ft-tj
0-18-0-36 0-014 -0-018 0-36 -0-46 0-018- 0-032 0-46-0-81
29-00-38-00 0-007-0-014
0-016 -0-020 0-41 -0-51 0-020- 0-036 0-51 -0-91
38-50 0-008-0-016 0-20-0-41
11
57
tjp

3. Theory of the
cutting process

A cutting tool should be designed to take maximum Reductions in shear strength, coefficient of friction,
advantage of the forces that the machine applies through hardness, strain hardenability and abrasive inclusions
either the tool or the workpiece. The cutting action in all contribute to improved tool life. Lowering shear
machine tools is not the same as that of a knife. This is strength, hardness or abrasive inclusions has no effect
apparent from their shape: a cutting tool is relatively on surface finish, which is usually improved by reducing
blunt and is able to cut because of the large forces the coefficient of friction or strain hardenability.
applied. Material is removed from the workpiece by a shearing
action which forms a chip of metal. The built-up edge
referred to in Fig 40 is characteristic of one of the three
1 Basic Considerations

The workpiece material has fundamental mechanical


properties that affect the cutting operation. They are:
Metal parting ahead
of cutting edge
1.1 Shear strength under pressure
This should be low, for good machinability.
Built-up edge
1.2 Strain- or work-hardenability
Work-hardening occurs both in the chip and on the cut Compressed top
surface. For good machinability side of chip
it should be low
because it increases the cutting force and therefore
reduces the shear angle, resulting in a thick chip that
rubs the tool face with greater force; this produces
increased abrasive wear of the tool face, leading to
'crater wear'. It increases flank wear also, because of
the higher cutting forces.

1.3 Hardness
This factor also raises the cutting force required, thus
increasing a chip's thickness and the hardness of its

underside. It causes more flank wear because of the


higher cutting forces and the greater heat generation.
Fig 40
The formation of a built-up edge of the workpiece
1.4 Abrasivcness materialis a feature of some machining operations.

Apart from the causes just mentioned, abrasive wear In this illustration and others it is shown in a very
can result from the inclusion of abrasive components stylized manner: its precise form varies, but is more
in the microstructure. simitar to that shown in Fig 43.

58
-

*r^?^>
i"'iv-A"fc 'v

&%&
w~ *} .-7.* -
,;; '" ,--

feS^^S^. **;^\Hr
>;-V. -J^^^tSv!^$&iy't ?*M5>w
0*m^% rj^S3fc"Ti".; ySJyX ff'?/^
'{S-?Jl -.
*i"*''' ^*^
c
'.;'
sJ\ ',
#*c'
A> ; .~*,I
l&X \
'AV/ 1

y'j \
'

::;
"i'..

Typel Type 2 Type 3

Fig 41-43
7V;ree fv/7e\v of chip. At the top is Type 1, the discontinuous or segmental chip. Type 2 is the

simple continuous chip, and Type 3 is the simple continuous chip with built-up edge.

basic types of chip that Hans Ernst* has shown to be cast iron, cast brass and other brittle materials. With
produced when metal is cut. They are as follows: these materials the rubbing action of the chip against
the tool-face may produce an equivalent frictional
Type I Discontinuous or segmental chip
coefficient as high as 1-4. The chip therefore has to
Type 2 Simple continuous chip
overcome high frictional forces, causing rupture of the
Type 3 Simple continuous chip with built-up edge.
brittle material at a point between the workpiece/chip
Two mechanisms are common to the formation of
junction and the area of contact between chip and tool-
all three types of chip: form of a
face. High chip-friction produces wear in the
a) Plastic deformation of the metal by the cutting
crater on the tool face at the area of contact. In
tool, resulting in the formation of the chip
addition, the high cutting forces cause work-hardening
b) Escape of the chip by sliding over the tool face
of the underside of the chip, which also increases the
against strong frictional resistance.
tool-face wear in the contact area. The segmental chip
is also commonly encountered in the machining of soft
materials when either the rake angle is too low or feed

2 The 'Type V Chip Discontinuous or is too high.

Segmental
This the type usually obtained in the machining of
is
3 The 'Type 2' Chip - Simple Continuous
This is the most desirable type of chip for steels of all
* ERNST,HANS "Physics of Metal Cutting" Machining of Metals,
types, and also for other materials that do not fracture
American Society for Metals, 1938, pp 1-34.

Table 13 Factors in chip formation

Detail Type 2 chip Type 3 chip


simple, continuous simple, continuous with built-up edge

Rake angle Sufficient to promote c Insufficientforthe material


being machined
Friction between
tool and workpiece Low High

Cutting speed Correct Incorrect usually too low


Tool condition Sharp Blunt

Feed Correct Too high

Cutting fluid Efficient Inefficient

59
:

Large
shear
angle <j>

Long path
of shear

Shear stress Ss

Tool

Compressive stress Sn
T
Workpiece

Fig 44
Correlation of the furious factors that influence chip and is the friction angle of the resultant force R t produced,
geometry. It can be seen that (top left: a large shear angle by the direct force N on the tool and the factional
produces a short path of shear and a thin chip, whereas a force F of the chip sliding over the toolface; tan equals
small shear angle has the opposite effects. Shear angle p, the coefficient of friction between the chip and tool-

</> is itself influenced by the machining constant C, the face. The diagram lower right shows the force system
friction angle I) and the rake angle y. of the tool. Their existing in the production of a Type. 2 chip.

relationship is i\. is the cutting force, acting in the direction of motion


<p = \(C-0 + 0() of the tool relative to the workpiece.
where C represents the rate of change of shear stress with F, is thrust force, the component acting in a direction
applied, compressive stress (graph, lower left), both perpendicular to /',. and to the cutting edge.

of them measured as mean rallies along the shear Fs is shear farce along the shear plane.
plane Fa is compressive force in the shear plane.

60
while being separated from the parent metal. The
process of plastic deformation that takes place ahead
of the tool involves internal shear over a narrow zone,
extending from the cutting edge to the work surface.

Chip thickness is determined by the angle of shear at


this point.

If this angle is small, the metal is deformed into a


short, thick chip. For a given feed, the thicker the chip
jVVorkpiece
the lower its escape speed over the tool face, which may
be as low as 25% of cutting speed. The lower the chip
speed, the more likely is the creation of ideal pressure-
welding conditions. More time is available to conduct

heat from chip to tool, thus increasing tool temperature


and the danger of welding. This leads to increasing Heat distribution in tool and workpiece
crater wear.
If the shear angle is large, however, the chip is thin, Built-up 1 300"C
indicating little deformation of the metal. Since this edge
deformation consumes energy, large shear angles and
thin, relatively undeformed chips are desirable (see
600C
Fig 44). Hrnst and Merchant* have shown that for a
large value of shear angle, and hence low tool-forces,
400C
the friction between chip and tool should be low. It is
of interest that the underside of a Type 2 chip has a Temperature distribution in
single-point cutting tool
polished surface similar to the surface of the workpicce.

Fig 45
Sections through a single-point tool, to indicate dis-
4 The 'Type 3' Chip - Simple tribution of the heat generated by the cutting process.
Continuous, with Built-up Edge The top illustration shows that the greater proportion
goes into the chip, and the lower one that highest tempera-
Some of the heat generated by the cutting process is
tures occur not at the tool point but some way back along
transmitted to the chip, some remains in the workpiece,
the top face.
and the remainder is concentrated at the tool tip. The
chip absorbs 70% of the heat, so the need exists to

minimize contact between chip and tool. It has been


estimated that pressures here can reach 35 000 kg/cm2 when it reaches a critical size for the conditions, breaks

(500 000 lb/in 2 ); normal temperatures can reach 600C off- usually attached to the underside of the chip.This
(1 1 12F) at the tip and up to 1 300C (2 372F) at the hard built-up edge adhering to the chip rubs with great
chip/tool interface (see Fig 45). The combination of force against the tool face, contributing to further

high pressures and virgin surfaces create ideal pressure- crater wear. The cycle then repeats itself. Each cycle

welding conditions, and small particles detach them- takes a very short time, and the built-up edges occur
selves from the chip and become welded to the tool. at close, regular intervals along the underside of the

This leads to the formation of a built-up edge with a chip.

very hard skin produced by the work-hardening and the The effect is roughness on the machined surface, as
continuous heating and cooling encountered in the if the chip had been torn from the metal. Moreover the
cutting operation. workpicce surface is work-hardened, making subsequent
Built-up edges can be either advantageous or detri- cutting operations more difficult. This cycle has a
mental lo the cutting process. If a small built-up edge serious effect on the tool: regular heating of the surface

forms and remains on the tool tip, it protects the tip when Ihe built-up edge breaks away, followed by the

from abrasive wear and insulates it from some of the insulation afforded by the new build-up, causes thermal

heat generated, so tool life is substantially prolonged. shock and reduction in toughness. But a bigger dis-

However, if the built-up edge continues to grow, it advantage is the fact that, when the built-up edge

first damages the surface of the workpiece and then, breaks away, it takes with it particles of the tool surface

to which it has been welded: this leads eventually to


wear and failure of the tool tip (Fig 46).
* ernst, hans, and merchant, m. eugi-ne: Chip Formation, Some of the factors influencing the formation of
Friction and Finish, Cincinnati Milling Machine Co. 1941
(Publication M-989).
Type 2 and Type 3 chips are shown in Table 13.

61
Chip rubbing
top surface of tool

Hard 'built-up edge' welded to underside of chip


ncreases rubbing wear on top surface of tool

Built-up edge
takes part of tool surface
when breaking away;
repetition causes
breakdown of cutting edge

Parting-off tool
Effect of high chip pressure
on top face of tool

Weakened tool-point will


probably fail along line x - x
Fig 46
Representation of single-point cutting
action: the effects of chip pressure and
the built-up edge on the tool tip.

62
Multi-spindle drilling of the aluminium cylinder-head of a motorcycle: fourteen holes are drilled in
one downward
work-holding towards the operator
movement of the drill-head. For ease of loading and removal, the fixture is tilted

between cycles. Its hinged clamping-plate, on the left, incorporates hardened-steel bushes that act as drilling guides

and ensure positional accuracy for the drills.


63
These close-up photographs of cutting edges show
typical patterns of wear and build-up on various tool
materials.

High-speed steel: flank wear (left) and crater wear


(below).

Ceramic tools: flank wear (left) and crater wear (below).

Carbide tools: two examples of built-up edge.

64
(jp

4. Mechanics of
metal cutting

torque applied by the machine fluc-


1 Component Forces and Power vertically. If the

tuates, the tangential force also fluctuates, and this


Requirements sets up tool vibrations, which cause chatter marks, and

The total force involved in a single-point turning in turn spoil the surface finish and militate against

especially undesirable where


operation can be divided into three components - accuracy. Vibration is

tangential, axial and radial (Fig 47). Tangential force, carbide or ceramic tools are used, because these ex-

the one normally used in calculations of tremely brittle materials can shatter. Although some
the largest, is

deflect the tool vibration will always be present it can be virtually


power consumption. This force tends to

Fig 47
The three components of force acting
on a tool.

Axial force
Radial force

Tangential force
65
Losses in Losses in Power to Power available
motor h11%
''':
drive 18 feed 5/ for mach n ng 70% i i

Fig 48
Typical distribution ofpower in a lathe.

eliminated by minimizing overhang of the tool. If Tangential force =A x P


vibration persists despite all practical efforts at elimina- Where A is cross-sectional area of chip

tion, tangential force must be reduced. This can be done and P is specific cutting pressure for the workpiece
by removing less metal per unit of time - by reducing material.

the feed, depth of cut or speed. Values of P for various metals are given in Table 14.

The power required at the workpiece can be cal-


culated from the formula
Table 14 SXT
HP-
Specific cutting pressures 33 000
where S is surface speed in ft/min of the workpiece at
the cutting tool, and T is tangential force in lb (A x P).
Material P
S X A x P
1 000 1000 Therefore HP required =
lb/in* kg/cm s 33 000

Aluminium 90 6-35 Example: To find the forces acting on a tool and the
HP required to take a cut 0-125 in deep with a feed of
Brass 140 9-85
0-040 in/rev cutting mild steel at 350 ft/min.

Cast iron 150 10-55 T= A x P


A= 0-125 in X 0-040 in
Mild steel 200 14-10
P = 200 000 lb/in for mild steel 2

Medium carbon steel ?50 17-60 T = 200 000 x 0- 125 x 0-040


= 1 000 lb
NiCrsteel (50 ton) 350 24-70
350 x 1 000
HP = = 10-6
NiCr steel (60 70 ton) 500 35-20 33 000

66
Force

350"

150-

"r-
VE +VE 45 Rake angle

F'g 49
tangential force
A graph showing that with progressive reduction of rake angle the
machining.
required rises, as therefore does the power requiredfor

strength. Exceptions to this recommendation occur in


have to
The horsepower of the machine-tool motor will
and where
losses. instances such as the machining of Nimonics
be greater than this to allow for transmission shows a
Power required for cutting 'throw-away' carbide tips are used. Figure 49
Motor HP required - typical effect of rake-angle change on cutting force.
0verall transmiss ion efficiency

For a centre lathe the power available is approximately

70 % of the input to the motor.


Fig 48 gives typical power distribution figures for a 3 Effect of Feed on Cutting Force
lathe. cutting
Increased feed has a better effect on tangential
force, in terms of metal removal,
than increased depth
or the speed is
of cut or cutting speed. If the depth of cut
2 Effect of Rake on Cutting Force doubled, the power required is doubled, but if
the feed
is increased by only
is doubled, the power required
Tangential force is greatly influenced by rake angle.
tan-
60-70%. When speed is increased, however, the
Negative rake imposes a penalty in terms of higher
to use gential force on the tool decreases but the tendency
tangential force, so almost invariably it is better
to vibration and chatter may rise.
the maximum positive rake consistent with tool

67
.

fUjp

5. Cutting-tool materials

To cut effectively and provide acceptable tool life, the 1 High-Carbon Steels
cutting-tool material must of course be harder than the
(and Cast Alloy Steels)
material being cut. Cutting tools are generally classified
according to hardness. Materials most frequently en- These give the poorest performance of the cutting-tool
countered are materials listed, so their use is restricted mainly to
relatively soft workpiece materials and low rates of
High-carbon and cast alloy steels
metal removal.
High-speed steel (HSS) - hardness 62-68 Rockwell C.
High-carbon steels are still used for large form-tools,
- hardness 65 Rockwell C.
Stellitc
for both turning and milling, when more expensive
Cemented or sintered carbides
materials would be justified only for large outputs.
- hardness 88-93 Rockwell C.
Because of their size these larger tools are made from
Carbide ceramics (cermets)
castings rather than from the more usual rolled, drawn
Ceramics
or forged stock - hence the reference to cast alloy steels.
Diamond

The requirements of a cutting-tool material are

Abrasion resistance
2 High-Speed Steels
Hot hardness
Toughness Originally these steels were made with 0-7% carbon
High compressive strength together with about 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and
High transverse rupture strength 1 % vanadium. The need for better hot hardness and
Chemical inertness abrasion resistance has led to the introduction of im-

High thermal conductivity proved steels with higher proportions of carbon and

Low thermal expansion other alloying elements (for example cobalt and more

High modulus of elasticity.


vanadium) see Table 1 5. Parallel with this, molybdenum
has become more important in recent years as an ex-

None of the materials listed is outstanding in all these cellent substitute for tungsten, and molybdenum-base
properties. High-speed steel is usually poor in respect high-speed steels have gained wide acceptance as

of abrasion resistance, hot hardness, chemical inertness, standard cutting-tool materials.

thermal conductivity and thermal expansion. Carbides


normally lack toughness and have low transverse
rupture strength and modulus of elasticity. Ceramics
3 Stellite
also are deficient in these respects and their thermal

conductivity is low as well The Stellite range of cutting-tool materials is a pro-


Hot hardness is very important because during the prietary range comprising various non-ferrous alloys of
cutting process the very high temperatures developed cobalt, chromium and tungsten, together with small
tend to soften tool materials and cause failure of the quantities of other elements such as carbon, boron and
cutting edge. Fig 50 shows the hot hardness of various vanadium. The alloys are particularly heat-resistant, and
tool materials. their hot-hardness is maintained up to about 800C

68
(nearly 1 500F). In the overall sphere of cutting-lool proportions according to the cutting operations or

materials they occupy a position somewhere between workpiece materials for which they are intended.
and carbides - particularly in situations Tungsten carbide is particularly suitable for cutting cast
high-speed steels

where the production required is greater than can be iron and non-ferrous alloys such as copper and brass.

obtained from high-speed steels but where the difficulty Tungsten-titanium carbide is used for a wide range of

of operation could cause chipping of carbides. metals including steel, bronze and aluminium alloys.

Titanium carbides, containing no tungsten, have been


developed to give much higher wear-resistance than
normal tungsten carbide. Cutting speeds 5 to 10 times
4 Cemented (Sintered) Carbides those used with high-speed steel can be obtained. These

The development of cemented carbides (in 1928) gave materials are bonded with nickel or iron, and in some of
rise to the biggest leap forward in cutting-tool perform- them a second constituent is molybdenum carbide.

ance since the introduction of high-speed steels. Classification of cemented carbides is a problem

Cemented carbides are relatively expensive, so carbide because each manufacturer adheres to his own specifica-

tips are usually brazed or clamped to steel shanks or tions of analysis, grain-size and so on. However, the
bodies. The such "carbide tools' consist of tung-
tips of user's choice is made easy by a system adopted by the

sten carbide or titanium carbide embedded in a matrix International Standards Organization (ISO). In this
system, set out in Table 16, the deciding factor is not the
of cobalt, and other alloying elements are added in

Key
Table 1 5 Constitution of high-speed steels C carbon
W tungsten
Mo molybdenum
Cr chromium
V vanadium
Application Nominal composition (% wt) Co cobalt
C W Mo Cr V Co

Molybdenum base
General tools, 0-80 1-50 8-50 4-00 1-00
0-85 6-00 5-00 4-00 2-00
light and
0-85 8-00 4-00 2-00
medium duty

1-75 8-75 4-00 2-00


Medium duty 1-00

0-80 6-00 5-00 4-00 2-00 5-00


Heavy duty 0-80 6-00 5-00 4-00 2-00 8-00

For machining of 3-00 4-75 5-00 5-00


1-50 6-60
abrasive materials 1-50 9-50 3-75 1-15 8-00
1-10
and general finishing

Tungsten base

General tools, light


0-75 18-00 4-00 1-00
and medium duty

Medium duty 0-85 18-00 4-00 2-00

0-75 18-00 4-00 1-00 5-00


Heavy duty 0-80 19-00 4-00 2-00 9-00

For machining of 1-50 12-50 4-60 5-00 5-00


abrasive materials 1-30 9-00- 3-00 4-00 3-00 9-00
and general finishing
69
: :

type of carbide but its application, and there are three In general, grades in the K group are straight tung-
groups with prefix letters P, M and K. (ISO recom- sten carbide/cobalt; those in the P group are based on
mendation R513-1966). tungsten carbide with additions of titanium tantalum
The number after the letter symbol rises as the tough- carbide; and those in the M group - intended for
ness of the carbide rises and the hardness falls: PIO is general applications - are based on titanium carbide or
tougher than P01, and K30 is harder than K40, for titanium tungsten carbide.
example. Manufacturers follow the ISO classifications

but not in exactly the same manner: one manufacturer


might produce Grade X and classify it as P20, but
another's Grade Y might be classified as
identical
5 Ceramics
PI 5-25. This means that a P20 from one firm is not
necessarily the same as a P20 from another, and These were first introduced commercially in 1950 and
although the two carbides might perform equally well hence are a relatively recent entrant into the field of
under proper machining conditions there could well be metal cutting. They comprise a tip of refractory oxide
significant performance differences in particular applica- (Alundum, for example) bound with a cement and
tions. mounted in a very rigid tool-shank, preferably made ofa

Table 1 6 Classification of cemented carbides

Workpiece materials ISO* Application

Steels and ferrous metals P01 Fine finish turning and boring. No vibration, high speeds,
with long chips small chip sections

P10 Finish- turning etc. High speeds, small/medium chip


sections

P20 Light planing and milling. Medium cutting speeds and


chip sections

P30 Medium/low cutting speeds, medium/large chip sections,


unfavourable conditions

P40 Low cutting speeds, large chip sections, unfavourable


conditions

P50 Low cutting speeds, very large chip sections, very


unfavourable conditions

Ferrous metals with long M10 Turning. Medium/high speeds, small/medium chip sectio
or short chips
non-ferrous metals. M20 Turning and milling. Medium speeds and chip sections

M30 Turning, milling and planing. Medium speeds and


medium/large chip sections

M40 Medium/low speeds, large chip sections

Ferrous metals with short KOI High-speed fine finishing


chips non-ferrous metals
:

non-metallic materials K10 Medium- high-speed finishing

K20 Medium-speed roughing

K30 Heavy duty

K40 Very heavy duty

*/.S.O. classification carbide application group.

70
They have low thermal conductivity, and the carbides; their transverse rupture strength is higher than
carbide.
friction at the tool-chip interface is lower than with that of ceramics but lower than carbides. They are most

Very high cutting speeds, in the commonly used for cast iron and the lower-grade
other tool materials.
Nimonics.
range of 600-750 m/min (2 000-2 500 ft/min), are pos-
sible with ceramic tools, but they are brittle and their

cutting edges chip easily; moreover they have poor


shock and vibration, and therefore are not
resistance to
7 Integral and Throw-away Tool-tips
suitable for intermittent or vibratory cuts.
One of the chief drawbacks in the economic use of Until the advent of carbide cutting materials, every

ceramic tools is the lack of machine tools on which cutter and tool was made of one piece of metal through-
sufficiently high cutting speeds can be obtained; in the out. A great many tools are still made that way, but the
instances where sufficient speed is obtainable, spindle- widespread use of highly developed cutting materials

bearing sizes are usually inadequate, and so vibration has led to the growing popularity of tools in which the
of different material from the body. One
occurs. A ceramic tool must be made to work: tool cutting tip is

reason, of course, that the harder materials are more


loads must be high, and abundant power must be avail-
is

that the physical characteristics


able. More machines suitable for these tools are now
expensive. Another is

required at the tip are very different from those in the


being produced.
body: the shank or holder is required to be tough and
able to withstand bending and twisting forces, whereas
the tip is likely to be relatively brittle and therefore
6 Carbide Ceramics (Cermets) unsuitable.

In some applications where carbide tips wear too rapidly As was already mentioned, some carbide tips are
but ceramics suffer from chipping, the most satis- brazed and others clamped in place. At the end of its
factory tool materials are the carbide ceramics. They are service life the brazed-on tip may be removed from the

aluminium oxide) and tool body and a new tip brazed in its place. Tools with
mixtures of oxides (usually

Vickers hardness Temperature -F


2500

1200

Fig 50 Temperature "C


Variation of hardness with temperature, for various tool materials.

71
brazed-on tips are used in a wide variety of machining
operations, among them turning, boring, reaming,
milling and drilling.

All the tips in the ceramic and cermet range are


clamped in place, because the heat of brazing would
crack them. They and the carbide clamped-on tips are

known as 'throw-away' tips because, once used, the


great majority are not rcground; users are thus able to
economize on grinding costs. One of the virtues of the
throw-away tip, however, is that it can be made of
regular section - square or triangular - and at intervals

turned to present a fresh cutting edge. It is possible, for

example, for a square tip to have eight cutting edges.

Fig 51 8 Measurement of Hardness


A typical clamped-on throw-away tip. In another design The most widely employed standard methods for
the tip is located in a shallow seat and clamped by a short measuring the hardness of metals are the Brinell, Vickers
arm secured to the body by a screw. and Rockwell tests.

Form-milling. The profile of the cutter is ground to the

precise outline required on the workpiece clamped to the


table. Here the coolant in use is a plain soluble oil.

72
Table 17 Hardness conversions for steel: Vickers to Rockwell C

Vickers Rockwell Vickers Rockwell Vickers Rockwell

900 677 670 58-9 440 45-1

890 67-3 660 58-5 430 44-3

880 67-0 650 580 420 43-5

870 66-6 640 57-6 410 42-6

860 66-3 630 57-1 400 41-7

850 65-9 620 56-7 390 40-8

840 65-5 610 56-2 380 398


830 65-2 600 55-7 370 38-8

820 64-8 590 55-3 360 37-8

810 64-4 580 54-8 350 36-8

800 64-0 340 35-7

790 63-7 330 34-5

780 63-3 320 33-4

770 62-9 540 52-4 310 32-2

760 62-5 530 51-8 300 30-9

750 62-1 520 51 -1 290 29-6

740 61-7 510 50-4 280 28-2

730 61-3 500 49-7 270 26-7

720 60-9 490 490 260 25-1

710 60-5 480 48-2 250 23-5

700 60-1 470 47-5 245 22-7

690 59-7 460 46-7 240 21-8

680 59-3 450 45-9 235 20-9


230 20

In the Brinell method, a hard-steel ball 10 mm The Rockwell A scale uses a diamond-cone pene-
diameter is applied hydraulically under a standard load trator with a minor load of 10 kg and a major load of
of 3 000 kg for not less than 30 seconds, to leave a 60 kg, and the 'B' scale has a hard steel ball of -& in

circular indentation in the surface of the specimen. The diameter with a minor load of 10 kg and major load of

Brinell Hardness Number is expressed as the load on 100 kg. The C scale, which is most often
the one used

the ball (kg) divided by the area of indentation (mm 2). for cutting-tool materials, uses a diamond cone and a
For convenience, a chart is used to give the hardness minor load of 10 kg, but its major load is 150 kg.

number relevant to the diameter of the indentation. Various manufacturers have their own preferences

The Vickers method is similar in principle, except about methods used for quoting hardness, but the
that a load of 10 kg or 30 kg is applied. A diamond Vickers 30 kg and Rockwell C scales are the most

pyramid is used for indenting, and the square impression popular in the context of cutting-tool materials.

is measured diagonally, for greater accuracy. The Unfortunately the two scales cannot be accurately
resultant figure is sometimes quoted as the VPN or correlated because the relationship varies with the

Vickers Pyramid Number. In the Rockwell tester material being measured, and can be influenced by

either a hard-steel ball or a diamond-cone penetrator is other factors. Moreover for the ultra-hard products

used,and the hardness number is indicated directly on a manufacturers usually quote one scale or the other.

dial. is a two-stage method in which a shallow


This As a result of all these considerations the table
indentation is first made by a 'minor' load of 10 kg. above can be regarded merely as a general guide and
Then a 'major' load is applied and relaxed, until the applicable to steels of up to only 900 Vickers hardness.

load is again 10 kg. The difference in the depths of the In this chapter hardness figures are quoted in the Rock-

two indentations is taken as the measure of hardness, well scale for high-speed steel, Stellite and carbide, and

and an increase of 0-002 mm corresponds to a decrease the graph indicates Vickers figures for four groups of

of one unit in Rockwell hardness. materials. No attempt is made to quote equivalents.


73

9 The Identification Marking of Grinding


Grain-sizes available
Wheels
Coarse 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24
The selection of grinding wheels is a highly specialized Medium 30, 36, 46, 54, 60
business in which knowledge and experience count for Fine 70, 80, 90, 100,120, 150, 180
much. To distinguish between wheels a standardized Very fine 220,240,280,320,400,500, 600
marking system is used and is briefly described below.
ISO Recommendation
Fuller details are contained in
R525 Marking of Grinding Wheels, and in British Position 3 - the grade, which denotes the strength of
Standard Specification BS 4481:1969 Part 1 Bonded the bond; letters from A to Z range from softest to
Abrasive Products. hardest. The choice of grade is related to the grinding
operation, because with too soft a bond the unworn
Every grinding wheel carries a coded combination of grains are released and the wheel wears too quickly;
numbers and letters, for example too hard a bond causes grains to remain after they
have worn, and the wheel becomes dull.

Position 4 - spacing of grains within the bond; in


51 A 36 L 5 V 21 other words, the structure of the wheel. Numbers
from to 14 range from closest to widest spacings,

although higher numbering is also used for excep-


tionally 'open' structures.

These seven symbols are identified positionally thus- An open structure usually cuts longer - it acts as a
harder wheel - but other factors (cutting rate, surface

finish etc) may suffer. The selection, as with so many


other things, is a compromise.
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6
Code 51 A 36 L 5 V 21 Position 5 - nature of the bond, which is indicated by
a lettered code -

Position - optional prefix of the manufacturer, to Code


indicate the nature of the abrasive. V vitrified

s silicate

Position 1 - classification of the abrasive type (A for R rubber


aluminium abrasives, B for silicon carbide etc.) B resinoid (synthetic resin)
BF resinoid - reinforced

Position 2 - grain size, which is measured by grading E shellac

through a sieve; number of meshes per


this is the Mg magnesium
linear inch through which the grains can pass. With
progressively finer grain-size there is better surface
finish on the workpiece but lower rate of metal Position 6 - optional suffix used by manufacturers for
removal. their own identification.

74
tap

6. Tool wear and tool life

are often combined, and they can also lead to complete


1 Tool Wear tip failure. Flank wear always occurs and, unlike crater
During service, of course, cutting tools lose their wear, is relatively easy to measure; so it is commonly
efficiency. Regrinding is required because of flank wear used as a parameter of tool life.

or crater wear, or a combination of them. They lead to Fig 52 is a typical graph of flank wear against
deterioration of and accuracy, and to
surface finish machining time; it shows that flank wear is initially

increased power requirement. Flank and crater wear rapid, then slower but steady until it reaches 089 mm

Flank wear- 0001 in Flank wear -

100-

80-

60-

40-

20-

"
'
""'""* l I i

10 20 30
Fig 52 Machining time - min
A typical curve of tool-wear against tool-life.

75

(0035 in) ; subsequently il accelerates disproportionately lead to the generation of high temperatures in the tool.
to the increase in machining time. Fig 53 indicates the maximum flank wear permissible
Additional modes of failure are exhibited by the more before regrinding, if optimum life is to be achieved.
brittle tool materials, for example carbides and If these flank-wear figures are exceeded, wear increases
ceramics disproportionately to the extra life obtained between
Crumbling cutting edges regrinds, and catastrophic failure is risked; this reduces
Thermal cracking the number of regrinds possible and therefore the
'Crazing' of flank and face overall tool life. Lower values of maximum flank wear

arc often used where surface finish or accuracy are


Crumbling cutting edges arc the result of the selection paramount. See page 64 for photographs of flank wear
of the wrong carbide for the metal being cut, of weak and crater wear.
edges caused by excessive rake and relief angles, and of
vibration due to inadequacies of the machine or
cutting-tool mounting. Thermal cracking is usually due
to interrupted or intermittent coolant supply, which
2 Tool Life
causes the tool tip to be alternately heated and cooled,
and so sets up thermal stresses. If a coolant is used it To the production engineer, tool life may mean
must already be flowing when cutting begins, and must different things according to his particular requirements.

be in a generous and uninterrupted supply. 'Crazing' Some of the standards forjudging tool life are
of flank and face is usually the result of poor grinding
techniques during preparation of the tool tip; it is Volume of metal removed between regrinds
caused by thermal stresses due to the use of incorrect Cutting time between regrinds
or poorly maintained grinding wheels. Both factors Number of workpicccs machined between regrinds
Cutting speed (the maximum speed at which the
metal can be removed - known as the Taylor speed)
for a given tool life

Relationship of cutting-tool life to that of other tools


(say drills and taps) in the production cycle.

Cutting speed is the variable with by far the greatest


influence on tool life. F W Taylor, after a great number
of experiments, showed that the approximate relation-
ship between tool life and cutting speed could normally
be represented by the empirical equation

VTn = C
where V == cutting speed
T= cutting time between tool regrinds, in

Flank wear minutes


C = a constant whose value depends on
workpiece material and machine vari-
ables. It is numerically equal to a
Tool Maximum permissible
cutting speed that gives a tool life of one
material flank wear
minute; that is, the maximum per-
missible flank wear (Fig 53) occurs in

Tungsten one minute. The value of C is constant


Carbide 0-8/0-9 mm 0-030/0-035 in for an operation in which only the
cutting speed is changed
High-speed n = exponent whose value varies with
Steel 1-0 mm 0-040 In
tool and work materials, and with
Ceramic 0-5 mm 0-020 in
other machine variables.

Fig 53 If a series of turning tests were carried out on a metal in


Overall tool-life is a balance of the intervals between which all parameters except cutting speed V were held
regrindsand the number of regrinds possible. The figures constant, a definite value of tool-life T at failure would
given here show maximum permissible wear before be obtained at each speed. These points plotted on
grindings, if an economical life is to be obtained. Cartesian co-ordinates generate a hyperbolic curve

76
.

Cutting speed

Basic forrri of Taylor curve

Fig 54
The Taylor curve demonstrates that with increased
cutting speed the tool-life is decreased; this is true for
most materials. In the establishment of this curve the
parameters of tool material, tool geometry, feed rate,

depth of cut and tool-failure criterion were kept constant.

Variables were cutting speed and the relevant tool-life to


maximum permissible flank wear (see Fig 53)

Tool life

Cutting speed log V


A
Taylor curve plotted on log-log basis
::':'. 'SS3.
..
''...

Fig 55
I The same values plotted on logarithmic scales
produce a straight line, and the slope of the line
. is the exponential factor n, which is used as a
; measure of a tool material's performance.

Tool life log T


77

(Fig 54). If the points are plotted on a log-log scale they Values of the constant n are not readily available for
produce a straight line (Fig 55). the many makes and grades of carbide marketed.

The equation of a straight line on Cartesian co- Values in the range 0-167 to 0-41 have been published,
ordinates is but those for carbides in most common use lie between
y = mx + b 0-25 and 040* The value of the constant C is not easy
On a log-log scale it is to obtain but can be determined experimentally for

logy m logx j logb each material. The experimental conditions would have
to be arranged so that maximum permissible flank wear
The slope of the experimental V T line on the log-log
(Fig 53) is reached in one minute. Tourretf quotes
basis is negative, which means that the factor n is
values of C between 250 and 800.
negative. Therefore, if the absolute value of the slope is
The cutting speed (V,) forminimum-cost production,
n, the formula for the experimental log-log line becomes
and the corresponding cutting-edge life (Tm), can
logV = -n logT + logC
Reverting to the non-logarithmic form
V = T- x C Production Engineering Research Association of Great Britain,
Report No. 136.
or
tTOURRBT, r: The Performance of Metal Cutting Tools;
VT" =C Butlerworth Scientific Publications, London, 195S.

Vertical broaching. The broach is pulled downwards


through the bore of the workpiece, which rests in a
fixture. In one pass the cutting action forms an internal
spline, as seen in the finished component in the back-
ground. The coolant is an active EP neat oil.

78
be related to any other cutting speed and corresponding 0-167. The example illustrated assumes a cutting speed
cutting-edge life as follows: of 120 m/min (400 ft/min) for a tool life of 30 minutes.
Vm Tm n = VT" A line drawn parallel to the existing lines on the graph
Therefore if we know C and the economic tool life shows that as cutting speed is reduced to 90 m/min
we can calculate the cutting speed, and vice versa. (300 ft/min) the tool life rises to 150 minutes, and if

Fig 56 is a typical example of a log-log tool-life/ cutting speed is further reduced to 60 m/min (200 ft/min)
cutting-speed chart. The value of n has been taken as the tool life becomes I 800 minutes.

Fig 56
A chart for determining the effect
of change of cutting speed on tool
life. This is plotted on logarithmic

scales, and a value of 0-167 is

assumed for the exponential factor


n. The doited line refers to one
particular condition, explained in
the accompanying text.

10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 800 1 000

Cutting speed ft/min

79
tjjp

7 Factors affectin;

machinability

The characteristic or behaviour of a metal when it is the chip tears away from the parent metal. Brittle

being cut is called machinability - a property that materials can vary in grain size, and are difficult to cut

varies widely according to the type of metal. Machin- but relatively easy to finish.

ability is not easy to define, since the criteria for assess-


ing it vary with the particular requirements of the
production engineer. If tool-life is the objective, then
3 Hardness
'good machinability' means long tool-life. If high rates
of cutting are required, rapid production allied to The hardness of a metal depends on many factors: for

reasonable tool-life presuppose good machinability. example its composition, its structure and the treatment

Another definition of machinability might be 'case of it has undergone before machining. Hardness is usually

obtaining good surface finish'. Some of the characteris- defined as a metal's resistance to indentation. An
tics that influence machinability are discussed in the indenter made of diamond or hardened steel is pressed

following paragraphs. into the prepared surface of a metal specimen under


specified conditions of load, rate of application and
time. Particulars are given on page 73. The depth or
area of indentation is compared with that of similar
1 Microstructure metals, to give relative hardness. The probable machin-
This refers to the arrangement of the crystals or grain ability can then be deduced the hardness and ductility
:

structure of a metal. Metals of similar microstructure of similar metals are related, so it is possible to predict

generally have similar machining properties, but small from data obtained whether a metal machines easily and
changes in microstructure can greatly affect machin- whether it can take a good finish. Hardness is related to
ability. Sections of the same bar, or of metal produced strength, and therefore the hardness number also gives

from the same 'melt' often display very wide differences some indication of the cutting pressures required.

in machinability owing to inclusions (particles of


foreign matter) or to variations in grain structure. For
good tool life the grain structure of a given batch of
4 Metallurgical Condition due to Heat
metal must be uniform.
Treatment
During manufacture most metals pass through cycles
of heating and cooling. Many of these cycles form an
2 Grain Size essential part of production processes, but others are

This cannot be taken to indicate the likely machin- carried out to refine the microstructure or to modify it

ability of a metal, except that a regular intermediate to the form necessary for its eventual purpose. For

size grain gives the best results. Ductile metals may have instance, electrical properties can be changed, the metal

fine or coarse grain-structures, but they cut easily; can be made ductile or tough, and machinability can be
however a good finish cannot easily be obtained because influenced.

80
5 Metallurgical Condition due to required characteristics of the alloy, but in special
cases it may be as high as 0-6 %.
Manipulation
Production operations such as drawing, rolling and Lead (Pb) Lead in steels, from 0-15 to 0-35%, gives a
forging - - which sometimes call for pre-heating - have an very good free-machining metal without affecting the
important influence on the final structure of a metal, basic mechanical properties.

and therefore on its physical characteristics. The user


must know the physical and thermal treatment a metal Manganese (Mn) The effect of manganese on steel is

has undergone before deciding on the method of similar to that of carbon. High manganese-content
machining. steels are hard, and are difficult to machine because

they work-harden. For the best machining properties


the manganese content should be 0-7 to 1-3%.
Where the carbon content is high, the manganese
6 Chemical Composition content should be restricted to the lower end of this
The structure and mechanical properties of an alloy are range; conversely if the carbon content is low, the

determined basically by chemical composition. Alloying manganese content may be higher.

elements in a metal have a strong influence on its

machinability; the following are examples of elements Silicon (Si) Machinability decreases as silicon content

most commonly used for this purpose. increases.

Carbon (C) Carbon steels with the best machinability Phosphorus (P) This element improves machinability if

have a carbon content of 0-3 to 0-6 %. Below this the content is between 0-02 and 0-06%, but the
range the steels are too ductile, and a good finish is benefit is not very great.
difficult to obtain; above it they are hard and
brittle, and difficult to machine. Other elements such as chromium, vanadium, nickel
and molybdenum are added to steel to improve heat-
Sulphur (S) Sulphur improves the machinability of steels, resistance, corrosion-resistance, hardness and toughness,
and is added in controlled quantities to give free- and other mechanical properties. All these elements
machining steels. Normally the quantity of sulphur reduce machinability, so in some cases alloys containing
added is from 01 to 0-3%, according to the them must be softened by heat treatment.
<3?

8. Machining characteristics
of various metals

So far we have dealt largely with the factors influencing which improves machinability. Lead enhances the
machining operations, without becoming deeply in- machinability of a steel without affecting its basic

volved in the practical considerations. Now we move on mechanical properties if the concentration is between

to the machine settings, mainly cutting speeds and feed 015 and 0-35%. Other elements that improve machin-

rates. Tables 5-12 contain the relevant data for turning, ability are selenium and tellurium.
milling and drilling of virtually all the common and
1.3 Alloy steels
exotic metals encountered in industry. The following
information on machining These contain small quantities of one or more of a
notes provide basic
number of elements, among which are chromium,
characteristics.
cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten and vanadium.
These elements increase hardness, toughness, wear
resistance and corrosion resistance, but the resulting
1 Ferrous Metals
alloys are usually more difficult to machine and their

cutting pressures are higher. Cutting-tool materials


1.1 Plain carbon steels
and design requirements have to be superior to those
These vary in machinability according to carbon content.
up to for plain-carbon and free-machining steels.
As previously indicated they generally contain
0-6% carbon, the only alloying element introduced
1.4 Chromium stainless steels
specifically to influence physical properties. However,
These are more difficult to machine than carbon steels.
various other elements such as silicon, manganese and
If they have a content of from 12 to 18% chromium
sulphur are inevitably present; the manganese and
%
and from 0- 12 to 0-35 carbon they are not too difficult
sulphur contents are relatively consistent, and help to
to machine, and the addition of sulphur, phosphorus or
enhance the general level of machinability. The effects
selenium improves their machinability.
of different carbon contents are as follows.
Below 0-3% High ductility, so cutting speeds should 1.5 Nickel-chromium stainless steels
be low to prevent tearing or dragging of the metal. High-chromium high-nickel steels work-harden and so
Between 0-3 and 0-6% Best for all-round machin-
ability. The lower level is preferred for rough
machining; the higher ones are suitable for good
finish, but they require higher cutting pressures and Plate II
Although widely known as 'soluble' oils, the milky
hence higher power input.
coolants so popular in industry are actually emulsions -
Above 0-6% Hard, brittle and difficult to machine.
finely dispersed droplets of oil in water. These cutting

1.2 Free-machining steels fluids, which are called 'soluble-oil emulsions' throughout

The addition of certain elements to low-carbon steels this book, combine the coolant properties of water with

improves their machinability. Sulphur above 0-05% some of of petroleum oil. The
the lubricant properties

reduces tearing or dragging and gives a better surface 'clear' emulsions used some grinding operations are
in

finish. A manganese content of between 1-0 and 1-90% similar but are translucent in appearance and have higher

combines with sulphur to produce manganese sulphide, dilutions.

82
;

are extremely difficult to machine; the addition of cause cutting pressures are low, and high rates of metal-

selenium improves their machinability. removal can be achieved. A combination of high


speed, moderate feed and moderate depth of cut gives

1.6 Cast iron


the best results. With the aluminium-copper alloys,

There are three types of cast iron - grey, white and high cutting speeds, good finish and long tool-life can

nodular - and they vary in their machinability be attained. Aluminium alloys containing lead are
easilymachined, too, and give a good surface finish.

1.6.1 Grey cast iron is easy to machine because it Pure aluminium and low-alloy grades cut easily but

contains free carbon in the form of graphite flakes. the chip tends to tear or drag from the parent metal, so
a good surface finish is less easy to obtain than with

1.6.2 White cast iron has carbon present as ccmentite* the harder alloys. Aluminium alloys containing about

it is hard and brittle, and is very difficult to machine. 10% silicon (included to improve casting and general
mechanical properties) can cause substantial tool-wear.

1.6.3 Nodular cast iron has a spheroidal graphite and


iron-carbide structure, owing to the addition of small
3 Special-Purpose Alloys
amounts of magnesium or cerium. Nodular cast iron is
ductile and shock-resistant, and in these respects 3.1 Nickel and nickel alloys
Pure nickel tends to be machine because its
difficult to
compares favourably with mild steel. It machines
easily, but the tool loading required is higher than for ductility may cause the chip to tear or drag from the
metal a good
; finish is therefore difficult to obtain. The
grey cast iron.
material is tough, so high cutting pressures are required.
Heat-resisting nickel alloys containing copper, iron,
2 Non-Ferrous Metals molybdenum or chromium also have poor machin-

2.1 Copper alloys: brasses and bronzes (the yellow ability.

metals)
Materials containing copper are usually easier to 3.2 Nickel silver
Nickel silver a nickel-copper-zinc alloy which has
machine than ferrous metals. Within the range of is

moderate machinability and takes a good finish.


yellow metals, machinability varies from the relatively
difficult to free-cutting.
3.3 Nickel-chromium iron
Nickel-chromium iron is difficult to machine, again
2.1.1 The difficult group includes pure copper, copper-
nickel, copper-silicon and phosphor-bronze. All these because the chip tears or drags from the parent metal.

materials are very soft, and the chip tends to drag from
metal; good surface finish is therefore 3.4 Nimonics
the parent
The Nimonics are a range of high-nickel alloys
difficult to obtain. A continuous helical chip is usually
developed specifically for high-temperature applica-
produced.
tions. Their main alloying elements are chromium,
iron and cobalt. Among the components made from
2.1.2 The group with moderate machinability includes
Nimonic alloys are gas-turbine blades, chain links of
aluminium-bronzes, tin-bronzes, leaded bronzes, naval
brass and other brasses containing less than about 35 % conveyor furnaces and exhaust valves in highly tuned

zinc. A continuous brittle chip is formed. car engines. The properties vary according to con-
stitution, but in broad terms the alloys are selected for
their high-temperature strength, oxidation resistance
2.1.3 The free-cutting group contains alloys in groups
2.1.1 and 2.1.2 which have been given improved and fatigue resistance. Some of them are relatively
ductile at room temperature, however, and can be
machinability by additional alloying elements such as
antimony or bismuth. This formed by spinning, pressing or rolling; others are
lead, sulphur, selenium,
group of materials gives a short chip. Outstanding
amenable to forging and extrusion.
among them is 'free-machining brass', a relatively
rendered by the high zinc 3.4.1. The Nimonic alloys present many
Machining.
hard alloy which is brittle

content and the presence of other elements. machining problems, however. They are very hard, so
extremely high cutting pressures are required. Negative
rake, which would normally be used on such hard
2.2 Aluminium and aluminium alloys
comparison materials, is impracticable since its effectiveness
Aluminium and its alloys machine easily in
depends on the reduction of the material's shear
with steels and cast iron. Cutting speeds are high be-
strength by the heat generated; because of their heat-
resistant properties, the high-nickel alloys are clearly
Iron carbide, Fc 3 C - a hard and brittle chemical compound of
unsuited to this technique.
carbon and iron.
83
:

In the machining of Nimonics the critical angle of The following notes on the selection of tool materials
the tool is the maximum rake - the combination of for Nimonics may be helpful
back- and side-rake. This is particularly important
since the high pressures exerted on the tool render For single-point tools (where the hardness of the
disposal of the tough chips very difficult; moreover, the alloy does not exceed 250-280 VPN) and for drills,

higher frictional heat generated between chip and tool- reamers, taps, dies and milling cutters, use high-
face increases the tendency to welding and crater wear. speed steel 18/4/1 or 5/6/2.
The important factor in the heavy roughing of Nimonics
is chip disposal: a heavy, continuous, helical chip For castings and roughing cuts, use high-speed
cannot be handled, so the side-rake must be reduced to a steel 1 8/4/1 or 5/6/2 plus cobalt.
degree where the heavy chip packs against the tool-
face, becomes embrittled and breaks when it curls back For the hardest Nimonics, tool materials con-
against the workpiece. This requirement of reduced taining 5 % each of cobalt, vanadium and chromium
side-rake applies to turning tools, screw-cutting tools, have been developed. If the cutting process is

taps, dies and all tools where a positive top rake is continuous and there are no intermittent shocks
possible without unduly weakening the cutting edge. (for example in turning, boring and reaming),
For rough cuts on cast surfaces, the cutting edge cemented carbide tools give the best results.
should not be too sharp: such a tool does not cut as
cleanly as a sharper tool, but is stronger and better
able to withstand the forces necessary to remove the
tough skin of the casting; this principle applies equally
4 Titanium
to the rough machining of all the harder Nimonics, for
which the roughing tools should generally have high Because of its high ratio and
strength :weight its

side cutting-edge angles. Details of these angles, and resistance to mechanical and chemical changes at
relevant speeds and feeds, are given in Tables 5 to 12. moderately elevated temperatures, commercially pure
Notes on page 105 deal with the cutting fluids used for titanium is widely used in the aircraft industry for
Nimonics. exhaust shrouds, engine firewalls and other heat-
It should be borne in mind that the Nimonics work- resistant applications. Because it readily combines with
harden very easily. To reduce this effect as far as oxygen to form an extremely adherent oxide film,

possible, every precaution should be taken to avoid titanium has a very high resistance to most corrosive
vibration during cutting. The roughing cut should leave materials and so is used extensively in the chemical
sufficient metal for reasonable finishing cuts to be taken, industry - as thin welded linings to mild-steel vessels or
since the tool must get under the work-hardened pipework, or in solid form for heat exchangers, valves
surface left by the roughing operation. and many other components.

Internal grinding. Here an accurate bore


with high surface finish is being ground in a
hollow component, which is held in a
slowly rotating fixture. The grinding wheel -
at the end of the spindle in the foreground -

is rotating at high speed, and is simul-


taneously reciprocating. Final bore diameter
is determined by the lateral position of
the wheel.
Titanium has a tendency to 'gall' (smear on to other
4.1 Machining titanium
metals), so sliding contact between the workpiece and
This metal and its alloys can be machined successfully

so long as certain itssupports should be avoided by the use of roller- type


on conventional machine tools,
steadies and running centres. In general, cutting speeds
coolant and other requirements are satisfied.
Titanium is non-toxic but incurs severe fire hazard should be low, and feeds as coarse as practicable.

when present in air as dry, finely divided particles; Constant, positive feeds should always be used, and
in the
the proportions of air and titanium in this there should be no 'dwelling', stopping or slowing
in fact, if
middle of a cut.
form are critical, there is even a risk of explosion.
Fire can occur also when the metal is cut at high speeds
4.1.1 Turning Tool materials can be high-speed steel,
without adequate and proper coolant, or when inferior
cast-alloy steel or tungsten carbide. Carbide tools may
cleaning procedures allow accumulations of swarf on
machines and surrounding plant. Dry grinding produces be necessary for heavy turning where the surface is
rough, but generally their use is confined to light,
a very hot spark-stream, so special precautions arc
comments on page 105 continuous cuts. The Super grades of high-speed steel
necessary here as well. (See the
regarding preferred cutting fluids.) are satisfactory, giving good results in turning where
large feeds can be employed.
Tool shapes vary considerably, according to the

severity of the operation; plan shape is relatively

unimportant. Cutting angles, feeds and speeds are


Titanium characteristics
given in Table 18.
Titanium is non-magnetic and has a density
of 4-51 g/cm* at 20C (0-163 lb/in* at 68F). operation than turning,
4.1.2 Milling is a more difficult
Commercially pure titanium has a melting
because of the intermittent cutting action. The low
point of 1 660C and is ductile at
(3 020F)
thermal conductivity of titanium causes a build-up of
room temperature. Between annealing
heat in the cutting area, giving rise to chip/tool welding.
treatments it can be deformed 95 %. In its
When the chip breaks away on re-entering the cutting
low electrical and thermal conductivities
zone, a small particle of tool material is removed with
and specific heat, titanium is almost com- eventually followed by
it, causing cratering, which is
parable lo stainless steel, but in density it
tool-tip failure.
approximates to the light alloys.
Climb- or down-milling should be used where
Commercially pure, annealed titanium chips weld
possible, to reduce the damage caused when
has various mechanical properties accord-
to the cutting edge; with this technique the chip is at
its
ing to specification, and the limits are as
workpiece (see
thinnest where the cutter leaves the
follows. readily from the
page 19) and is thus removed more
Modulus of elasticity: when the next cut begins.
tool
1 054 610 - 1 265 530 kg/cm* have generally proved the most
High-speed steels
(15-18x10^ lb/in 2 ).
satisfactory for milling cutters. If the machine is
Ultimate tensile strength: particularly rigid and vibration-free, carbide cutters
2
4 095-7 874 kg/cm 2 (25-50 ton/in ). may be used; higher production rates can then be
(With higher tensile strength the metal obtained than are possible with high-speed steel.
becomes harder and less ductile.) Chipping is the most common form of tool failure when
Commercially pure titanium with low titanium is being milled: carbide cutters are particularly
levelsof impurities (particularly of cobalt prone to this.
Cast-alloy steel milling cutters are sometimes used
as
and tantalum) is used in nuclear engineer-
ing because after being irradiated it remains a compromise between high-speed steel and carbides;

radio-active for only a short time. The they permit cutting rates 25 % above those possible with
metal is used for charge/discharge machines high-speed and have less tendency to chip than
steel,

carbide. Tables 19 and 20 give recommended


tool
and the sheaths of fuel elements and control
rods in nuclear reactors. angles, speeds and feeds for milling various grades of

titanium with cutters of the three materials discussed.

rigidity of tool and workpiece is essential:


Moreover, 5 Other Special Metals
the machine tool should be robust with generous
and free from vibration. These 5.1 Tantalum
bearing surfaces
Tantalum is a soft, ductile metal that work-hardens
requirements are appreciably more important than for
more slowly than most metals. At room temperature it
the normal steels and alloys.
85
. .

is comparable to mild steel in its mechanical properties, Molybdenum


5.2
tensile strength and ductility. Molybdenum is similar to cast iron in respect of
The principal application of tantalum is in the hardness and brittleness. It has high hot strength,
construction of chemical plant and equipment, in modulus of rigidity and thermal shock-resistance. It

also has moderate resistance to corrosion so long as


it is in a non-oxidizing atmosphere. Molybdenum is

widely used in industry: its high-temperature properties


are beneficial in the manufacture of lamps and ther-
Tantalum characteristics
mionic valves, furnace components, thermocouples,
The thermal conductivity of this metal is
mould components for diecasting, and missile and
comparable to that of mild steel, but elec-
aircraft components. As an alloying element, molyb-
trical conductivity is lower. Tantalum is
denum strengthens and hardens steel.
virtually non-magnetic, and its coefficient
of thermal expansion is only half that of
Machining molybdenum Like tungsten, molybdenum
mild steel. At 20C ultimate tensile strength
has a tendency to fracture if high stresses are induced,
of tantalum (annealed) ranges from 3 622
2 2
and it is inclined to tear during machining. It is not so
to 7 087 kg/cm (23 to 45 ton/in ) according
hard or brittle as tungsten, however, and when being
to treatment, and the metal's modulus of
machined it behaves like cast iron. Its hardness lies in
elasticity 1898 300 kg/cm' (27x10
is
the range of 200 to 300 VPN. High-speed steels can be
lb/in 2). The melting point is around 3 000C
used for tools, but tungsten carbide is preferred for
(5 430F).
better tool life. Cutting fluid is not recommended unless
fine finishes are required. Recommended tool angles,
speeds and feeds are given in Tabic 21

which the excellent corrosion resistance is important.


The electronics industry uses tantalum in electronic
tubes as a getter (a substance used for getting rid of the
last traces of air or other gases in the attainment of high
Molybdenum characteristics
vacuum) and in a number of other applications in
The ultimate tensile stress of unalloyed
which advantage is taken of its thermal stability and its
molybdenum in the temperature range
favourable electrical capacitance. Such properties make
1 200-l 800C (2 190-3 720F) is similar
it highly suitable in miniaturization techniques. The
to that of nickel-base and cobalt-base alloys
corrosion resistance of tantalum resembles that of
of the Nimonic type. At 20C molybdenum
glass; at normal temperatures both materials are inert
has an ultimate tensile strength of 5 040 to
to practically all acids except hydrofluoric acid and hot,
7 875 kg/cm 2 (32 to 50 ton/in 2). The
strong alkalis. An advantage, however, is that any
melting point is 2 620'C (4 750F).
corrosion attack that does take place is uniformly
distributed - pitting does not occur.

Machining tantalum Although the mechanical proper-


ties of tantalum have been described as resembling 5.3 Tungsten
those of mild steel, this similarity does not extend to Tungsten is an extremely hard and brittle metal, and its

machinability : in respect of its galling and seizing many industrial uses include the following
characteristics
it is comparable to stainless steel. As a constituent of tungsten carbide for tools.
Tantalum has hardness values of 80/100 VPN in the In high-temperature vacuum furnaces.
annealed condition and up to 180 VPN after work- For the heating elements of electrical resistance
hardening. High-speed-steel tools are used, and furnaces - where temperatures are about 2 000C
carbides are not recommended owing to the tendency (3 630F).
of the workpiece to weld to the cutting edge. Special In thermionic valves and cathodes, and on the con-
care should be taken to grind the tools to the correct tacts of vehicle ignition distributors, horns and
angles, which are set out in Table 21 petrol-pumps.
Tantalum is very sensitive to choice of cutting fluid, For high-temperature components in rockets.
and requires a coolant containing a high percentage of As filaments for electric lamps.
chlorine. The suggested cutting oil for turning, drilling
and screw-cutting has a viscosity of 5 cSt at 50C Machining tungsten At ambient temperatures, tung-
(35 sec Redwood No. 1 at 140F; 51 SUS at 100F; sten is very difficult to machine because its hardness
1 -4E at 50C) and contains up to 40 % chlorine. values lie between 440 and 460 VPN. If it is machined at

86
In less exotic contexts the metal has applications in the
a temperature of about 400C (750F) - by local in-
electronics industry, where value as a 'getter' (see the
duction heating, for example - its machinability is con-
its

definition on page 86) is exploited to achieve high


siderably improved. Tungsten produces a short chip,
but its fibrous nature tends to cause cratering in the tool vacuum.
tip. In turning operations very light cuts must be taken
Machining niobium Niobium can be machined in the
because heavy cuts can fracture the workpiece. Screw-
normal way, with high-speed-steel tools. However,
cutting is difficult since small radii cannot be main-
tained; threads must therefore be of truncated form.
because the chip has a tendency to weld to the tip, care

Since tools of high-speed steel are not adequate, special should be taken to grind the tools to the correct angle.

carbide tools are required. No cutting fluid is necessary.


Recommended tool angles speeds and feeds are shown
The recommended tool angles, speeds and feeds are in Table 21. The choice of cutting fluids is important;

shown in Table 21. the most suitable are those containing a high percentage
of chlorine and having a low viscosity. For turning,
drilling and screw-cutting the recommended oil is

similar to that for tantalum ; it has a viscosity of 5 cSt


at 50
C
C (35 sec Redwood No. 1 at 140F; 51 SUS at

100F;l-4Eat50C).
Tungsten characteristics
At 20C the ultimate tensile stress ranges
1
from 6 210-14 175 kg/cm 2 (40-90 ton/in ) 5.5 Zirconium
2
in annealed condition, to 42 520 kg/cm
Zirconium is a ductile metal which is lighter than steel
(270 ton/in 2) in heavily worked condition.
The modulus of elasticity is 3 516 000 but has excellent corrosion resistance. This last pro-
kg/cm 2 (50x10 lb/in 2) and the melting perty, which is due to an oxide skin that forms on the

pointis3 400C(6 150F). surface and remains stable up to 850C (1 560F), has

many applications in the chemical industry. Because


its resistance to corrosion extends to fluids in the

human body, zirconium is employed by surgeons for


sutures, pegs, screws and bone-splints.

5.4 Niobium (also known as Columbium)

Niobium is a soft, ductile metal that work-hardens


more slowly than most metals: its hardness is between Zirconium characteristics
80 and 100 VPN in the annealed condition, and up to The ultimate strength of zirconium varies
180 VPN after work-hardening. The metal is resistant to 2
from 3 464 to 5 670 kg/cm (22 to 36 ton/
corrosion by molten sodium-potassium alloy and is in 2 ) according to treatment, with a modulus
of elasticity 949 000 kg/cm 2 (13-5xl0 lb/

in 8).
Zirconium of normal commercial purity
can be worked without difficulty. Usually it
Niobium is worked hot in the early stages, but cold

characteristics finishing is the normal rule.

At 20C niobium has an ultimate tensile


strength of 2 770 kg/cm (17-6 ton/in ) and
2 2

a low modulus of elasticity at 871 800 kg/


cm 2 (12-4 X 10 6 lb/in 2). Its melting point is Machining zirconium Since the swarf may ignite if
around 2 500C (4 530F) and it has good
overheated, the amount in the vicinity of the machining
resistance to creep at high temperatures.
operation should be kept to a minimum. In the annealed
condition zirconium has a hardness of about 150 VPN,
which rises to 270 VPN when the metal is work-
hardened. Consequently high-speed-steel tools are

highly compatible with uranium; this makes it an excel- generally satisfactory, but tungsten-carbide can be

lent choice of 'canning' material for nuclear fast used, particularly for machining heavily scaled surfaces.

reactors that are cooled with the sodium-potassium Generous clearance angles must be employed, and the
alloy. There are few reactors of this type, however, and cutting edges must be kept sharp. See Table 21 for

the cooling technique is unlikely to become widespread. cutting angles and other machining data.

87
Table 1 8 Titanium turning: machining data

Nomenclature Tungsten carbide High-speed steel

Maximum top rake degrees 7 negative to 6 positive, Up to 15 positive


according to severity*

Relief and clearance


angles degrees 7 7

Nose radius Maximum possible without causing vibration and chatter

Cutting speed ft/min 100-3001 according 20-120] according


m/min 30-90 to quality 6-37 / to quality

Roughing feed in/rev 0-003 0-015 0-003-0-050


mm/rev 0-08 0-38 0-08-1-27

Finishing feed in/rev 0-006 0-015 0-002.-0-010


mm/rev 0-15 0-38 0-05-0-25

Depth of cut
roughing in 0-060 0-250 0-060-0-250
mm 1-51 6-35 1-51-6-35

finishing in 0-001 0-1 00 - 0-001-0-100


mm 0-03 -2-54 0-03-2-54

* Negative angles for roughing positive for finishing


,

Table 19 Titanium milling: tool data

Nomenclature Tungsten Cast High-speed


carbide alloy steel steel

Radial rake degrees to 1

Axial rake degrees to 10

Face cutting-edge angle degrees 6 6 6

Peripheral or corner
cutting-edge angle degrees 60 30 30

Face relief angle degrees 1 2 max 1 2 max 12 max

Chamfer degrees to 45 to 45 to 45

Nose radius in 0-040 to 0-125 0-040 to 0-125 0-040 to 0-1 25


mm 1-02 to 3-18 1-02 to 3-18 1-02 to 3-18
Table 20 Titanium milling: machining data

Nomenclature Commercially Annealed Heat


pure treated

Tungsten carbide
Surface speed ft/min 160-190 80-120 55-95
m/min 50-58 25-37 1 7 - 30

in/tooth 0-004-0-008 0-004 max 0-004 max


Feed
mm/tooth 0-10-0-20 0-10 max 0-10 max

Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-50 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1 -27 max 1 -27 max

Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-1 00 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max

Cast alloy steel


Surface speed ft/' mm 120-140 60-100 45-90
m/min 37-43 1 8 - 30 14-27

Feed in/tooth 0-004-0-008 0-004 0-008 - 0-004-0-008


mm/tooth 0-10-0-20 0-10-0-20 0-10-0-20

Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-050 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1-27 max 1-27 max

Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-100 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max

High-speed steel
Surface speed ft/min 80- 1 00 40-70 25-60
m/min 25-30 12-22 7-5 -18

in/tooth 0-003-0-008 0-003-0-006 0-003-0-006


Feed
mm/tooth 0-08-0-20 0-08-0-15 0-08-0-15

Depth of cut, face mill in 0-050 max 0-050 max 0-050 max
mm 1-27 max 1-27 max 1 -27 max

Depth of cut, slab mill in 0-100 max 0-100 max 0-100 max
mm 2-54 max 2-54 max 2-54 max

89
8

Table 21 Exotic metals: tool and machining data

Setting Tantalum Molybdenum Tungsten Niobium Zirconium


Roughing Finishing

Plan approach a igle 1

5-45 3 5 15 30
Side cutting-edg e angle 2 }

Cutting-edge side rake 2 20 10 5-10 3 20 10-15 25

Cutting-edge back rake 2 5 10 5

2
Plan relief angle
10 3-5 5 15 15
Plan trail angle 1
} '

Cuuing-edge clearance
or relief angles 5 5-10 5 5 8 8

Nose radius in 0-020 0-010-0-030 Very small 0-020 0-020 0-050


mm 0-51 025-0-76 0-051 0-051 1-27

Cutting speed ft/min 50-60 30-50 30-40 50-60 120 120


m/min 1 5-1 9-15 9-12 15-18 37 37

Roughing feed in/rev 0-008-0-0I2 0-003 max 0-003-0-006 0-008-0-012 0-008-0-012


mm/rev 0-20-0-30 0-08 max 0-08-0-15 0-20-0-30 0-20-0-30

Finishing feed in/rev 0-0C5 max 0-003 max 0-003-0-006 0-005 max 0-005 max
mm/rev 0-13 max 0-08 max 0-08-0-15 0-1 3 max 0-13 max

Depth of cut in 0-015-0-060 C-01 5-0-060 0010-0-015 0-015-0-060 0-015-0-060 0-015-0-060


mm 0-38-1-52 0-38-1-52 0-25-0-38 0-38-1-52 0-38-1-52 0-38-1-52

'
'BS J 886 'DIN 6581 '^Depending on operation
.

i y

H *.

* /

v
/ / * m
- I

B
: :

tjp

9. Cutting fluids

1 Functions of Cutting Fluids Clearly, tool temperature must be kept to a minimum.


The forces on the tool can be reduced by modifications
Previous chapters have dealt with the machines used for
to the structure of the material and by good tool design
cutting metal, the tools they use and the metals they cut.
and a correct choice of feed, speed and depth of cut.
The final link in the chain is the cutting fluid. But even if a perfect combination of all these factors
A cutting fluid has two primary functions could be achieved, the cutting process would still gener-
Cooling To conduct away from ihe cutting area the
almost invariably
ate heat. If this is not controlled it

heat that is inevitably generated, and in so doing to


shortens the life of the tool.
prolong tool life.
The temperature in the cutting area depends on the
Lubricating To reduce the friction between chip and
heat generated in the cutting process, and can be re-
tool face - in order to reduce heat generation, tool
duced in three ways
forces and power consumption - and to improve tool - By a refrigerant such as carbon dioxide released from
life and surface finish. a high-pressure source to envelope the cutting area
Many reasons have been given for cutting-tool - By an air-blast
failure, but all the indications are that heat is the prin-
- By a fluid coolant
cipal cause. The generation of heat cannot be avoided The last-mentioned method is the most widely used, and
because, as we have seen in Chapter 3, a chip is not cut
in the following pages it is dealt with in detail.
cleanly from the parent metal but is produced by
plastic deformation ahead of the cutting area. Very high
local forces must be applied to the metal, and they set up
2 The Three Families of Cutting Fluids
tremendous pressures on the tip. The work done in

deforming the metal is converted into heat, most of Reduction of tool/chip/workpiece temperatures can
which is retained in the chip. Further heat is generated be achieved both by conducting the heat away from the

by friction when the chip moves under high pressure cutting zone and by lubricating the chip/tool interface.

across the face of the tool, and some of this heat passes Reduced friction decreases the heat generated but also

from the chip to the tool. increases the shear angle, which in turn reduces chip
thickness and hence plastic deformation. The amount
of work done is therefore less, as is the heat generated.
An additional bonus is that less power is consumed from
Plate HI the driving motor: in effect, the machine's capacity is

A relatively recent development is the synthetic coolant - increased.

a water-based clear solution (not an emulsion) in which A satisfactory liquid coolant must have high thermal
there is no mineral oil. Chemical and physical agents conductivity and high specific heat. Water fulfils this

pro vide excellent lubricating and anti-corrosionproperties, requirement and has the additional advantage of being
inexpensive, but it is a poor lubricant and therefore is
which give the fluid a remarkably wide variety of appli-
cations in both machining and grinding. The clarity of the not effective in reducing friction between chip and tool-

solution allows machine operators to see the cutting area. face. In addition it is corrosive to ferrous metals, so

For purposes of identification the formulation normally cannot be tolerated in expensive machine tools;
includes a small quantity of dye - green in this case. moreover, it tends to wash the lubricating oil from the

91
;

sliding and rotating surfaces of the machine, thus performance in respect of tool life, ease of filtration and
reducing smoothness of running and increasing wear. stability is often belter than that of conventional
Contamination of lubricating oil reservoirs by water is soluble-oil emulsions.

also a danger.
An alternative and relatively cheap coolant is a The three groups of cutting fluids are
mineral lubricating oil. It has the characteristics Soluble-oil emulsions operations where
Suitable in
required for lubricating the chip/tool interface, and is cutting speeds are very high and pressures on the tool
moving parts of the
also satisfactory for lubricating the are relatively low. Such conditions produce high chip-
machine tool and machine from
protecting the temperatures, so cooling is of paramount importance.
corrosion. The thermal conductivity and specific heat Chemical coolants Alternatives to soluble-oil emul-
of mineral oil are inferior to those of water, however, sions; they exist in two types:
and cannot be improved by additives. This disadvantage Type used solely in grinding, where transparency,
I is

can be countered to a certain extent by the use of a thin stability,good corrosion protection and easy filtration
oil rather than a thick one, because the thin one pumps of debris are the main considerations.
more easily, allows a greater flow and gives better Type 2, when used at high concentrations, has proved
dissipation of heat. superior in cutting performance to soluble-oil emulsions
To enhance the performance of mineral oils as at low concentrations it can be used also for grinding
lubricants in the cutting process (as distinct from their operations.
performance as coolants) certain additives are in- Neat cutting oils Straight mineral oils, or mineral oils
corporated to improve anti-friction properties. With with They are preferred where cutting
additives.
lower friction between chip and tool, the cratering pressures between chip and tool-face are very high,
tendency (partly caused by welding) is decreased. where the primary consideration is lubrication.
Because the chip comes away more easily, the degree of
plastic deformation is which further
also decreased, When cutting fluids are being formulated and manu-
reduces the heat generated. For very severe machining factured, great care is taken to avoid the inclusion of
operations, the additives employed are known as EP materials that might make the final product unaccept-
(extreme-pressure) agents; their function is fully able because of colour, smell, toxicity or unpleasant
explained in Section 6 of this chapter. skin effects. Equal care is taken to ensure that the
The excellent cooling provided by water can be product is not rendered unacceptable by reactions
utilized if the disadvantages of poor lubrication and between otherwise acceptable constituents. Any re-

corrosive tendency are overcome. This can be effected actions with the machine tool, its equipment, the work-
in two ways. The traditional method has been the piece or the operator must be anticipated and avoided
addition of a so-called soluble oil*, to create a mixture or at least minimized.
that combines the cooling properties of water with the
lubricating and anti-corrosion properties of oil.
In the past few years much development work has
3 Soluble-Oil Emulsions
been carried out to perfect a water-based coolant that
is a true solution containing no mineral oil, and the 'Soluble' oils, as already explained, do not in fact

result is the chemical or synthetic coolant. Chemical dissolve.They are fundamentally mineral oils blended
coolants were initially introduced to overcome prob- with emulsifiers when the blend is added to water and
;

lems concerning the clogging or 'loading' of grinding stirred, a dispersion of oil droplets in a continuous
wheels operating with emulsions. They have the phase of water is produced, forming an oil-in-water
virtue of retaining their transparency longer than the is the simplest type; modern soluble
emulsion. That
emulsions, and they filter more easily. The simplest and more complicated, however, and may contain
oils are

oldest type of chemical coolant consists simply of water more than one emulsifier. They usually include a
and corrosion inhibitors. A more recent type contains coupling agent (discussed shortly) to prevent separation
materials with lubricating properties. Such products are of the blend and to encourage a more rapid dispersion
used for general machining, and in this application their of the oil when added to water. Other constituents may
also be present, such as wetting agents, and foam and
corrosion inhibitors. In areas where the water or the
climatic conditions promote the growth of bacteria - or
Two points of terminology are worth noting. First, the term where workshop practice is not adequately hygienic -
'soluble' - although used throughout the industry- is a misnomer
because the oil forms an emulsion, not a solution, in water. bactericides may be included (see Appendix III).

Instead of dissolving like sugar in coffee, it exists as tiny droplets The emulsifier is usually a blend of petroleum sul-
suspended in the water phase. Second, the expression 'soluble
oil' is widely used haphazardly for both the water/oil blend and phonate and soaps, the latter having been produced by
the mineral oil product before it is mixed with water. For reacting a fatty acid and an alkali; sodium sulphonate
clarity, we use 'soluble oiP for the unmixed product and 'soluble-
oil emulsion' for the mixture. is one of the more suitable kinds. These emulsifiers

92
:

come into the chemical category of anionic materials, allergic to them. These coolants may also contain

and their constituent sulphonates and soaps may separ- corrosion inhibitors such as sodium nitrite or tri-

ate in unusually severe conditions of service - for in- ethanolamine to prevent the corrosion of ferrous metals
stance in the presence of acids. In some cases, therefore, by the emulsified blend.
non-ionic emulsificrs are used, either alone or in con- There are three groups of soluble-oil emulsions
junction with anionic emulsificrs, because they are
more stable. 3.1Milky soluble-oil emulsions
An emulsifier may not readily form a stable blend These are so-called because they produce opaque emul-
with mineral oil, so a coupling agent is needed to bind it sions having a milky appearance.

to the oil, thereby ensuring its easy and rapid dis-


persion on being mixed with water. Many soluble oils 3.2 Clear soluble-oil emulsions

have phenolic compounds as their coupling agents: the These are used extensively for grinding. The clear

soluble-oil emulsions contain considerably more emul-


most common in this group is cresylic (carbolic) acid,

which gives the soluble oil a distinctive antiseptic smell. than do milky emulsions, and therefore they pro-
sifier

When concentrated emulsions are prepared, or when duce dispersions in which the oil droplets are smaller and
loss of water by evaporation leads to high concentration, widely distributed. There is less dispersion of the trans-
opaque; the result a
the quantity of phenolic compounds present may be so the fluid
mitted light, is less is

sufficient to irritate the machine operator's skin. translucent liquid rather than one that is, strictly, clear.

For these reasons coupling agents in the premium When the fluid is present in a relatively thin film the
observer can see through it and thus observe the work-
quality soluble oils of the major oil companies are not
phenolic compounds: instead, a more expensive but piece more clearly. The translucency is not permanent,
though, because after a time the tiny oil droplets tend
safer type of coupling agent of the higher alcohol type is
used. Materials of this type do not cause irritation to the to coalesce and form larger ones.

skin, eyes, nose or throat of operators and workshop These emulsions are less 'oily' than the milky variety
personnel - except, of course, in those who are already because they are usually mixed at a lower oil-to-

rear suspension arm of a


A special-purpose boring machine. In the middle of the picture a welded fabrication (the
motor-cycle) is mounted on a fixture. At each side is a spindle carrying a single-point tool for boring the housing
boring, whereas that on the right has
of a bush that will be pressed-in later. The spindle on the left is still

workpiece and spindles, giving two


completed its cut and is retracted. Behind them is a duplicated set-up of fixture,

complete working cycles at a time.


:

water concentration. Furthermore the emulsion formed heated to 50-60X (120-140F) and then rolled vigor-
is more stable because of its higher proportion of ously along the shop floor. Care is needed in heating the :

emulsifying agent, which lessens the likelihood of bung should be loosened, and no naked flame must be
separation and of consequent oil-deposition on the allowed near. Water may be added in doses of not more
surface of the grinding wheel. Less oil on the wheel than 2% (say a quart or litre to a full barrel). It is most
means that less grinding debris is retained on its surface, unlikely, however, that the original qualities of the oil
which therefore does not clog as much as it would with will be fully regained by this treatment. There is no
a milky emulsion. substitute for careful storage under cover at moderate
temperatures. Particular attention should be paid to the
3.3 'Extreme-pressure' (EP) soluble-oil emulsions siting and protection of bulk storage tanks for soluble
These - usually milky in appearance - were
fluids oil, since the contents are extremely difficult to deal
developed to bridge the gap between orthodox emul- with after separation has occurred.
sions, which are effective coolants but have poor If temporary out-of-doors storage is unavoidable,
lubricating properties, and neat cutting oils, which have barrels or drums of soluble oil should be laid on their
only moderate cooling characteristics but good load- sides; if they are placed upright, any water collected
carrying properties. around a bung may be drawn in as temperatures rise and
Improvement in the load-carrying performance of fall first expand on warm-
during the day. The contents
soluble-oil emulsions is achieved by the incorporation of ing and then contract on cooling, and bungs (even
additives of the sulphurized, chlorinated or sulpho- when sealed) may allow the accumulated water to seep
chlorinated types. Since the EP concentrate is diluted 10 past seals under these conditions.
to 20 times when the emulsion is prepared, the quantity Care is needed in handling and storing soluble oils at

of EP additive in the final emulsion is very small. Where all stages - during storage at the blending plant, during
the lubricating capabilities of soluble-oil emulsions arc transport and when on the user"s premises. After a
inadequate and the cooling properties of neat cutting container is opened, the oil should be protected from
oils insufficient, however, EP soluble-oil emulsions can contamination by dirt, by lubricating oils and by soluble
in many cases satisfy both requirements. oils of different type. The risk of incompatibility with
other soluble oils is very high indeed.

4 Preparation, Use and Maintenance of 4.2 Preparation


As already explained, the soluble oil forms an emulsion
Soluble-Oil Emulsions
of droplets, and the water is referred to as the continuous
Modem soluble oils are complex blends of many com- phase in an oil-in-water emulsion. The emulsion is stable
ponents. If they are to give the best results in service only if care is taken and the oil is added to the water with

they should be stored, mixed and handled carefully. constant stirring. Water must never be added to oil since
this could result in the formation of an invert emulsion -
4.1 Storage and handling water dispersed in oil.

Most soluble oils, as delivered, contain a small quantity The water must be clean and of proper quality (see
of water to stabilize the blend and ensure rapid dis- later), and the oil rwater proportion carefully controlled.

persion and easy mixing when the oil is added to water. Containers used for mixing must be clean. It is generally
If during storage the temperature of the oil falls much considered poor practice to mix a soluble cutting oil in

below 0"C (32F), this initial water constituent may a machine's sump; far better results are achieved if

freeze and so become ineffective. Conversely, if the mixing is done beforehand in a clean tank.
temperature rises excessively the water may evaporate. Moderate quantities of emulsions -
up to 500 litres
When the ice melts or the vapour condenses, the water (say 100 gallons)- are easily mixed by hand. The items
docs not disperse evenly throughout the blend but falls needed arc an open mild-steel (not galvanized) tank
to the bottom, and so cannot fulfil its intended function. marked to show a known capacity of water, a can that
Subsequently the soluble oil will be found very difficult holds at one filling the correct amount of oil for that
to mix, and may even have separated to form a gel. amount of water, and a good-sized mixing paddle. A
In the absence of full blending facilities, operators wooden paddle about the size of a garden spade is very
cannot easily restore such an oil to its original condition. satisfactory. The tank is filled to the mark with water

In an emergency, if no other oil is available, though, and the oil is poured in slowly with constant agitation.
restoration may have to be attempted. Simple agitation For larger quantities a power-driven stirrer is useful.

of the oil is not likely to be successful, since the original Proprietary mixing devices working on the injector
blending was probably carried out when the compon- principle are available. The principle is shown in Fig 57
ents were passing through a controlled-temperature water flowing through the jet causes a pressure drop in
cycle. However, some soluble oils that have separated in the mixing chamber, and oil is drawn in through the
this way may be partially restored if the barrels are side tube. Most of these devices have a variable restric-

94
:

tor for oil flow, to control the strength of the mix, and 4.3 Water quality

some incorporate a small turbine (driven by water-flow)


Water from towns' main supplies is usually suitable for
to improve the mixing effect.
the preparation of water-based cutting fluids. That from
Several precautions are necessary. There must be a
factory boreholes is also generally suitable, although
constant head of water, or the proportion of oil will
corrosive salts such as chlorides are occasionally
vary. The water a plug cock that is
valve should be
present in excessive quantity. Water from rivers, canals
either fully closed or fully open, and the height through
and ponds almost always contains contaminants that
which the soluble oil is lifted must not vary excessively.
need drastic treatment.
Even with all these precautions there is still the risk
A laboratory check is normally desirable to assess the
that small quantities of oxidized oil or invert emulsion
amounts of organic and mineral acids present in the
will build up in the restrictor and reduce the flow of oil.
water (and a check on hardness is usually necessary, in
To avoid the production of unsatisfactory emulsions, a
- mainly
any case). Hardness is due to dissolved salts
sample of each mix should be checked for strength.
of calcium, magnesium and iron, and occasionally of
These mixing devices are widely used, and with care
aluminium - and if the water is extremely hard, soften-
give highly satisfactory results.
ing may be required because otherwise the salts react

On/off control Water in with the emulsifier in the soluble oil to form an insoluble
scum which floats on the surface of the emulsion.
This scum may not in itself be harmful, but in process
of formation it consumes part of the emulsifier; conse-

quently the emulsions may be unstable.


Concentration
With modern soluble oils in which the primary
control
emulsifying agent is a petroleum sulphonate, a good
dispersion is obtained even with fairly hard water. If
the water is so hard that softening is required, it may
be treated in a plant designed for the purpose, but if

such facilities are not available a satisfactory effect


results from the simple addition of 'washing soda'
(hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3'10H2O).
Water hardness is usually expressed as a number
representing the parts per million, or ppm, of anhy-
drous sodium carbonate required to soften it com-
pletely. In UK the Clark scale is currently used, with
one Clark degree equivalent to one grain of calcium
carbonate (CaCOs) per gallon. The hardness in Clark
degrees is multiplied by 14-3 to give the figure in ppm.
In some countries a French scale is used, one French
degree being equivalent to 10 ppm. Water for modern
soluble oils rarely needs to be softened if hardness is

less than 200 ppm; for waters harder than that, the

following empirical formulae have been found satis-

factory when calculating the amount Q of washing


soda needed

Q (ounces/ 1 000 gal water)


(total hardness in ppm)
+ 20
Q (grammes ,'m 3 water)
= (total hardness, French degrees X 28.5) 125

These formulae are suitable for water between


Emulsion " Emulsion ppm) and 'very hard' (350 ppm).
'moderately hard' (200
Fig 57 Above 350 ppm, softening with soda is seldom effective

The Mobrey Fluidmix brings together water and a because the proportion of dissolved solids is too high

soluble oil to form a soluble-oil emulsion. Concentration for stable emulsions to be formed.
can be adjusted instantaneously by a knob at the top of Care must be taken not to add more than the cal-
the housing. The pump is for use when water-pressure culatedamount of washing soda. Too much soda
is low. causes excessive alkalinity and hence a risk of soreness

95
. :

on the hands and arms of operators. When water is checking emulsion strength - an essential first step in
softened with soda, a precipitate forms which should the process of correction
be allowed to settle or should he removed by filtration; (a) Institute of Petroleum, method IP 137/55
the softened, precipitate-free water can then be used to 'Soluble Cutting Oils- Oil Content of Dispersions'.
prepare the emulsion. (b) American Society for Testing and Materials, method
ASTM 123/64
'Apparatus for Determination of Water Content by
4.4 Acidity and alkalinity
Distillation'.

The hydrogen-ion concentration, which is usually Two shortened, simple methods of checking emulsion
expressed as the pH value, is a measure of the acidity strength are used in small laboratories and workshops.
or alkalinity of a solution. The equipment required for the first is:
1 Measuring cylinder calibrated in millilitres, capacity
pH represents extreme acidity
25 ml.
pH 7 represents neutrality
2. Flat-bottomed flask of about 50 ml capacity with a
pH 14 represents extreme alkalinity
neck graduated from 0-10 ml in tenths of a ml.
The normal human skin has a pH value of between 3. A supply of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, of
5-5 and 5-6. Solutions with substantially higher or lower strength 20% by volume of concentrated acid.
values cause irritation, but the severity cannot be The method is to take 20 ml of the emulsion in the
predicted because some people are extremely sensitive measuring cylinder and transfer it to the flask. Add acid
while others have high tolerance. The pH value of to bring the level approximately to the 8 ml mark in the
mains water varies widely; London readings, for exam- neck. Stopper the flask and shake.
ple, vary from about 8-0 for river-derived water to Remove the stopper and submerge the flask in a water
perhaps 7-2 for well water. bath at least to the lower part of the neck heat the water
;

Opinions vary on optimum alkalinity for a soluble-oil to near boiling for 15 to 30 minutes, or until all the oil

emulsion. Tests carried out by the BP Research Centre,


Sunbury, have indicated that bacteria rarely breed in
emulsions if the pH is above about 8-8. Bacterial growth
in soluble-oil emulsions gives rise to unpleasant smells
and also causes the emulsion to break down. The =9
problem of such growth is dealt with in Appendix III.

If the pH value is allowed to fall below 8-5 the likeli-

hood of rusting increases. On the other hand if it is


Volume of
allowed to exceed 9-3 the danger of skin irritation
oil separated
increases. From their investigations BP Research Centre
have concluded that the ideal pH for a soluble-oil
=5
emulsion is 9 to 9-3. In practice the figure usually lies
between 8 5 and -
9-3. but in hot climates the upper end
of the range is preferred because bacterial growth is
promoted by warmth. =3

4.5 Controlling emulsion strength

Although the emulsion may be at the correct strength,


when mixed, it tends to become weaker in use because
oil is preferentially adsorbed on the surfaces of the work
and the swarf. On the other hand, water is lost by
natural evaporation, and such loss is accelerated by the
heat generated during cutting. Consequently the
emulsion, after some use, may become too weak or too
strong; if it is still sufficiently clean and stable this
departure from the ideal can be corrected one way or
the other by additions of a stronger emulsion or plain
water. There is no point, though, in adding fresh
emulsion to one that is dirty, bacteria-infected or Fig 58
otherwise unstable. The new emulsion rapidly deterio- When an emulsion has been split into its oil and water
rates because it is acted on by the same adverse influences. constituents, the oil in the flask rises to the top, where it

Two official methods are widely recognized for can be measured.

96
;

has separated. Measure the amount of oil in the sample


by deducting the lower reading in the neck from the
upper.
Edge of shadow
Percentage of oil in sample == Amount of oil x 5.
indicates
Since the method measures only the amount of oil, concentration
a correction may be necessary to allow for the other
constituents of the soluble oil. This need can be estab-
lished by running the test on a carefully prepared
emulsion, new and of known strength. Having ascer-

tained the strength of the existing emulsion we can


calculate the percentage concentration by volume of the
emulsion needed to correct it (if too weak) as follows:

D = (D( De) fDf


Qr
where Df is required final concentration
De is existing concentration
Qe is existing quantity
Qr is quantity required of make-up emulsion

The second of the simpler methods is an extremely


rapid technique involving the use of a pen-size rcfracto-
meter (Fig 59). This is an optical instrument which
indicates the density of a drop of the cutting fluid, and
hence its dilution. One end houses a glass prism finely
graduated to indicate a rising scale of numbers; the
other end contains a magnifying lens. In use, the
instrument is dipped in the liquid and then held up to
The shadow superimposed on its scale
bright light.
changes from dark amber to light over a narrow band
on the scale, and the reading at that point is noted. Fig 59
The number on the scale is correlated with dilution, A small reftactometer, as seen here, provides a quick
on a graph for that particular fluid. Fig 60 illustrates method of checking the strength of a water-based fluid.
the principle on which the refractometcr works. It gives a scale reading corresponding to the dilution.

Air

Water

Fig 60
The refractometer mentioned above functions on the cerned, and in the case of a solution it is affected by the
principle that when light passes from one medium to concentration since this controls the density. Here
another - say, from air to a liquid - its direction is solution Y is denser - more concentrated - than solution

changed slightly. This phenomenon is known as refraction X, which in turn is denser than water, so the angle of

the angle of refraction varies with the two media con- refraction increases from left to right.

97
4.6 Keeping emulsions clean bacterial degradation of the emulsion - hence to un-

Care taken in preparing a clean and stable emulsion pleasant odours and rusting.
is wasted if the coolant is transferred to machines with If a coolant system for either a single machine or a
dirty sumps. Moreover there is little point in trying to centralized system becomes infected by bacteria- and
deal with dirty emulsions which have become unstable this state of affairs can usually be recognized by the
and from which oil is separating. Machines should be smell - steps must be taken to clean the system. First the
regularly and thoroughly cleaned, and the emulsion coolant must be pumped out and discarded, and all

should be completely cleared of swarf, accumulated swarf and dirt removed. Particular attention must be
metal-dust, scale, rust and sludge. Particular attention paid to areas where 'fines' can collect: cast iron dust, for

should be paid to pockets in castings and also to the example, on the bottom of the tank and form an
will lie

pump well. Good housekeeping may appear expensive area of stagnant coolant where bacteria can multiply
in terms of labour and lost production time, but the freely. Pockets of bacteria left anywhere will multiply

effort is fully justified. Trials with neat cutting oil under rapidly, feeding on certain constituents of the emulsion

the supervision of BP research engineers have shown and so destroying it.


that the life of a coolant can be extended threefold by After the mechanical cleaning, fill the system with a
greater care during oil-changes. This need for care hot solution of 5 % caustic soda (enough to cover the

applies equally to soluble-oil emulsions. pumps) and allow it to circulate for 1 5 minutes. Special
Oily films sometimes appear on the surfaces of care must be taken in handling caustic soda solution.
emulsions. They are not always the result of emulsion After draining, fill the system with clean water, allow it

breakdown, but may indicate contamination from a to circulate for 10 minutes and drain again; then add
leaking gearbox, bearing or hydraulic system. When an justenough water, preferably hot, to cover the pump
oily film appears on a soluble-oil emulsion and no inlet;add bactericide. Circulate for at least one hour.
obvious signs of emulsion breakdown arc apparent -
Drain, then add the new emulsion.
such as 'dryness" of the fluid, or corrosion -the machine As pointed out earlier, the coupling agents used in
should be examined for oil leaks. some soluble oils act as bactericides. They are effective
Even when a clean emulsion has reached a clean only at relatively high concentrations, however; in
machine tool (or a bulk distribution system), care and soluble-oil emulsions, because of the dilution, they do
cleanliness are required. Machine sumps should not be not control bacterial growth. Special bactericides are
receptacles for cigarette ends, orange peel, stale sand- available for the purpose, and many users of soluble-oil

wiches, body wastes and unwanted rubbish. This warning emulsions add them to coolants as a routine precaution.
may seem superfluous, but it is necessary. Sumps are Bacterial degradation of soluble-oil emulsions is dealt

frequently so used, and such abuses lead to chemical and within Appendix I II.

Cylindrical grinding. The rolls used


in the production of sheet and strip

metal are required to have excellent


surface finish and high dimensional
accuracy. Periodically they are re-
ground to ensure that quality is

maintained. Here a synthetic fluid is

employed as the coolant.

98
4.7 Operating temperatures Coolant pipe
Since a primary function of the cutting fluid is to cool

the tool and the cutting area, the fluid becomes heated.
One object of cooling the work is to maintain dimen-
sional accuracy by keeping the workpiece within a Workpiece
given temperature range, thus limiting thermal dis-
Most high-precision machine tools are guaran-
tortion.

teed for accuracy at20C (68F), and indeed many


workshops are maintained at that temperature. It
follows that cutting fluids should not be allowed to
overheat if accuracy is important. They can be cooled
in a number of ways, including:

1. Provision of an adequately large reservoir. Correct


2. Immersed water-coils in the reservoir
3. Water jacketing around the reservoir.
4. Air-fins on the reservoir

5. Circulation of coolant through a heat-exchanger,


with forced-air cooling
6. Circulation of coolant through a refrigerated heat-
exchanger.

The coolant system should be designed to keep the

fluid as near to 20C (68F) as possible. If no cooling


facilities arc provided, there should be enough fluid in

circulation to maintain a reasonably low temperature by


normal loss of heat. Problems can arise if the coolant

temperature is allowed to exceed about 32"C (90"F); for


example, bacterial growth is accelerated if emulsions are
warm. Evaporation of the water constituent is more
likely when temperatures are too high, and this affects

the concentrations of both emulsions and solutions. Incorrect

4.8 Applying the fluid


Once a soluble-oil emulsion has been prepared in the
correct manner, and the machine thoroughly cleaned
before being filled with the emulsion, the coolant must
be carefully applied. As stated earlier, the object of a
cutting fluid is to cool the tool and lubricate the chip/

tool interface. If the tool is to be cooled, so must the

chip be, to prevent it conveying heat to the tool.


Clearly, coolant must be supplied to three areas:

the chip! tool interface


the area where plastic deformation is taking place

the chip.

This distribution cannot always be achieved with one


stream of coolant, so two or more streams are prefer-
able. If only one stream is available, however, it should

be directed from above at the area of chip formation.

For emulsions the stream should be copious - 3 to 10

gallons (13 to 45 litres) per minute. Pressure should not


be too high because the fluid tends to splash off the chip Fig 61

without penetrating to the cutting area, and therefore The full benefits of a coolant can never he obtained so long
A gentle flood is more likely to asit is applied wrongly. It should be directed at the place
fails to lubricate the tool.

penetrate to the chip/tool interface. where cooling and lubrication are most needed - the

If the metal-removal rate is increased, more power is cutting area.

99
:

Cutting-fluid Cutter body


inlet

Fig 62
A ring-type coolant distributor is valuable for milling
work; it not only ensures effective distribution of the
fluid to the cutting edges but serves as a guard also.

consumed and more heat generated. A simple rule for should be flexible to ensure the best angle of direction.
determining the quantity of coolant required is As machining progresses, the coolant stream should
remain in the correct relationship to tool and work-
Horsepower required for the cut - gallons/minute.
piece, and not moved by vibration nor deflected by parts
If two supply pipes are available, the first should be of the machine. Fig 61 illustrates correct and incorrect
applied as just described and the second from below the methods of applying cutting fluids.
tool, directed into the cutting area with its flow un- In milling, drilling, reaming and tapping operations
obstructed by the chip. Alternatively, the second the ring-type coolant distributor is ideal (see Figs
stream can be directed along the top face of the tool. 62 and 63). Milling machines are usually adequately
Should the second stream (directed from below or cooled, because their cutters produce short chips so the
along the tool) cause splashing this is no reason for supply of coolant to the cutting area is not obstructed.
removing or reducing the supply; the main criterion On a drilling machine the coolant should be directed

must be satisfactory cooling and lubrication of the tool. down the hole being drilled, but it is often aimed at a

The remedy for excessive splashing is to fit splash- point some way from the end of the drill; furthermore,
guards. Coolant-supply pipes should be as large as is drills tend to throw off coolant centrifugally. The ring-
convenient (20 to 25 mm bore) and the outlet portion type distributor, however, sends coolant inwards,

Cutting- fluid
inlet

Fig 63
The ring distributor is excellent, too, in heavy-duty drilling operations, because it ensures that a copious supply of
coolant is aimed inwards towards the cutting edges. Again the ring itself functions as a guard.

100

In both cases be satisfied work came a new family


by them. From this
approximately along the axis of the drill.

the distributor serves also as an effective guard. of water-based coolants (true solutions) with a wide
range of applications and with a performance in many
cases superior to that of soluble-oil emulsions. Their
dilution is selected according to the machining operation
and the workpiece material, and they have the added
5 Chemical Coolants virtue that at high rates of dilution they can be employed

In recent years there have been interesting developments as high-performance grinding solutions. Typical dilu-
no tions are 20:1 for difficult operations and for work on
in the field of cutting fluids that contain little or
mineral oil. Initially the typical 'synthetic' coolant was a cast iron, 40:1 for general machining of medium-

comprising water and corrosion inhibitor.


grinding fluid tensile steels, and 80:1 for grinding.

at a time when methods were being The lubricating (anti-wear) properties are provided
It was formulated
sought to overcome the "loading' of grindingwheelswhen by a viscous polyglycol compound. Corrosion pro-
As was already mentioned, tection provided by a mixture of triethanolamine
is
oil-based fluids were in use.
the clear soluble-oil emulsions are used as
grinding and caprilic acid, and the formulation may include a
they tend to lose their clarity after a period in de-activator for cuprous metals.
fluids but

service, and in some grinding operations the oil of the


5.3 Controlling solution strength
emulsion separates at the high temperatures created in
The most widely used method of checking the con-
the cutting zone and collects on the surface of the wheel.
centrations of chemical coolants during service is by
Because of its polar properties, the oil attracts particles
the workpiece; the result refractometry, described on page 97. Two other
removed from the wheel and is

loading of the wheel, which leads to poor surface finish methods, not in general use, are titration and the use

and lower rates of metal removal. In addition, the oil of proprietary indicators such as Quantabs, which are

clings to the very small particles and makes filtration described below.

These problems do not occur with chemi- In titration a small amount of a coloured 'indicator'
more difficult.

cal coolants the


: wheel is washed free of debris, which is added to a measured quantity of the cutting fluid,

and the mixture is placed in a conical flask. From a


separates readily in settling tanks or filters.
burette (a very long graduated tube with a tap at the
bottom end) is dripped enough of a 'contrary' solution
5.1 Synthetic grinding fluids
of known strength - an acid if the cutting fluid is
For the majority of grinding operations, effective
- until the chemical neutralization point is
cooling is the most important factor. The simplest alkaline

grinding fluid is a plain soda solution, which has a reached. The resultant change of colour gives the

corrosion-inhibiting function and therefore protects the indication, and the quantity of added solution can then

machine from rust. Better fluids contain highly de- be correlated with the unknown strength of the cutting

veloped inhibitors such as sodium nitrite (for cast iron), fluid.

The Quantab a small plastic strip incorporating a


triethanolamine (for both cast iron and steel) and
is

sensitized capillary element calibrated to give a direct


sodium mercaptobenzothiazole (which reduces cor-
rosion on brass, zinc and aluminium). For heavy-duty reading of alkalinity: the strength of the fluid is read
off after a sealing tab at one end has been removed
grinding operations these fluids are given lubricating
and the strip placed for several minutes in a sample of
performance by the addition of load-carrying agents.
the cutting fluid diluted accurately with distilled water.
Synthetic grinding fluids remain transparent if

properly maintained, and this can be important to an


operator who wishes to observe the work - as when a
wheel approaching a shouldered portion on a work-
is
6 Neat Cutting Oils
piece. At a dilution of 80:1 a good chemical coolant
99-5% water and 0-5% agents, so its The term neat cutting oils refers to those based pre-
consists of
performance and load-carrying cannot be dominantly on mineral oil and used as supplied - not
lubrication
mixed with water. They may be wholly mineral oil or
expected to be outstanding. However, if the concentra-
emulsions they contain a large percentage of load-carrying
may
tion is more in line with those of soluble-oil
and EP properties additive. The main groups (shown diagrammatically
(say 20:1), excellent load-carrying
combined with the good cooling. For grinding in Figs 64 and 65) are these:
are
(a) Mineral cutting oil
purposes the dilutions vary from 60:1 to 80:1.
(b) Fatty oil
Blends of mineral oil and
5.2 Chemical cutting fluids
who experimented with high- (c) Fatty oil
Lubrication engineers
found that some of (d) Sulphurized fatty oil
efficiency synthetic grinding fluids
Sulphurized fatty oil and elemental sulphur
the demands of orthodox machining operations could (e)

101
Additives

Fatty oil
Chlorinated Sulphurized
Chloro- fatty oil Sulphur monochloride
paraffin fatty oil
(S ? CI 8 )

Additive
Sulphurized mineral oil: Sulphurized fatty oil:
mineral oil with elemental sulphur fatty oil with elemental
dissolved and loosely combined: sulphur fully combined
Up to 5.. sulphur if blending (Up to 18"',, sulphur)
reaction is at 60 C.
Up to 2 0; if at 160C.
MM

1 02
and fatty oil are quite effective for many operations.
(f) Sulphurized mineral oil

and sulphurized mineral oil The advantages are not great, and are confined mainly
(g) Sulphurized fatty oil

(h) Chlorinated paraffin to improvement of finish in the machining of mild


steel, brass, copper and aluminium. Such blends are
(i) Chlorinated paraffin and sulphurized fatty oil

particularly suitable for machining the harder types of


0) Chloro-fatty oil

and sulphurized fatty oil brass and copper, where straight mineral oil may not
(k) Chloro-fatty oil
Sulpho-chlorinated fatty oil give the standard of finish required and the use of
(1)
more-active oils would cause staining.

Neat by additives because in


cutting oils are fortified
6.1 Mineral Oils
some machining operations the load-carrying properties
Straight mineral oils (that is, those without additives)
brass and light of a straight oil are inadequate for the severe conditions
are suitable for machining mild steel,

where the lubrication and cooling experienced in the immediate cutting zone. Small
alloys in operations
are non-corrosive additions of the fatty oils just mentioned have the effect
requirements are not severe. The oils
of markedly improving anti-friction characteristics.
and stable, and if kept clean can be used almost
They lubricate all exposed moving parts, Under conditions of 'boundary' lubrication - when the
indefinitely.

and minor leakage into or from gear boxes, bearings rubbing faces are so heavily loaded that a straight oil

and hydraulic systems does not upset a machine's would be unable to keep the faces apart - the fatty
performance. additive forms a thin and highly tenacious layer of
have metallic soap, created by chemical activity between the
In the past, conventionally refined spindle oils
oils and as the fatty-acid molecules and the metal of the tool, the chip
been used as straight mineral cutting
base oil in additive-type cutting oils. However, the UK and the workpiecc. This layer has very low shear strength
Institute of Petroleum's Advisory Committee on Health
and continues to lubricate even after the normal oil
film has broken down. These fatty oils are known as
has recommended that solvent-refined oils be used for
all lubricants likely to come into contact with skin or
compounded oils.

clothing (see Appendix II).


6.4 Extreme-pressure (EP) additives
For some fairly arduous machining operations,
6.2 Fatty oils
were once widely used as cutting oils. The however, even compounded oils cannot give the lubri-
Fatty oils

most common types were lard and rape oil (a non- cation performance required, and neat oils containing

drying vegetable oil obtained from the seeds of the rape EP additives have to be used. An EP agent comes into
effect wherever minute asperities (high spots) on the
plant). Their use has declined, partly because they are
mating surfaces rub together and set up high frictional
now difficult to obtain and are expensive, but mainly

because modern additives blended with mineral oil are temperatures over extremely tiny areas. High tempera-

much more effective. Fatty oils are very polar and have ture causes the EP agent to react with the adjacent
- but they
high 'oiliness' - anti-friction performance
metals and create an anti-welding layer of solid lubricant

have poor anti-weld characteristics. They oxidize between the tool and the underside of the chip.

readily, and display a tendency to fume and give off


This film is continuously ruptured and re-formed:
physical contact between the tool, chip and workpiece
unpleasant smells.
is lessened, and the likelihood of the chip welding to the
tool is correspondingly reduced. This decrease in
6.3 Blends of mineral oil and fatty oil
welding tendencies cuts down the wear caused partly by
Although neat fatty cutting oils have almost completely
disappeared from the machining scene, blends of mineral the plucking of small particles of metal from the tool
surface and partly by the abrasive wear of the tool
where the chip moves across it. (In a cutting operation

the conditions are, in fact, ideal for pressure-welding:


the cutting action continually exposes surfaces that are
chemically clean, and both pressure and temperature
are high.)
Fig 64, above left
EP cutting oils are said to be active if they stain
The range and constitution of chlorinated and sulpho-
chlorinated cutting oils are well illustrated here. Four copper-based metals at normal room temperature, and

additives, used singly or as mixtures, produce five cutting inactive or mild if they do not.

media in mineral oil.


6.5 Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized fatty oil

Sulphurized fatty oils are additives used to produce


inactive EP cutting oils. They are formulated by the
Fig 65, left

This diagram illustrates the ways in which sulphur can be solution of elemental sulphur in a fatty oil such as

used as an additive in cutting oils. sperm oil; if the reaction is properly controlled, up to

103
18% sulphur can be fully combined, lo form a com- as are cutting fluids containing up to 40% chlorine.
pound with little or no sulphur remaining in the free or The chlorinated oils are used in the machining of
uncombined form. During a machining operation the Nimonics and nickel alloys, particularly in broaching
sulphur reacts with its metallic surroundings to form a operations. Carefully selected and blended oils of this
sulphide film of very low shear strength. type do not stain, and can be used satisfactorily with
yellow metals.
6.6 Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and
elemental sulphur 6.10 Blends of mineral oil, chlorinated paraffin and
The addition of elemental sulphur to an inactive sulphurized fatty oil

sulphurized fatty oil renders it active. Active sulphurized Cutting oils of this type combine the best properties of
oils have better EP properties than inactive ones, and chlorinated paraffins and sulphurized fatty oils: they can
are particularly suitable for machining the tougher be used for a wide range of materials and operations.
ferrous alloys. The amount of elemental sulphur that The anti-friction properties of the two oils combine to

can usefully be included in such oils is 0-5 %. give a good finish and good tool life, augmented by the
EP anti-weld properties of the sulphur. An interesting
6.7 Blends of mineral oil and sulphurized mineral oil fact is that two such additives sometimes display a
There are two types of sulphurized mineral oil, both pro- synergistic effect: their combined benefit to a cutting
duced by dissolving sulphur in specific mineral oils. In fluid is greater than the sum of their individual effects.
the first, the sulphur is dissolved in the oil at about
60C (140F) and up to 0-5% is taken up; the second 6.11 Blends of mineral oil and chloro-fatty oil
method involves mixing at 160C (320F) at which Chloro-fatty oils, produced by combining chlorine with
temperature up to 2% sulphur is dissolved. Both a synthetic fatty ester, are suitable for machining a wide
methods produce oils in which the sulphur is very range of materials and are non-staining to both ferrous
loosely combined; these oils are active and will stain
and non-ferrous metals. When blended with suitable
the yellow metals. Sulphurized mineral cutting oils have
base oils they are used for honing, grinding, turning and
good EP properties and are cheaper to produce than deep boring.
those containing sulphurized fatty oils; the latter,
although generally without such good EP properties,
6.12 Blends of mineral oil, chloro-fatty oil and sulphurized
have better 'oiliness' or anti-friction properties, and
fatty oil
usually give better tool-life and finish.
These oils are similar to good anti-
type 6.10, and have
friction and anti-weld They are suitable for a
properties.
6.8 Blends of mineral oil, sulphurized fatty oil and
wide range of materials and operations, and the best of
sulphurized mineral oil
them should not stain ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
This blend combines the oiliness of sulphurized fatty
Since the sulphur and chlorine are contained in separate
oils with the EP properties of sulphurized mineral oils,
additives, the formulation can be tailored to the user's
and is sometimes used in preference to type 6.6. Oils in
requirements.
this category are again of the active type, and therefore
are not recommended for use in the presence of the
yellow metals. They are very effective for the heavy-duty 6.13 Blends of mineral oil and sulpho-chlorinated fatty oil

machining of ferrous metals. In sulpho-chlorinated fatty oils both elements - sulphur


and chlorine - are combined in the same molecule. By
6.9 Blends of mineral oil and chlorinated paraffin the use of suitable metal de-activators, cutting oils can

Although chlorine is chemically more active than be blended which are inactive at room temperature but
sulphur, the EP effects of chlorides are not so good as are very active at the temperature of the cutting area.

those of sulphides. With metals or operations where Oils of this type are suitable for machining the toughest

cutting pressures are not form at


high, chlorides metals, such as some of the stainless steels and the

relatively low temperatures to protect the tool from heat-resistant alloys.

wear and welding: in such conditions, sulphur would


perhaps not be released in sufficient quantities to be 6.14 Clear neat cutting oils
effective. Traditionally the neat cutting oils are dark or medium-
Cutting oils produced from chlorinated paraffins have brown in colour, according to their viscosity and
lower EP properties than oils containing combined additive content. In recent years, however, advances
sulphur in the same proportion, but they have better in both base oils and additive compounds have led to
anti-friction characteristics. However, the poorer EP the development of light-coloured neat oils with very
performance is balanced by the higher levels of chlorine high cutting performance. The main virtue is that they
that can be taken into solution. Chlorinated paraffins allow the operator to see the work-zone through the
with a chlorine content of 70 % by weight are available, coolant: this is particularly useful during a setting

104
operation, and affords the opportunity of finer control Sulphurized oils are not recommended because they

over very delicate machining tasks. cause discoloration of workpicces, and cutting oils
containing free sulphur are to be avoided because with
alloys destined for high-temperature applications the
7 Use, Care and Maintenance of Neat
chemical action can eventually lead to corrosion in

Cutting Oils service.

The and handling of neat cutting oils require


storage
care, and the general rules given earlier for soluble oils 9 Fluids for Machining Titanium
should be followed. Neat cutting oils are not so sensitive
In Chapter 8 (page 85) we saw that the two main prob-
as soluble oils, however, and are not subject to such
lems in machining titanium are the great heat that
strict temperature limitations in storage. Neat cutting
has to be dissipated and the severe risk of galling.
oils known to contain fatty oils or fatty compounds
Several cutting fluids arc effective. Sulphurized mineral
should not be stored in very cold conditions, though;
oils are widely employed, but have to be applied in
there is the danger of solidification and separation of
copious quantities; aqueous-base fluids are also
the fatty content of the oil.
favoured because of their cooling properties. The
preferred applications are as follows.
7.1 Operating temperatures
Some of the rules laid down earlier regarding the
Fluid Application
temperatures of soluble-oil emulsions apply equally to
Chlorinated neat oil Automatic lathes, drilling,
neat cutting oils. Maintaining neat oils at 20C (68F)
reaming, broaching, tapping
ensures maximum cooling, which is particularly
and grinding with silicon
beneficial with mineral oil because of its relatively low
carbide wheels.
specific heat. Keeping the oil cool also reduces oxidation
and any tendency to fuming.
Sulphurized neat oil Drilling, reaming, broaching
As already explained, oils containing extreme-
and tapping.
pressure additives (chlorine and sulphur) react with
metals when they are heated; sulphide or chloride films
EP soluble oil General turning and milling.
are formed. If the fluid is not kept cool in circulation
there is a danger that the additives - particularly the
Synthetic fluid Grinding with aluminium
chlorinated one - will react with bright parts of the
(nitrite-amine type) oxide wheels, finish-turning
machine and cause staining.
and milling.

7.2 Maintenance
If the cutting fluid has to be removed after the
Neat cutting oils are more expensive than water-based
machining operation, chlorinated solvents should not
coolants, so it is both sound business sense and
be used in any circumstances. This is because chloride
hygienic to keep them in good condition. In particular,
stress corrosion can occur when a workpiece retains
neat grinding oils when kept clean have a useful life
residual chlorides and is subsequently heated or heat-
three or four times that of dirty, debris-laden oils.
treated; in time, premature metal fatigue sets in.

Carbon tetrachloride or trichlorethylene must not be


8 Fluids for Machining Nimonic Alloys used, therefore, and ketone or acetone solvents are
The special coolant requirements of the 'exotic' metals preferred.

justify special mention in this chapter. First the Nimonic

alloys (Chapter 8, page 83): because of their superior


10 Maintenance, Reclamation and Disposal
toughness and corrosion-resistance at high tempera-
of all Coolants
tures, they create high pressures in the work-zone
and do not react easily with EP additives. Some The various contaminants - fine chips, grinding-wheel

machining operations on these metals can be accom- particles, dirt, scalefrom workpieccs and sand from
plished without cutting fluids, but such practices castings - are undesirable for two main reasons. First,

sacrifice speed and finish. Cutting fluids are particularly contaminants frequently act as catalysts and cause

necessary when the heat cannot dissipate rapidly into reactions that result in the chemical breakdown of

the surrounding air - as in drilling, tapping, boring fluid. This causes splitting of emulsions or oxidation
of the oil - or both. Each leads to staining and corrosion
and reaming.
Most applications can be satisfied by EP soluble-oil of both machine and workpiece, and a shortening of the
emulsions, but neat oils may be necessary in some cases. useful life of the fluid. Secondly, recirculation of

Difficult operations such as broaching require neat oils contaminants reduces the quality of surface finish,

additive. damages circulation pumps and increases the wear of


with a high concentration of chlorinated
105
allmoving parts with which the contaminants come into In the tubular-bowl centrifuge, on the other hand,
contact. Most important of all, perhaps, is the fact that fluid is fed in at the bottom of a spinning tube, and the
fine metal chips and debris in the oil increase the risk contaminating solids remain against the inner wall;
of skin damage and ailments. meanwhile the fluid passes upwards and out at the
top, clarified.
10.1 Clarification systems A more refined centrifuge is the disc-bowl type, which
Effective clarification of cutting fluids is nowadays runs at speeds up to 7 000 rcv/min and generates
considered an essential part of good machine-shop forces of 5 OOOg and over. Within the bowl is a stack
practice, and in modern production plants the clarifying of conical plates with spaces between them. They
equipment is highly developed. Such systems are divide the separation zone into thin layers, so the
installed on individual machines or in centralized various constituents of the fluid have to move only a
coolant supply units. The term 'clarification' embraces short way in from each other. This method is
separating
a variety of techniques, ranging from orthodox filtration used for separating light fluids from heavy fluids, as
through magnetic separation to centrifugal separation - well as solids from fluids. Solids are thrown into a
some of them used in combination. Selection depends on periphal sludge space, but light liquid passes inwards
various factors, including the type of cutting fluid, and upwards towards an outlet at the neck of the bowl.
fineness of nitration required, proportion of contami- Heavy liquid passes round the edge of a special plate
nant in the coolant and volume flow of the fluid. and emerges at a secondary top outlet.

Filter media can be classed as of permanent or In addition to those designs there is a multi-chamber
disposable types. The first group includes perforated centrifuge, designed specifically for separation of
metal, woven wire and stacked hollow discs of com- liquids and solids. It contains concentric vertical

pressed paper or plastic; periodically the accumulated cylinders fixed alternately at top and bottom, to form
contaminants are scraped, shaken or flushed and in off, a labyrinth through which the fluidflows from the

some systems this takes place automatically when central inlet to the periphery. It has a greater capacity

the pressure-drop across the filter has reached a than the others for holding solids.
predetermined level. In the same category come the In the Hydrocyclone clarifier there is a centrifugal
media known as 'loose solids' - powders used to separating effect but no moving parts. This device is a
prc-coat a filter element with an artificial porous cake tall inverted cone in which the fluid enters tangentially
that is extremely effective in removing fine particles. at the widest part; it sets up a high whirling velocity
Some cutting fluids cannot be treated by this technique which throws the solids against the tapered wall of the

because active additives are removed along with the cyclone chamber. As the solids slide to their outlet
contaminants. at the bottom they lose rotary speed, but simultaneously

The disposable filler usually takes the form of a the cleaned fluid is guided into a vortex which impels
continuously moving sheet of filter material, which is it up through the middle of the cone and out through
thrown away with the contaminants after passing a 'clean' port at the top.
through the filter zone. In the most common version a
sheet of muslin is fed from a roll past a cascade of
fluid. 10.2 Chip breakers
Magnetic separation, of course, can be applied When ductile metals are machined on a lathe they
only to ferrous swarf. Tn one type of separator the produce long, helical chips which often become en-
magnetic unit is a drum : as the fluid flows over it, the tangled in the tool and the toolholder. As a result the

swarf adheres and is carried round until removed by cutting area becomes obstructed and the coolant is

a scraper bar, from which it drops on to a chute leading unable to reach it. The most common remedy is for the

to a separate receptacle. In another form of separator operator to remove the chips periodically with a rake,
the fluid passes over the lower end of a magnetized but this is time-wasting and can be dangerous if the
conveyor, which raises the swarf clear of the fluid in machine is not stopped also ; it causes the cutting area to
the holding tank. be isolated from the coolant for a large proportion of
In many filters the only force acting on the fluid is the cutting time.
gravity. In some, however, a partial vacuum is employed A more satisfactory solution is to use a chip-breaker.
on one side of the element so that air pressure forces This is either an integral part of, or an attachment to,
the fluid through from the other. In one technique the tool, according to tool design and size. A chip-

the contaminated fluid is pumped directly through breaker interrupts the passage of the chip, which is

the filter. thereby compressed between the chip-breaker face and


The principle of centrifugal separation employed
is the point of plastic deformation. The result is that the

in several ways. Perhaps the simplest is that in which chip, instead of forming a long helix, is continually

wet swarf is spun in a basket to fling out the fluid but ruptured into short pieces which can be easily removed.
retain the metallic material for later disposal. Fig 66 shows some standard types of chip-breaker.

106
10.3 Reclamation plant
Grooved
Methods of reclamation vary from simple settlement
tanks to complex filtration and purification systems.

Even with small systems it pays to fit some form of


reclamation equipment. A strainer should always be

fitted before the pump inlet, and the reservoir should

have two or more compartments to promote settlement


of debris; baffle plates in a reservoir prevent a large
proportion of the debris reaching the pump-inlet
strainer.

Swarf crushers are an economic proposition in large


plants, and are normally used in conjunction with
centrifuges and magnetic separators, paper filters and
sterilizers (Fig 67). After being pulverized, the chips

are fed into the centrifugal separators, and when

Stepped recovered arc relatively dry and easy to handle. The


weight per unit volume of crushed, oil-free chips may be
several times that of unclcaned, loosely packed ones.
A great saving in transport and storage costs is thus
obtained, while the oil-free crushed chips will always
have the higher scrap value.
After separation, neat oil - which may amount to
360 litres/tonne (80 gallons/ton) of metal can be
processed and returned to the oil system. In this

processing (Fig 68) the heat applied reduces the oil's

viscosity, lessens the flotation tendencies of fine particles

of debris, and makes filtration easier. Sterilization too


is valuable in that it safeguards operators from infection
and eliminates the bacteria that feed on the constituents

Clamped-on of emulsions.
For effective sterilization, soluble cutting fluids

should be heated to between 60C and 82"C (140F to


180F). Sterilization of neat oils may be carried out at a

higher temperature; heating to 120C (250F) will

destroy most forms of bacteria. The BP representative


should be consulted with regard to optimum steriliza-
tion temperature, since the effect of heat on sulphurized
and chlorinated additives must be taken into account.

10.4 Disposal of soluble-oil emulsions


Soluble-oil emulsions raise a special disposal problem
because they contain a lot of water and have little
Width
13 5 mm
05 20 in
Depth
4 05 mm
020 in
015
Fig 66
Chip-breakers are used to interrupt the flow of the chip
over the tool-face, so that the formation of long pieces of
swarf is prevented and the problem of swarf disposal is

thereby made easier. The stepped type is preferred

because it is efficient, and easy to produce. In the


simple
lower illustration are given recommended dimensions for
a stepped chip breaker: the width depends on the depth of
cut, feed rate and workpiece material. Radius should be

Radius approximately equal to the depth of the step.

107
Elevator
Conveyor to storage
VW WW i , i
vvw vwv
t r .
W\Ai

Elevator

Holding
bin
Skip hoist

\ Swarf tray

Centrifuge \ \ I \ \

Dry swarf to transport

Swarf processing plant

Line oil
heater

ra an
Lagged Wash water
holding
tank Purifier
=Water out Clean oil to
Pump machine shop
Sludge out.

Cutting oil reclamation plant


Settling
tank

Fig 67
This is a typical automated swarf-processing and oil- swarf leaves the centrifuge it contains only about 2%
reclamation plant. Swarf is fed in at top left to the swarf moisture; from here it passes to the appropriate holder,
drip-tray, where large parts (such as bar ends) are while the reclaimed oil is filtered, settled, sterilized and
removed before the swarf enters the pulverizer. When stored before being returned to the machine shop.

108
Fig 68 3l
A smaller plant for reclaiming neat oil. Healers in the
Heaters
i^^warf^oil^-i
tank at top right have the effect of thinning the oil so that
solids separate more easily and centrifuging is facilitated.

Sediment
drain-cock

Collection
Alfa- Laval
?' I
v tank
tanK centrifuge

.^--^ai
~:fe
r~-----;-
%XAZ
-V_:

Pump Clean oil to machine shop

recovery value. Small quantities, however, are relatively should be avoided in a simple plant of this type because

easily treated with simple plant, such as that shown the separated water would then need neutralizing with

diagrammatically in Fig 69. The discarded emulsion is alkali before it could be run into sewers. Some experi-

mentation usually needed before a really satisfactory


collected in tank A and fed by gravity to tank B. Here
is

treatment found.
an emulsion-splitting reagent is added and the mixture is

from the pipe For larger machine shops and rolling mills, more
is agitated and aerated by compressed air

then allowed to stand for 24-48 hours, elaborate plant is needed since large quantities of
P. The mixture is

emulsion have to be treated; in such circumstances


by which time most of the oil will have separated and
specialists in effluent disposal should be consulted. The
risen to the top. Valve V, is then opened a little to admit
separated from the emulsion is likely to be contamin-
more emulsion, the level rises and oil escapes over the oil

weir W. Valves V 2 are then opened and the separated ated heavily with the splitting reagent and possibly with
deterioration products of the emulsifier additive.
water is pumped into tank C, where it is aerated again
of the oil contains Special burners have been devised to utilize such waste
and allowed to stand so that the rest it

but considerable care is needed in their use because


can separate. Finally the water is drained off at outlet D. oil,

Various reagents are used to break the emulsion


- the salts contained in the oil may damage furnace
Consultation with specialists who have experi-
sulphate of iron, double salts of aluminium and iron, linings.

common salt and occasionally strong acids. The latter ence in this field is essential.

Fig 69
Schematic diagram of a plant for splitting soluble-oil
emulsion into oil and water before disposal. Operational
details are given in the accompanying text.
1

Appendix I

Equivalent viscosities
Eq u i valent tern peratu res
Cutting speeds and diameters

Table 22 Equivalent viscosities

Redwood No 1 Kinematic Saybolt Engler


Universal
seconds centistokes seconds degrees

33 30 36 1-23
36 40 39 1-31
38 5-0 42 140
41 60 46 1-48
44 7-0 49 1-57
46 8-0 52 1-66
49 90 56 1-75
52 10 59 1-84
55 11 63 1-93
58 12 66 2 02
61 13 70 2-12
65 14 74 2-22
68 15 78 2-33
71 16 81 2-44
75 17 85 2-55
78 18 90 2-65
82 19 94 2-76
86 20 98 2-88
90 21 102 2-99
93 22 107 3-11
97 23 111 3-22
101 24 115 3-34

This table may be used for approximate conversion from one viscosity scale to another,
A T THE SA ME TEMPERA TUBE

Equivalent temperatures

32 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 392
I
l |

MINI
MM
I I I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I

II
I I I I I I I

II
! I i
I
I
I

I
I I I I

I
I
I
I I

II
II I I II
I I
I I I I

i
I I I

mm
II II I I I I

I I

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

c
110
Cutting speed - m/min 4 Workpiece diameter - mm
200 150 50 40 30
200 T

150
20

100-

10

50

500 1000 1 500 2000


Spindle speed - rev/min

Cutting speed - ft/min


A] Workpiece diameter -in
8 6 4 3 25 1 5 1 25 1 T
500 T

075
400 ,

300
05

200

100

500 1000 1 500 2 000


Spindle speed - rev/min
111
Appendix II

Oil- induced skin diseases

Risks of Exposure Oil Folliculitis and Oil Acne


Prolonged exposure of the human skin to mineral These two are grouped here because they have a
oils of the types used in cutting fluids can give rise to similar nature: they are both caused by oil blockage in

various dermal ailments. There are four main types of the skin. In the first it is the hair follicles that become
oil-induced skin diseases, which can occur singly or in blocked; in the second, the sweat ducts and sebaceous
combination. They are dermatitis, oil folliculitis, oil glands. The symptoms are 'blackheads' which may
acne and finally keratoses and warts. In rare cases the cause little or no discomfort, but the more susceptible
last two - keratoses and warts - may become malignant operator may suffer also from boils or even carbuncles.
(cancerous). The rarity of this condition in comparison In this instance neat cutting oils are the culprits, and
with the other skin conditions was established beyond the disease is more common in the hairier parts of the
question by a committee set up by The Institute of body, especially where oil-soaked clothing has been in

Petroleum in 1967. prolonged contact with the skin. It follows, too, that
hairier people with oily skins may be particularly
susceptible.

A second form of oil acne is chloracne. It is induced


Dermatitis
by exposure to cutting oils containing chlorinated
The most common skin condition resulting from extreme-pressure additives and it may show the
exposure to oils is caused by their irritant effect, additional symptom of small white cysts on the skin. A
manifesting itself initially and redness, which
as itching feature of this group of diseases is that the symptoms
may be followed by the appearance of minute blisters may not appear until several months after the cessation
and possibly by eventual scaling and thickening of the
skin. People vary greatly in their susceptibility to
dermatitis. Among the predisposing factors are a
constitutionally dry skin, eczema, acne and any recent
debilitating disease. The older, fair-skinned person is

more likely to develop the condition than his younger, Plate IV


darker colleague. The risk of skin cancer from exposure to oil is very

Soluble cutting oils are more commonly the cause slight indeed, hut machine operators and setters are
than are neat oils, and the presence of abrasive metal advised to seek medical advice immediately any spots or
swarf is a contributory factor. It is worthy of mention sores appear. Although the hands are most likely to be
that the skin's ability to resist dermatitis depends to a infrequent contact with oil, the skin of the scrotum seems
considerable extent on adequate 'recovery time' - the particularly sensitive - mainly because of the chafing of
period of non-exposure to oil. oil-soaked clothing.

112
of exposure to oil. If contracted during the exposure Prevention of Skin Diseases
period, too, they may persist for some lime.
Education
Ail employees should be informed of the hazards of
work with cutting oils. Any official notices should be
prominently displayed, and literature on the subject
Keratoses and Warts should be distributed to all employees. (In the UK, for

Prolonged exposure to certain oils may lead to localized example, the Factory Inspectorate leaflet 295 and

thickening of the skin (keratoses) or warts. Generally notice SHW 397 are recommended).
these are not malignant, but warts may occasionally

undergo cancerous changes alternatively small growths


;
Selection of personnel

or malignant ulcers may develop on otherwise normal Employees with a tendency to dermatitis should be
skin. The lesions may appear on the exposed skin of the excluded from work with cutting oils.

head, neck or arms but also on parts (for instance,


thighs and scrotum) which suffer chafing by oil- Personal protection
impregnated clothing during an operator's movements. Protective clothing should be provided. This may
The skin of the scrotum appears to be more susceptible include trousers and shirts worn under the overalls, and

than other parts of the body, and this emphasizes the even underwear, according to the degree of exposure.
need to avoid carrying oily rags in trouser pockets. Laundering facilities must be available and overalls
Although exposure to oils over a period is an essential should be dry-cleaned, since conventional laundering
factor, skin cancer is slow to develop and may not has been shown to be inadequate for removing oil.

appear until long after exposure has ceased. The risk is Clothing should be changed regularly and frequently.
small but early treatment is nevertheless essential, and
machine operators and setters must be warned to seek Cleanliness

medical advice immediately any abnormal growths, Good washing facilities and showers should be available,
hard spots or sores appear on their skin, particularly together with changing rooms and lockers where
on or near the scrotum. working clothes can be kept. Barrier and cleansing
Polycyclic aromatics, some of which are known creams should be available to employees both before
carcinogens, would be expected to be present in most and after work.
unrefined cutting oils. The concentration of these types
of compound is reduced by 'solvent' refining, and it is Machinery
recommended that all oils used as neat cutting oils Machinery should be adapted to minimize contamina-
should be solvent-refined. Soluble oils (water-based tion of employees; measures include proper control of

emulsions) appear to be less hazardous than neat oils oil flow, correctly positioned splash guards, filtering of

as regards carcinogenicity; nevertheless the same metallic swarf and the avoidance of unnecessary
precautions should be adopted to avoid exposure. handling of oily components.

113
Appendix III

Uses of bactericides and


bacteriostats in
water- based cutting fluids

Bacteria are widely distributed in nature, and are present 6-5. Nocardia is found in systems operating at somewhat
in the atmosphere, the soil and natural water. In higher bulk temperatures, 55-60C (1 30-140F) and can
favourable conditions they arc capable of multiplying increase the acidity to a pH value of about 4-5.
at phenomenal rates as compared with animal or plant When a system becomes infected with sulphate-
cells. It is hardly surprising that soluble-oil emulsions reducing bacteria it develops the obnoxious smells
do not remain completely sterile for any length of time. associated with putrefaction. Bacteria of the species

Most species of bacteria arc completely harmless - they Desulphovibrio desulphuricans are frequently found to be

can neither utilize the components of soluble-oil responsible; this species thrives in the absence of

emulsions nor infect human beings. A few, however, oxygen, and is described as anaerobic. Thus the foul
have undesirable effects and can cause problems such, smells of hydrogen sulphide are produced mainly in

as dermatitis, emulsion breakdown and foul odours. stagnant soluble-oil systems, particularly where the
emulsion has a surface layer of oil that tends to exclude
oxygen. The hydrogen sulphide arises from reduction of
either the inorganic sulphates that occur as water
Types of bacteria hardness or the petroleum sulphonate component of
Pathogenic bacteria of the genera Staphylococcus and the soluble oil.

Streptococcus can cause skin infections. Machine Any of the symptoms just described would indicate
operators working with soluble-oil emulsions are the presence of bacterial infection. Bacterial examina-
rendered susceptible to skin infections because of the tion could be used to confirm, and perhaps identify, the

combination of the de-fatting effect of soluble-oil species. Where a soluble oil is being degraded, or
and the abrasive action of metallic swarf.
emulsifiers where a noticeable loss of anti-corrosion properties
High standards of personal hygiene and the use of has been detected, a check on the pH of the system
barrier creams should prevent the occurrence of such would be advantageous.
problems. A more difficult situation arises when a

soluble-oil emulsion becomes infected with bacteria


capable of utilizing the emulsifier and hydrocarbon
components in the system. Precautions against bacterial infection

Two of the more common bacteria found in infected Cleanliness and good housekeeping in machine shops
soluble-oil systems belong to the genera Pseudomonas do much to avoid bacterial infection, and their

and Nocardia. They can degrade the amine inhibitors, importance cannot be overstrcsscd. Various physical
anionic emulsifiers and mineral oil components found techniques can be employed to keep the bacteria
in typical soluble oils, and thus cause loss of anti- population at an acceptably low level. Heat treatment,

corrosion properties, increase in acidity and deteriora- centrifuging and filtration can be used to advantage,
tion of the emulsion. These bacteria thrive in well- although economic considerations may restrict their
aerated systems, and are termed aerobic. Pseudomonas use to systems containing large volumes of soluble-oil
is most frequently found in systems operating in bulk emulsion. Chemical sterilization with bactericides is

fluid temperatures of around 30C (86F) and is more convenient.


effective in increasing the acidity to a pH value of about Since bactericides vary in their effectiveness they must

114
.

effective in the presence of non-ionic emulsificrs. The


more useful phenolic bactericides must sometimes be
used in the form of sodium salts, to obtain sufficient
solubility in the aqueous systems.
Examples of phenolic bactericides shown in the
accompanying illustrations indicate the type of chemical
structures found to be effective; they demonstrate the
Ortho phenyl phenol development from phenol to the phenyl- and chloro-
phenols, and subsequently to the methylene bis
chlorophenols, Fig 70. The quaternary ammonium
salts are cationic surface-active materials which,
although not compatible with anionic emulsifiers, can
be used in non-ionic systems or in the form of detergent
sterilizers. Examples are shown in Fig 7 1

2, 4, 6 trichlorophenol Bactericides can be used in various ways: they may be


incorporated in the soluble-oil concentrate either at
concentrations suitable to protect the oil in storage or

at levels sufficient to provide a persistent bactericidal

2, 2' methylene
J. bis (4 chlorophenol)

Lauryl dimethyl benzyl


ammonium chloride

C 14 H 29 Br"

2, 2' methylene
bis (3, 4, 6 trichlorophenol)
Tetradecyl
Fig 70 pyridinium bromide
Examples ofphenolic bactericides.

CH,
be carefully selected. Phenols, for example, are effective
against most pathogenic bacteria and are the fore-
runners of many modern bactericides, but are readily

degraded by the genus Pseudomonas. This degradation


process is used as a waste-disposal treatment for
N CH, ci-

phenolic products.
To be acceptable, a bactericide must fulfil several

must produce a persistent bactericidal


requirements. It
CH 3
effect under service conditions in which continuous
reinfection may occur, and it must be compatible with Alky! trimethyl
the soluble-oil system. The highly effective quaternary ammonium chloride
ammonium salts cannot be used with conventional
anionic emulsifiers because formation of insoluble salts Fig 71
invariably takes place. Most bactericides are less Examples of quaternary bactericides.

115
N

N .N-

Of ci- ^f\- //
+ HCI

: N-

2, 3, 5Triphenyl Triphenyl formazan


tetrazolium chloride (red)

(colourless)

Fig 72
This illustrates the chemical action of the Red Spot Test, the reduction of a tetrazolium salt, and depends on the

which is used to monitor the efficiency of bactericide development of a pink or red spot on a prepared test

treatment on an infected emulsion. The process involves plate.

effect on the emulsion in service. The cost of providing Studies of the degradation of soluble oils under
sufficient bactericide to cover the use of the soluble oil service conditions have shown that most infected

at a high dilution might prove prohibitive. Continued systems respond well to a bactericide treatment of
use of the same bactericide may produce resistant 400 ppm of 40% by weight sodium salt of 2,2' methylene
strains of bacteria. bis (4, chlorophenc). This acts as an effective bacterio-

Bactericides can be added to the soluble-oil system stat (that is, it prevents multiplication) for Pseudomonas,
as a shock treatment when infection occurs. The treat- and as a bactericide for most other bacteria that infect

ment may have to be repeated periodically, and the soluble-oil emulsions.

effect of the bactericide must be monitored. Research work has led to the development of a shop-
It would appear from studies of systems infected with monitor the efficacy of bactericide
floor control test to

bacteria that a process of continued rc-infection occurs treatment on an infected emulsion. The method is

from the residual oil left in the system whenever the known as the Red Spot Test and depends on the
emulsion is changed. As far as possible the system should development of pink or red coloration on a prepared
be designed to avoid traps that might retain coolant. test plate, as the result of the reduction of a tetrazolium

An effective treatment, however, is the use of a bacteri- salt. This is shown in Fig 72. The reaction is non-
cide in the form of a detergent sterilizer solution to specific, however, and would not distinguish between
cleanse the system. Such a solution may contain a harmless and troublesome bacteria; it is nevertheless

quaternary ammonium salt, which has bactericidal valid insofar as a large bacterial population occurs only

properties. Thorough cleansing in this manner, com- when a species of bacteria is capable of utilizing the
bined with the use of a suitable bactericide in the components in the soluble oil. The test would be used
fresh charge of soluble-oil emulsion, should overcome mainly to monitor an infected system that has been
most bacterial infection problems. treated with a bactericide.

116
Glossary

This book, by its nature, serves as a glossary of many dissociation of constituents. Instead, one end of each

Index can be regarded molecule soluble in oil, the other end in water; the
terms used in machining, and its is

as virtually a dictionary of general terminology. For molecules form links between the oil and water, to give

or continuity, however, various virtually the same effect as the types just mentioned.
reasons of brevity
expressions in the text have been left unexplained. In industry, anionic emulsifiers are the most common
Consequently the following glossary has been compiled, because they are the cheapest and because they exhibit
giving some of the terms most likely to need clarification. an alkaline characteristic that tends to inhibit corrosion
and to reduce an emulsion's deterioration from micro-
bial and fungal attack. Non-ionic agents are less

favoured because of the cost differential ; cationic ones

Additives Agents included in a fluid either to give it a are hardly used at all, because they are the most

desired new property or to reinforce an existing one. expensive.

Examples include anti-oxidants, corrosion inhibitors,


anti-foam agents, pour-point depressants and anti-wear Aqueous coolants Aqueous-based fluids are, simply,

(load-carrying) agents. those in which the main constituent is water. (Aqua:

Latin for water.)


Adsorption This word is easily confused with absorption

(the penetration of a substance into the body of another


Back-boring When one end of a hole has to be enlarged
substance). If a substance is adsorbed it clings to the
- say to take the head of a screw - the operation is
surface of the body.
normally done by a tool which cuts the larger diameter
to the required depth. If the enlargement is required on
Anionic, cationic and non-ionic emulsifiers Emulsifiers
the blind end of the hole - on the side of the workpiece
come into the category of surfactants or surface-active
that remote from the tooling area - a boring bar has
is
agents. They work by weakening the surface tension
to be passed through the hole and a cutter inserted
that exists between adjacent layers of oil and water,
to cut the new diameter while the bar retracts.
thereby allowing the oil to form tiny droplets in the

water phase (or, in some cases, droplets of water in the


Backlash This is the term given to play or clearance
oil phase).
between mating gears: it implies that when drive is
In some emulsifiers each molecule has a negatively
relaxed any slight backward movement of the driving
charged constituent called the anion, and a positive
gear is not accompanied by corresponding movement
one called the cation. If the negative entity is the larger,
of the driven gear until the slack is taken up. Normally
the emulsifier is said to be anionic; if the positive is
such clearance is necessary to ensure free movement
larger it is cationic. When such an agent is introduced
charged of a mechanism.
into an oil/water mixture its oppositely
constituents dissociate, and migrate separately into the

two media to create the emulsion. Bactericide and bacteriostat A bactericide is a substance
such that capable of destroying bacteria, whereas a bacteriostat
In a non-ionic emulsifier the structure is

no anions and cations are formed, so there is no prevents the proliferation of bacteria.

117
;

Carbide A carbide tool is made from material in Feed The rate at which a cutting tool advances along

which the carbides of certain metals such as tungsten or into a workpiece.


and titanium are mixed and then bonded together as
powder (sintered) by pressure and partial fusion. Head of water The pressure under which water is

Carbides occur naturally in steel, but with sintering delivered is referred to as the head of water. It derives

the concentration of metal carbides is much higher from the effective height of a column of water giving
than in any hardened steel, so the tool is harder. the same pressure.

Catalyst Strictly, this is a substance that promotes a Helical The difference between helical and spiral is

chemical reaction but is not itself involved in it, and not clear, even in the best dictionaries. To many people

therefore remains unchanged. The term is commonly there is no difference, but the impression among
used to denote any substance that accelerates a chemical
engineers who feel strongly about words is that a

reaction.
helix is like a coil spring while a spiral is like a watch-
spring. That convention has been adopted throughout

Centres: plain and running The 'centres' from which this book.

centre lathes take their name are conical protrusions


Metallic soaps These are formed when a fatty oil is
between which long workpicces are mounted. Before
brought into contact with almost any metal, to form a
the workpiece is positioned a small conical depression
tenacious lubricating film. Soaps of some heavy metals
is machined in each end the centres register
; in them for
are also used as load-carrying additives in heavy-
guidance and support. A development of the plain
duty lubricants.
static centre is the running centre, which rotates on
rolling bearings.
Modulus of elasticity If a solid body is subjected to
tensile or compressive loading its proportional change
Ceramics Tools even harder than the carbides are
of length is known as strain; the pressure (in, say,
made from the firing of selected clays containing highly
pounds per square inch) is known as stress. The ratio
abrasive metal oxides such as aluminium oxide. Ceramic
of stress to strain is the modulus of elasticity - Young's
and carbide tools, of course, are more brittle than
Modulus - and it reflects the degree by which the
tool steel, so precautions have to be taken in their
material is dimensionally affected by the physical forces
mounting and use.
applied.

Chlorinated paraffin This is a hydrocarbon compound inevitably exposed to the air for long
Oxidation Oil is
in which one or more of the carbon atoms have been
periods, and in most cases can do so without ill effect.
replaced by chlorine. Such compounds are fully
However, it deteriorates if it absorbs oxygen, because
compatible with mineral o^is, and form a convenient
the resultant chemical activity leads to breakdown. The
source of the chlorine required as an EP agent under
emulsifiers in soluble oil are often prone to oxidation,
conditions of high temperature and pressure.,
and the result of such action is the formation of a skin
on the surface. This can interfere with settings in some
Coefficient offriction a load having a weight
If is W mixing devices.
maintained in uniform sliding motion on a flat surface
by a force F, the ratio F/W is the coefficient of friction.
Precipitate The solid deposit known as precipitate is

This, in strict terms, is the coefficient of sliding friction often formed by chemical change in a liquid. For
it is almost always less than static friction, which relates instance, when sodium carbonate is added to hard
to the force required to start the motion from rest.
water the 'hardness' salts are converted to insoluble
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, which fall
De-activators Some of the additives used in neat oils,
to the bottom of the container as a precipitate.
emulsions and solutions tend to corrode copper and
the copper alloys. In some cases the unwanted effects Polarity This is a characteristic, particularly of fatty
can be minimized by the use of de-activators, which oils, by which one end of a molecule is strongly
render the metal more resistant to attack. attracted to metal surfaces. The result is a powerfully
adherent film of the material, which is known as an
Electro-chemical machining This, in effect, is the adsorbed layer.
opposite of electro-plating. Metal from the workpiece
is stripped by an electric current in a corrosive solution. Solenoid A solenoid is a coil of wire surrounding an
The stripping can be made very selective by virtue of the iron core that is free to slide. When current passes
shape of the cathode, and the process is useful for through the coil the core is pulled to themiddle posh ion,

shaping metals that are not readily amenable to and this action is used for operating switches or lifting

orthodox machining operations. cutting tools.

118
Solvent-refined oils Basically, mineral lubricants are sheet-metal is cold-rolled. This characteristic is

refined from crude oil by a process of distillation in occasionally put to good use in metal-forming opera-

which the constituents are boiled off at their appropriate tions, and the degree to which a metal is subject to it

boiling temperatures, and condensed. This is followed is known as strain hardenability.


by further refining processes appropriate to the nature
of the products. Solvent refining comes in this secondary Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is a
stage, where the unwanted portions and impurities are measure of the heat transmitted through a certain
removed selectively by the use of liquids that dissolve thickness over a certain area for a certain time, to give a
them. Many solvents are available, each with its own certain difference in temperature between the faces. It

characteristics, to provide a very flexible approach and is expressed in terms of a one-centimetre cube: if the
allow precise selection of lubricants. temperature difference between the faces is 1 deg C, and
one calorie passes between these faces each second, the
Spark erosion A method of removing metal by local conductivity is one cal/m s deg C. The value is also
high-density electrical sparking caused when a direct quoted in Btu/ft h deg F and W/m deg C.
current passes from the workpiece to a cathode of
appropriate shape. The debris is flushed away by a flow
Transverse rupture strength Since the harder tool
of light oil, which also acts as the dielectric fluid in the
materials tend to be brittle, their resistance to bending is
process. In time the workpiece takes up the inverse
an important factor in selection. The property is
shape of the cathode. The method is applied to metals
expressed as transverse rupture strength, and is
that are difficult to shape by conventional methods.
measured by a test in which a standard bar rests

horizontally on two supports and is subjected to a


Specific heat This is the amount of heat required to
central load. The criterion of rupture strength is either
raise the temperature of a standard mass of a substance
the central deflection under a standard load or the load
by one degree of temperature. It is expressed in British
required to break the test-piece.
thermal units per pound per degree Fahrenheit
(Btu/lb deg F) or calories/g deg C or Joulcs/kg/deg C.
Ultrasonic machining Very hard metal can be machined
by a tool vibrating at ultrasonic speed in an abrasive
Spindle oil The term is used for highly refined straight
slurry. The process is used for purposes such as cutting
mineral oils of low to medium viscosity, developed
very small holes in tool steels to make wire-drawing dies.
mainly for high-speed spindle lubrication but now used
for all types of precision machinery.
Viscosity Although viscosity is normally expressed in

Stable oils Stable oils are those with a long storage life terms of a liquid's resistance to flow, it is strictly the

and a long working life: they do not deteriorate early. resistance to internal shear. For practical purposes it is

The term is relative, though, because an oil that could be measured by the time taken for a standard amount to

stored in barrels for two years or more might deteriorate flow through a standard orifice at a given temperature.
quickly when spread at high temperature in thin layers - The standards vary from country to country; tradition-

say in a rolling bearing. ally the units have been Redwood seconds in UK,
Saybolt seconds in USA
and Englcr degrees on the
Strain hardenability Some metals have the property of Continent of Europe. Recently there has been a move
becoming harder when stressed beyond the elastic limit, towards the world-wide standardization of centistokes
as for example when a wire is drawn through a die, or as the measure of viscosity.

ERRATUM

The fifth item on page 118 opposite should read:

Chlorinated paraffin a hydrocarbon compound


This is

in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms have been


replaced by chlorine. Such compounds are fully
compatible with mineral oils, and form a convenient
source of the chlorine required as an
EP agent under
and pressure.
conditions of high temperature

119
Index

Note: the letter G denotes that the expression appears in the Glossary

Abrasives, grinding 74 Back-boring 37, G


Abrasivcness, workpiece 58 Backlash 18, G
Acne 112 Bacteria 92, 96, 98, 107, 114, 116

Active EP oils 103 Bactericides 92, 98, 114, 116

Additives 109, 92, 94, 101 et seq, G phenolic 115

Adsorption 96, G quaternary 115


Aerobic bacteria 114 Bactcriostats 114, G
Air bearings 40 Barrier creams 114

Alloying elements 49, 68, 81 et seq Bearings


Alloy steels, machinability 82 air 40
Aluminium ,
grinding-wheel spindles 30
cutting pressure 66 hydrostatic 40

machinability 83 lubricants for 41

machining 50 et seq Bond, of grinding wheels 74


Amine inhibitors 114 Boring machines
Angles horizontal 37, 93

cutting tools 43 vertical 13


cutting-tool data deep-hole 26
drilling 56 Brass (see also Yellow Metals)
milling 55 cutting pressure 66
turning, high-speed-steel tools 50, 88 EP cutting oils 103

turning, tungsten carbide tools 51, 52, 88 machinability 83, 103

molybdenum 90 machining data 50 et seq

niobium 90 staining and corrosion 101, 103


tantalum 90 swarf 48
titanium Brinell hardness 73
milling 88 British Standard Specifications
turning 88 bonded abrasive products 74
tungsten 90 nomenclature, single-point cutting tool 44
zirconium 90 viscosity grade designations 41
Aqueous coolants 91, 105, G Broaching
Aromatics, polycyclic 113 internal 32, 78

Automatic lathes surface 32

bar 13, 16 Broaching machines


chucking 15 horizontal 32

multi-spindle 15, 17 vertical 31, 32, 78


single-spindle 13, 16 Brookes 9
Swiss type 15 Built-up edge 46, 58, 61, 62, 64

120
Cancer, skin 113 Copying devices 12

Carbides 9, 49, 69 Coquilhat 9


Corrosion inhibitors 92, 93, 114
classification of 70
G Coupling agents 93
Carbide tools 46, 51, 52, 64, 65, 68, 69,
Crater wear 58, 61, 64
titanium 69
Cracking, thermal, of cutting edge 76
tungsten 69
Crazing 76
Carbon steels 48, 50 et seq, 81, 82
Crumbling 76
Carcinogens 113
Cutting edge, failure of 62, 64, 76
Cast iron
Cutting fluids
cutting pressure 66
care and maintenance 94, 105
dust 98
chemical coolants 101
machinability 45, 83
clarification 107
machining data 50 ct seq
emulsions 92 et seq
nodular 83
function 91
Catalysts 106, G
nature of 91
Cationic surface-acting materials 115, G neat cutting oils 101
Cementitc 83 reclamation 107 et seq
Centres, lathe
Cutting force
orthodox 12, G components 65
'live' or running 36
ejfect offeed 67
Centrifuges 106 et seq effect of rake 67
Centrifuging to control bacteria 114 Cutting pressures 66
Ceramic tools 9, 64 et seq, G Cutting speeds against tool life 76 et seq
Cermets 68, 71 Cutting speed/rotary speed/diameter 111
Chatter, tool 46, 49, 65, 67
Cutting speeds data
Chemical coolants 91, 92, 101, 109
drilling 56
Chip breakers 106, 107
milling 53, 54
Chips 88
turning, high-speed-steel tools 50,
basic types 59 88
turning, tungsten carbide tools 51, 52,
continuous 59, 61
molybdenum 90
discontinuous 59
niobium 90
in EP situation 103
tantalum 90
factors influencing formation 59 et seq
titanium
geometry 60 milling 88, 89
hardness 58
turning 88
segmental 59
tungsten 90
thickness 58, 61, 91
zirconium 90
various metals, behaviour 83 et seq
Cutting-tool geometry 43
work-hardening 58
Chlorinated cutting oils 102 et seq, G De-activators 101, G
Chucking automatics 15
Chucks 10
Depth of cut data
molybdenum 90
Clear neat cutting oils 104
niobium 90
Clear soluble-oil emulsions 93
tantalum 90
Clamped tip-tools 71, 72
titanium
Clarification systems 106
milling 88, 89
Clarnival 9
turning 88
Cleaning machine sumps 98
tungsten 90
Climb (down-cut) milling 18, 19, 85
zirconium 90
Clogging (loading) of grinding wheels 92
Dermatitis 106, 112, 114
Collets 10
Diamond tools 68
Columbium. Sec Niobium
Dilutions 97, 101
Compounded oils 103
Yellow Metals) DIN nomenclature, single-point cutting tools 44
Copper alloys (see also
machinability 83 Disposal of emulsions 107, 109

machining 103 Down-cut (climb) milling 18, 19, 85

121
Drilling Fluidmix, Laycock 95
data 56, 57 Folliculitis 112
gun-26 Forces, cutting 58, 60, 65, 66, 67
Drilling machines 22 Form tools, high-carbon steel for 68
multi-head 24, 26 Free-machining steels

multi-spindle 63 composition 81
pillar 22 data 50 et scq
radial 22, 23 machinability 82

fu/re/ 25, 26 Free-cutting non-ferrous alloys 83

Drill-point nomenclature 46 Friction


Drills 57 between chip and toolface 9, 92
coefficient of 58 et sea, G
Fuming 109
Elasticity, Modulus of 68 G,
Electro-chemical machining 9, G
Emulsifiers Galling 85, 86, 105
anionic 93, 115, G Galloway, Dr D F9
cationic 115, G Gear-production machines 33
non-ionic 93, 115, G broaching 33
Emulsion-type cutting fluids 92 grinding 35
checking strength 96 Mobbing 35
c/rar 93 lubricants for 41

colour plate opp. 82 milling 33


E/> type 94 planing 33, 34
m/7/o> 93 shaping 33, 34
preparation 94 shaving 36
storage 94 Geometry of cutting tools 9, 43 et seq

;/.ve 99 Grain
Ernst, H 9, 59, 61 of grinding wheels 74
Evaporation 94, 96 structure, of metal 80
Expansion, thermal 68 Grinding 29
Extreme-pressure (EP) cutting fluids 94, 101, 103, 105 abrasives 74
filters 32
fluids 31, 93, 101, 105
Failure of cutting edges 62, 64, 76
wheels, identification markings 74
Fatty oils 101, 102, 103, 104
Grinding machines 29
Feed G centreless 31, 39
effect on cutting force 61
cylindrical 29, 98
mechanisms, lubricants for 41
internal 84
Feeds data spindle bearings 30
drilling 57
surface 29, 30
milling 49, 53, 54
Gun-drilling 26
turning, high-speed-steel tools 50, 88

turning, tungsten carbide tools 51, 52, 54


molybdenum 90 Hardness 72 ,

niobium 90 Brinell 73
tantalum 90 conversion tables 73
titanium hot 68
milling 88, 89 Rockwell 73
turning 88 tool, effects of temperature 71
tungsten 88 tool materials 68

zirconium 90 VPN 73
Filters for grinding fluids 32 workpiece materials 58, 80
Filtration 106 Hardness of water 95
to control bacteria 114 Heat generated by cutting 61
Fire hazard, machining titanium 85 Heat treatment
Flank wear, of tools 58 of metals 80
maximum permissible 76 of coolants 114

122
Helical G titanium 85, 88, 89

machining 19 up-cut 19

swarf 48, 84 Milling machines 18


High-speed-steel tools 9, 49, 50, 64, 68, 69 bed-type 19, 22

Hobbing 35 horizontal 18, 20

Honing 31 knee-type 20, 21, 22


Hydrogen-ion concentration 96 piano- 22, 28
Hydraulics, lubricants for 41 turret 22
universal 19, 21

Inactive EP oils 103 vertical 19, 20


Institute of Petroleum 96 Mineral oils 101 et seq
Iron. See Cast Iron Mixing soluble oils 94, 95
Infections of the skin 93, 96, 103, 112 Modulus of elasticity 68, G
Inhibitors 92, 93 Molybdenum
amine type 114 characteristics 86
for grinding fluids 101 machining 86
ISO markings for grinding wheels 74 tool and machining data 90
Multi-spindle automatics 15, 17
Keratoses 112 Multi-spindle drilling machines 63
Kinematic viscosity 40, 110 Neat cutting oils Frontispiece, 92, 101 et seq
Nickel alloys, machinability 83
Lapping 31 Nickel-chromium steels 82
Lathes 10 Nimonics 67, 71, 83
automatic 13 ct seq fluids for machining 105
capstan 12, 14 machinability 83

centre 10 machining and tool data 50 et seq

gap-bed 12 Niobium (Columbium)


tools, setting 46 characteristics 87

turret 12 machining 87
Laycock 'Fluidmix' 95 tool and machining data 90
Lead screws 10, 11 Nocardia bacteria 114
lubricants for 41 Nodular cast iron 83

Life, tool 76 et seq Non-ionic emulsificrs 93, 115, G


Loading of grinding wheels 92 Nose radius, of tool-points 46
Lubrication recommendations 40 Numerical control 12, 22, 25, 26, 39
Lubricants for grinding spindles 32
Oxidation 95, 103, 105, G
Machinability 58, 80, 82, 83, 87
Machine Tool Industries Research Association Paraffins, chlorinated 102 et seq, G
lubrication recommendations 41 Parting-off Frontispiece, 12, 13 et seq, 62

Machining centres 38, 39 Pathogenic bacteria 115


Machining data Petroleum sulphonate soaps 93
exotic metals 88 pH value 96, 114
general 49 Phenolic bactericides 115
Magnetic separation 106, 107 Planing machines 27, 28
Maudslay, Henry 10 Piano-milling machines 22, 28

Merchant, M E 9, 61 Plastics, drilling 56


Metallurgical conditions, workpiece materials 80, 81 Polycyclic aromatics 113

Methylene bis chlorophcnols 115 Power


Mild EP oils 103 distribution in a lathe 66
Milky soluble-oil emulsions 93 requirement at the workpiece 66
Milling 18, 49, 53, 54, 55 the coolant required 100

climb 18, 19 Pressures, cutting 66


cutters 18 Pseudomonas bacteria 114, 116
cutting-edge nomenclature 45
form 72 Quantabs 101
piano- 28 Quaternary ammonium salt 115, 116

123
Quaternary bactericides 115 Strain hardening 49, 58, 59, 84, G
Sterilization of cutting fluids 107, 114
Rake angles 43 et seq Streptococcus bacteria 114
exotic metals 90 Sulphurized cutting oils 101 et seq
Nimonics 83 Sulphur in steels 81
Rake, effect on cutting force 67 Surface-active materials, cationic 115
Rape seed oil 103 Swarf separation 108, 109
Reclaiming cutting oils 107 et seq Swarf types, illustrated 48
Red Spot Test 116 Synergistic additive effects 104
Refractometer 97, 101 Synthetic coolants 91, 92, 101, 109
Rockwell hardness 73
Rupture strength, transverse 68, 71, G Tangential cutting forces 65, 67
Tantalum
Salts characteristics 85
quaternary ammonium 115, 116 machining 86
sodium 115 tool and machining data 90
tetrazolium 116 Taylor, F W 9, 76
Segmental chip 59 Temperature
Separating soluble oil from water 108, 109 additive blending 102, 104

Setting, lathe tools 47 distribution in a single-point tool 61


Shaping machines 26 effects on tool hardness 71
Shear strength, workpiece materials 58 equivalents 110
Simple continuous chip 59 machine accuracy 99
Skin operating, offluids 99, 105, 114
diseases 112, 113 sterilization 107
infections 96, 103 storage, soluble-oil emulsions 94
irritation 93 Tetrazolium salt 116
Slideways, lubricants for 40, 41 Theory of cutting 58
Slotting machines 27 Thermal conductivity 92, G
Soaps, metallic 103, G Throw-away tips 67, 71, 72
Sodium Titanium carbide 69
mercaptobenzthiazole 101 Titanium
nitrite 93, 101 characteristics 84, 85

salts 115 cutting fluids for 105


Soluble oils 92 et seq, 107, 114 machining 85, 88, 89
Solvents 105 Titration 101
Solvent-refined oils 103, G Tools
Specific heat 92, G life 76, 77
Spark erosion 9, G materials 68 et seq
Speeds. See Cutting Speeds. wear 58, 64, 75 et seq
Spindle oil 103, G Torque
Stable oils 103, G drilling 9
Stainless steels machine 65
machining 82 Toughness 68
machining data 50 et seq Tourret, R 78
Staphylococcus bacteria 114 Transverse rupture strength 68, 71, G
Steels, tool Triethanolamine 101
high-carbon 68 Tungsten
high-speed 9, 49, 50, 64, 68, 69 characteristics 86, 87

Steels, machining characteristics machining 86


chromium stainless 82 tool and machining data 90
free-machining 81, 82 Tungsten carbide 69
medium-carbon, cutting pressure 66 Turning 10 et seq, 49, 50 et seq, 84 et seq
mild, cutting pressure 66 Turret lathe 12, 14
nickel-chromium stainless 66, 82
plain carbon 82 Up-cut milling 19
Stellite 68 Ultrasonic machining 9, G

124
Vibration 46, 65, 67, 71, 84, 85 Wear, tool 58, 61, 64, 75 et seq
Vickers Pyramid Number 73 Wetting agents 92
Viscosity of lubricants 40, 86, G Work-hardening 49, 58, 59, 84, G
equivalents 110 Worms, lubricants for 41
variation with temperature 40
Yellow (cuprous) metalssee also Copper and Brass
Warts 112 cutting fluids for 103
Water machinability 83
acidity and alkalinity 96 machining data 50 et seq
coolants 91, 105 staining of 103, 104, 105
effect on cutting speed 9
hardness 95
separating from soluble oils 108

125
BP and Industry...

In the past few years improvements in


production-engineering techniques have been
truly staggering. Demands for greater
outputs
and greater economies are constantly heard.
.Metal -cutting processes are under continuous
development to provide higher rates of metal
removal, better surface finish and closer
dimensional control. Meanwhile the difficult-
to-machine metals titanium and the
Nimonics, for example are gradually nx>\-ing
from the fields of aviation and space
engineering into the general industrial arena.

All these factors place a tremendous


burden on
the performance of cutting fluids.

BP's range of fluids, like the whole spectrum


of BP industrial lubricants, isbacked by vast
technical experience and impressive research
facilities. Their high quality is matched by that
of all the other BP products - lubricants, fuels
and special products for the automotive,
aviation, agricultural and marine fields;
gas,
petrochemicals, plastics and petroleum -based
protein, to give only a few examples. The list
is
almost endless.

The British Petroleum Company Limited is the


parent company of the BP group one of the
largest industrial concerns in the world, with
interests in some 80 countries. The group is
engaged in all phases of the oil industry
exploration, production, transportation,
refining and marketing. BP owns 15 refineries
and has a considerable number of joint refining
interests. Its marketing network extends
throughout Europe and large areas of the
eastern and western hemispheres.
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