Name: Lauren Brewis

Student Number: 4500 841 8

Research report

Module Code: GENARTJ

Assignment 04: final draft of portfolio

Unique Number: 754002

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DECLARATION

Name: Lauren Brewis

Student number: 4500 8418

Assignment topic: GENARTJ (portfolio)

I declare that this assignment is my own original work. Where secondary

material has been used (either from a printed source or from the internet),
this has been carefully acknowledged and referenced. I understand what
plagiarism is and am aware of Unisas policy in this regard. I have not
allowed anyone else to borrow or copy my work.

Signed: Lauren Brewis

Due date: 20- 11 - 2013

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 CONTENT

PAGE

STUDENT DETAILS. 1

DECLARATION 2

CONTENT PAGE.. 3

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION 4

- Research problem. 4
- Methodology .. 4
- Radical Feminist approach 5
- The Authors Biography.. 6

CHAPTER 2:

PART A Findings and Results. 8

- Findings and Observations.. 8

- Patriarchy Throughout History and Today. 9
- Did Matriarchs exist in Pre-colonial Africa?.. 13
- Are we Behind?... 14
- Customs Formed in Good Order .. 15
- Cultural Norms 16

PART B A Literature Review of Nervous Conditions 19

- Education as Depicted in the Narrative 19

- Girls and Education in Africa Today . 20
- Cultural Hybridization 21
- Gender Discrimination and Abuse............................ 22
- Maiguru (Women and Asset Acquisition) . 23

CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION 26

WORKS CITED 28

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

- Research Problem

This research report will make use of an expository and analytical position,
in which it will explore the relationship between the literary themes and
compositions of Zimbabwean woman author Tsitsi Dangarembgas novel
Nervous Condition, reading this novel as a critique of African patriarchy.
Furthermore this report will examine how these themes correspond with the
troubles facing African women today. These themes include patriarchal
societies in Africa and gender inequality on terms of employment, education
and asset acquisition and the emotional and psychological harm they have
on women.

The research report to follow will engage in an in-depth analysis of the

novel, in which attention will be focused on the various women characters in
the novel and the struggles they encounter that stem from the gender
oppression in their community. Additionally, I will be making reference to
various authors, psychologist, journalists and research statistics to compile
a well-rounded indication of the oppression of women in Africa today.

This report examines the various ways in which African patriarchy

manifests itself regarding the subordinate position of women. It then makes
use of the Radical Feminist approach, extracting the concepts that are
effective in understanding the novel. Finally, this research report analyses
the novel in relation to the better understanding of African patriarchy and
oppression of women.

- Methodology

I will be conducting a feminist literary analysis of Tsitsi Dangarembgas

novel Nervous Conditions and in the course of this analysis I will draw on
comparisons with my own research, including news and scholarly articles,
authors comments, psychological, anthropological and sociological
theorists work, recent statistical analysis and historical fact sheets that
correspond with some of the major themes in the novel, namely, the
exploration of the effects of patriarchal societies in Africa and gender
inequality on terms of employment, education and asset acquisition.

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- A Radical Feminist Approach

A radical feminist literary approach was taken when reading this novel.
Radical Feminism was at its strongest during the years 1965- 1975 during
the second wave of feminism; this was also during the years that our story is
set in the novel. Radical feminism aims to highlight the hypothesis of male
dominance and patriarchy as a means of power that categorizes society into
a range of relationships in order to assert control. As Ellen Willis states
[patriarchy is] not only the oldest and most universal form of dominance
but the primary form. (Willis, 1984) Radical feminists strive to prove that
the direct cause of oppression of women is patriarchy in gender relations, as
opposed to the legal systems as in liberal feminism or class conflict as in
socialist feminism and Marxist feminism. However, it is no longer as
commonly referred to as it was in the past because many sub-theories have
branched from it. I chose to explore this movement and use it as a point of
departure for my research because I feel that at the time, being an author
interested in womens struggles, Tsitsi Dangarembga would have been aware
of the womanist movement and the advances it was taking towards the
emancipation of women throughout the world. This movement arose from
the civil rights and peace movement in 1967-1968. The reason this theory is
deemed radical is that it views the oppression of women as the single most
important form of oppression, one that ignores the boarders of race, culture
and economic class. This movements main goal was the struggle towards
social change on a world wide scale. Furthermore, radical feminism is
focused on the questioning of gender roles. This is why past and current
gender politics can be identified with radical feminism. The movement
questions why people must adopt certain roles based on their biological
form, it questioned why society encouraged certain gender roles on both
genders. Radical feminism also attempts to differentiate between biologically
determined behaviour and culturally determined behaviour in order to allow
men and women the freedom that their previous roles hindered. Popular
authors within Radical feminism are both Anne Koedt with her book simply
titled Radical Feminism, and Alice Echols with her book; Daring to be Bad
and this is still referred to by scholars as the go to book of radical feminist
literature to date. She states; and just as the end goal of socialist
revolution was not the elimination of the economic class privilege but of the
economic class distinction of itself, so the end goal of feminist revolution
must be, unlike that of the first feminist movement, not just the elimination
of male privilege but of the sex distinction itself: genital differences between
human beings would no longer matter culturally. (Echols, 1989, p. 163) As

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seen in the novel Nervous Conditions, radical feminists suggest that due to
patriarchy, women have been come to be known as the other gender group
in contrast to the male norm, and they suggest that all men benefit from the
oppression of women. This school of feminist thought can be said to follow
the exact assumptions made by Dangarembga in her illustrations and
portrayal of the struggles these fictional women face in their community and
how they strive to overcome adversity.

Furthermore, the issues that arose in the context of the story line can be
related directly to problems facing women in Africa, both in the past and to
this day. I believe that Dangarembga assesses relevant problems that,
speaking from an African womens point of view, make her a reliable source
of information. As a scholar of both theology and Gender Studies I am aware
of the risks of speaking on behalf of others and this is why I have decided to
review the works of a much respected African woman author. According to
Linda Martin Alcoff, an American philosopher that specializes in feminism,
race theory and existentialism, there is growing concern in the harm
involved in speaking on behalf of others. Alcoff states that it is among other
things unethical and politically illegitimate (Alcoff, 1996).

- The Authors Biography

Tsitsi Dangarembgas novel Nervous Conditions was published in the United

Kingdom by the Womens Press in 1988. Although it was published as
fiction it is clear when researching the authors own upbringing that this
novel is a fictionalized autobiographical depiction of the authors own life
and struggles which she observed. (Wilkinson, 1992) Tsitsi Dangarembga
was born in 1959 during the colonial era in Zimbabwe, then called
Rhodesia. She attended school in England from the age of two to six, and
after returning to Rhodesia, she completed her schooling at a missionary
school. Tsitsi Dangarembga continued to travel between the two countries
for some time while studying medicine, first at the University of Cambridge
and later a degree in psychology at the University of Zimbabwe.
Dangarembga worked on a number of projects relating to the limitations of
traditional gender roles that were placed on African women (Thein, 2012).
She does, however, remind her readers of the risks associated with denying
ones traditional cultural heritage. She concludes by suggesting that only
with a great understanding of the two concepts of the problems of gender
discrimination and understanding of ones place in ones culture and society
can one truly find balance and harmony. One must appreciate both African

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tradition and western process to find the successful goal to work towards.
(Thein, 2012)

There are many issues of cultural debate in this novel. Tsitsi Dangarembga
discusses in great detail of the impact the white English colonizers had on
the African native people of Rhodesia at the time that this story was
portrayed, being the 1960s and 1970s, and this is shown through the
characterisation of the different personalities in this novel. Another major
theme is gender inequality and patriarchy. This theme is at the forefront of
all the sub-themes and is illustrated through the relationships between the
men and women in the novel, namely both family and spousal relations. The
difference between African cultures versus western traditions becomes
evident when looking at the contrasting elements of these various
relationships.

I chose to analyse this novel in particular, firstly because Tsitsi

Dangarembga was the first Zimbabwean female author to be published and
receive such acclaim for her work and secondly, because I believe that the
central themes and problems that are explored in this novel are relevant to
the struggles that women in Africa are facing every day. Many young girls
and women living in both urban and rural communities in Africa choose or
are forced to put their education on hold or drop out of school due to family
responsibilities or a lack of financial support from their families. It is also a
fact that many African families are headed by older men whom hold a
dictatorship over their families. They are the sole decision makers, making
women voiceless and compelling them to live in passive silence, making
them victims of emotional and sometimes physical abuse. This is a reality
for many women, in South Africa and many other African countries this is
how it has always been, taught and passed down through the customs and
traditions of the people. I believe Nervous Conditions depicts these themes
well and opens up debate about the happenings that many people are
unaware of. In the patriarchal society that we live in, many African women,
who lack education, believe that it is the duty of a good woman to be a
submissive to her male counterpart and community.

I wish to make the reader aware of the goings-on of these unjust practises,
their physical consequences as well as the psychological impact these biased
attitudes have on the women they affect. The psychological ramifications are
extensive and they can be said to be a way of keeping the cycle of oppression
going in Africa and this will inevitably hinder the growth of the given
country. South Africa prides itself on its new found democratic status

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including equality for all; however, with regards to gender equality and
deeply rooted bias against women, we are still not a gender equal society.
Unless the women stand together, with support and empathy for one
another, as depicted in the novel, we will continue to fall into subservience.
Here, I believe, education is the key, and if not projected into our daily lives,
Africa will continue to lie stagnant while the rest of the world advances
without us. I believe that this research and analysis is of the utmost
importance and Tsitsi Dangarembgas novel projects the most important
aspects of gender inequality and indications of a possible solution with
regards to the developments of womens rights

CHAPTER 2

PART A - Findings and Results

- Findings and Observations

The novel explores unequal gender relations between the men and women in
the Sigauke clan; which is largely associated with traditions and keeping
them alive for fear of the colonising influence weakening the culture. The
women in the novel, namely Nyasha, Maiguru, Lucia, Tambu and
MaShingayi, deal with patriarchy in various ways throughout the novel.
Each of these women makes efforts to question the traditions of patriarchy.
Although the novel focuses on the story of Tambu and her quest for
education and emancipation, it also concerns the various struggles that
each woman faces.

In narrating her story, Tambu finds herself facing the triple oppression of
race, class and gender. As Bosman suggests she is faced with having to
betray men as in the case when she talks about her brother, Nhamo, and
his ill treatment of her. As an educated black woman she has to contend
with the community that would regard her as a traitor because she
assimilated some of the western traits, and lastly she may have been
alienated from women that share similar plight of subjugation, as the latter
could be complacent with the status quo. (Bosman, 1990, p. 94)

It seems that wherever Tambu turns she faces obstacles. This is firstly
portrayed with her mothers remark that: these days its worse, with the
poverty of blackness on the one hand and the weight of womanhood on the
other. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 16) Tambu also goes into some detail about
her torment from her brother, who went to great lengths to assert his
superiority. Her father; who viewed her efforts to raise money for schooling

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as ridiculous and her mother attempting to teach her how to tolerate the
hardships that, as a woman, she will be burdened with. It is then easy to
understand why Tambu idolises her uncle Babamukuru, he is educated,
successful and he appears to be her only salvation from a life of hardship,
she even goes as far as regarding him as the closest thing a human being
could get to God (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 58).

- Patriarchy Throughout History and Today

Considering the above analysis, one has to ask oneself; what is the overall
problem these women face? To me, it is clear-cut; patriarchy in Africa. The
additional problems are branches that stem as a result of such male
dominance. So what exactly is patriarchy?

According to Carol P Christ in her blog, Patriarchy as a system of Male

Dominance Created at the Intersection of the Control of Women, Private
Property, and War, Part 2, she suggests that patriarchy is a method of male
dominance that has been rooted in the spirit of war which justifies violence
which is approved by religious symbolism, in which men control women and
their sexuality, with the purpose of passing wealth and assets to male heirs
only thus insuring their dependability and loyalty of their women. Christ
also states that men were taught from an early age to be ruthless heroes of
war, and this would guarantee their success. They were told to kill men and
rape women in order to assert their dominance. They were taught to seize
land and steal treasures, to exploit resources and to own and dominate
slaves (Christ, 2013). This then raises the question of how exactly this
system came about that men have the right to own property that they then
pass down to their sons while neglecting daughters. I believe that the
answer to this lies in the history of war and the resulting attainment of
property by force. Furthermore, the act of rape and slavery has always been
an ordinary part of war, featuring as far back as in the Christian bible and
Greek mythology. History books show that it was an ancient tradition for
solders to enslave both women and young children of their enemy.
Throughout history there is evidence of women slaves from the Americas to
Africa and throughout the East. Violence, or the mere threat of violence, has
always been used to control ones wife and ones daughters to ensure their
virtue so that they may be given to other men pure and chaste in order to
preserve the order of patriarchal inheritance.

How does this violence justify itself? Records show - by religion. In ancient
Greece, solders were trained in the image of Zeus, the Warrior God whose

9
rape of goddesses was celebrated. In Israel, soldiers were trained to mirror
the actions of their Lords and Kings who attained their wealth and success
through violence .Unfortunately this is not only a Western problem. In most
cultures defined by male dominance, symbolisms of Devine warriors are
used to validate the violence of mortal men. (Rawling, 2013, pp. 3-29)

On the other hand, patriarchy is not exclusive to the simple domination of

women by men. Patriarchy is a complex and integral belief system in which
men control women and their sexuality. Private property, war and the
foundations of conquest, rape and slavery; all these aspects thrive together.
The different elements of patriarchy are so deeply-rooted and intertwined
that it is almost impossible to isolate one single element as the root cause.
Instead patriarchy can be viewed as a complex system of securing the
oppression of women, which is enforced through the use of violence. Here
the link to radical feminist beliefs is evident; the model of patriarchy I have
illustrated suggests that the dominance and control over women and their
sexuality is of utmost importance to men in preserving patriarchy. This
model, suggested by Carol P Christ, as an integral system can aid us in the
exploration and understanding that, in order to end patriarchy, we should
also focus on putting an end to war related violence, including rape and
slavery. We also need to address the blatant unequal distribution of wealth
and private property.

Most women throughout the course of history have essentially been slaves,
even when belonging to higher social classes. Until very recently women
throughout Europe, the Middle East, Asia and Africa were voiceless and had
no input into political, religious or cultural lives. They were not able to own
property or inherit assets and were often treated as property themselves. In
some countries including Asian and African countries, girls are sometimes
confiscated or sold to settle debt from money lenders (Tang, 2007).In ancient
Assyria the states punishment for rape was to hand over the perpetrators
wife to the husband of the victim for him to use in any way he felt necessary
(Berkowitz, 2012, pp. 10-16), and most disturbing of all is the infamous
widowhood sacrifices, these were common throughout Africa and the East
and are to this day practised in some cultures. This practise suggests that a
wife will be killed or kill themselves shortly after the death of her husband.
Even the so called advanced-beyond-their-years ancient Greeks, the
originators of democracy, did not allow women to own property or have an
influence in politics. In the Islamic religion many women essentially live as
prisoners, they may not take part in social activities or even leave their
homes without being accompanied by their husbands. They have no

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influence over their own lives and men are ultimately the sole decision
makers. Husbands also have the right to demand sex from their wives at
any time and the occurrence of domestic rape is common because a Muslim
husband essentially owns his wife, polygamy is allowed in the Islamic
tradition, however polyandry is forbidden (Quar'an, 2013, p. 4:3) .The
Islamic Quran states that it is acceptable to strike ones wife if a husband
feels she has been disobedient, the direct quote from the Quran translates;
Men are in charge of women by [right of] what Allah has given one over the
other and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth. So righteous
women are devoutly obedient, guarding in [the husband's] absence what
Allah would have them guard. But those [wives] from whom you fear
arrogance - [first] advise them; [then if they persist], forsake them in bed;
and [finally], strike them. But if they obey you [once more], seek no means
against them. Indeed, Allah is ever exalted and grand (Quar'an, 2013, p.
4:34).

In Africa there is no difference as we saw previously in the novel Nervous

conditions; here we can see the similarities. Even though customs are not as
formal as the regulation of womens clothing or ultimately being physically
locked indoors, the overall basis of patriarchy does not differ a great deal.
There have been great attempts to explain the phenomenon of female
oppression in biological terms. Sociologist Steven Goldberg suggests in his
book The Inevitability of Patriarchy that men are more competitive than
women because of the testosterone they produce, this therefore makes them
more aggressive and hungry for power and status and this inevitably leaves
women in a more subordinate position (Goldberg, 1973). While this
assumption may be feasible, it does not suggest enough to justify the
worldwide phenomenon that cuts through class, race, culture or time. In my
opinion the dominance over women has a far more deeply rooted
psychological cause that is suggested by psychologist and author Steven
Taylor in his book Back to Sanity. Taylor suggests that the human race is in
a state of insanity suffering from a disorder called Humania (Taylor, 2012);
Taylor suggests that the oppression of women is one of the main symptoms
of this so called disorder that we have. He claims that it is one thing for men
to be biologically ingrained with hunger for power and status, but the
brutality that has been inflicted on women at the hands of men, is what no
other species on earth has ever done. Since women are the carriers and
nurturers of the young Taylor sees no reason why men would treat women
with such great disrespect. He states that the oppression of women comes
directly from mens desire to conquer and control. This is the very same

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need that drives war and as seen throughout history. In any tale of war
there are power-hungry men fighting to take control and conquer other
tribes or nations, to oppress classes in their own societies and this drives
them to dominate and oppress women. Men deny women the rights to make
their own decisions so that they [men] will have the power to make those
decisions for them. Ultimately, Taylor claims that men are ever trying to
increase their level of significance and status. (Taylor, 2012)

But even this is not enough to explain the history of the inapprehensible
amount of inhumanity man has inflicted on women. Many cultures view
women as impure or essentially sinful; born to lead men astray, while men
are viewed as pure and closer to God. This example is featured strongly in
the testaments of the twelve patriarchs in the Jewish Testament of Reuben,
it states; women are evil, my children, they use wiles and will try to ensnare
[man] by their charms. They lay plots in their hearts against men: by the
way they adorn themselves they first lead their mind astray, and by a look
they instil the poison, and in the act itself take them captive. So shun
fornication, my children and command your wives and daughters not to
adorn their heads and faces. (RosenZvi, 2006, p. 5:1)

This is commonly found in religious manuscripts, it is not uncommon for

the idea of sexual desires to be stemming from sin. Women are depicted as
sinful and filled with carnal desire. Eve was seduced by Satan to eat from
the forbidden tree, thus men have always thought of themselves as having
purity of the mind, while women encompass the corruption of the body.
Even biological acts such as pregnancy, menstruation, breast feeding and
menopause were considered unclean and shameful. Furthermore we see this
depicted quite obviously in Nervous conditions when Tambu voices her clear
disgust with her treacherous body and her menstruation, she states that ; I
knew that the fact of menstruation was a shameful unclean secret that
should not be allowed to contaminate immaculate male ears by indiscreet
reference to this kind of dirt in their presence. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 70)

On the other hand, one cannot disregard the idea that perhaps it is as
simple as men having resentment for women for the power they hold over
them. One cannot dismiss that women hold some sort of advantage where
the biologically testosterone-controlled men are concerned. Feeling that sex
was a sinful act, men were bound to feel some sort of bitterness towards
unmarried women who produced these feelings of desire in them, leading
them into the sin which is lust. In addition, a womens sexual power must
have insulted a mans need to control. Men may have been able to make

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women cover their bodies from head to toe but in no way were they able to
take away a womans ability to arouse sexual desire which rendered men
helpless.

So apparently whoever has to power of reproduction ultimately has the

power to rule the world, and men seem to fall into the peripheral in this
case. Men also seem to be secondary elements where children are concerned
and this raises the question: did it take rape to create a society where men
were no longer seen as peripheral? In order to answer this rather disturbing
question, we first need to address the issue of mens secondary role in the
natural order of things. The males biological role in reproduction is small,
and in almost all known cultures the fathers participation in child rearing is
minimal in comparison to the mothers. This seems to evoke a means of
compensation to the male species, because in all known societies there are
artificial and self-constructed roles that men fulfil that they claim to be
equal to the role a women has in the process-relational natural order. All
throughout history and cultures men have reserved these special men-only
rituals, whether it be the Catholic church that only allow men as heads of
churches all the way down to initiation of African boys turning into men and
as peculiar as the native cultures in Papua New Guinea that suggest men
should go out into the forest and play his flute-like instrument called a Ari
and this will restore balance in the universe. What is notable is just how
insincere and unnecessary all these customs are for actual survival. Women
are tasked with the arduous duty of maintaining a pregnancy, carrying,
labour and the raising of children and the men are in charge of playing the
magical flute for no one but the universe, yet we see it time and time again
with each society inflating mens tasks as to try to equalise their importance.

- Did Matriarchies Exist in Pre-Colonial Africa?

Claiming the illusion of matriarchy in pre-colonial Africa establishes an easy

scapegoat to blame colonialism for patriarchy. Patriarchy was not imported
by colonisers; there is too much historical evidence of patriarchy and male
dominance in pre-colonial Africa to even suggest such a claim. In addition
we should not paint the picture of history that Africans stopped thinking for
themselves during the years of colonisation. Minna Salami, a Nigerian writer
suggests that if we believe that we did in fact live in a time governed by
women then maybe we will automatically return to such a state. This allows
us to lazily continue with our daily lives without confronting a serious
problem within the African context. This implies that if you are African and
female, you are simply not considered fully beneficial to the progress of the

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given country or entire continent for that matter. You do not possess the
same rights as your male counterpart. You are at a disadvantage in some of
the most important aspects of life; your faith or religion is in conflict with
you; you do not have equal access to education, land ownership or asset
acquisition; the health institutions are not equipped for your female
autonomy; walking down the street is not safe as you are then at risk of
being violated and abused because you are the physically weaker sex; your
history is unwritten. It all points to the very fact that women, irrespective of
their class, race or culture, are living in undeclared gender apartheid.
(Salami, 2010) Salami goes further to suggest that myths or stories that
people make up are indeed powerful tools in shaping our minds and
reaching Marlows top seat in his pyramid. Myths can be empowering
especially for women because they suggest a united sense of womanhood,
but as empowered as myths make women feel, at the end of the day, they
are only fictional stories, and so are the matriarchal myths of Africa. There
is no intellectual accuracy in distorting history to calm the mind, when
facing the harder reality is beneficial in the long haul.

- Are we Behind?

The dangers we are now facing is that many people associate Africa and
African culture with stone age thinking, and as a result, feel absolutely no
desire to help or keep true Africanism alive. Although it is difficult to
pinpoint a direct definition as to what Africanism is, when one understands
ones own culture purely through Western media classification and
conceptualisation it is not then surprising that images of simplified and
biased portrayal hinders the exploration of a deeper understanding of what
it means to be African. The longer African culture allows for this way of
thinking and portrayal, the more the cultures are cast in a negative light
and the further they will roam from the true philosophies that their
ancestors thrived on. Every day more and more educated African people are
referring to their own culture as backwards or simple minded and even
though this points to the misconception that the West has trademarked
progress; this is the way cultures die. This is what makes [Steve] Bikos
definition of African culture so important at this point of African history. In
his definition , the observer can note the flexibly the culture allows, while
knowing that the core of the culture allows one to disassemble it and truly
understand which things matter and which things dont. (Biko, 1987)

We see this issue being questioned throughout the novel Nervous Conditions.
Tambu struggles to incorporate both the traditional beliefs of her people and

14
the Western ideas of the missionaries. She faces constant internal dilemmas
while trying to make sense of the world that she knew and blindly accepted
with the new knowledge she has learnt. These conflicts of interest make
Tambu question the African traditions she grew up with because she
realises that these traditions did not serve her or any of the women whom
she knew. African people cannot unite within a culture that is deemed
backwards, and they certainly cannot unite within a culture that is
oppressive. Therefore the most threatening concept for African culture is
patriarchy. African people cannot unite within a culture that is oppressive,
and therefore the longer they refuse to believe that African culture is
inclusive of patriarchy, the more African women will feel that it is a culture
that is not worth preserving. How can we expect African women to fight to
preserve a culture that continues to marginalise them through its many
sexist practices? It is of utmost importance that we continue to explore
deeper into the African culture and recognise patriarchy as a concept that
hinders growth and does not assist in keeping the culture alive. It is
important that all Africans know that being African is not about loin cloths
or mud huts; it is not about paying Lobola or going to initiation ceremonies;
Being African is about thinking and feeling and living as a united
community keeping the spirit of Botho or Ubuntu alive; everything else is
simply additional. Ubuntu embraces the all human virtues, compassion and
humanity at the forefront. To keep true Africanism alive one must have true
compassion for all human life, respect for others, love for your country and
commitment to your God.

- Customs Formed in Good Order

It is important to acknowledge that patriarchy is simply an organisation of

custom that elders believed would promote Botho/Ubuntu and be in favour
of the peoples best interest at the time. It can be said that many patriarchal
practices were created for good reason. One example is the practise of
Bogadi or Lobola which occurred when a couple became engaged to marry;
the groom-to-be would offer livestock to the womans family as a means of
showing gratitude for raising such a fine women. However, looking at this
practice in todays time, it is not hard to feel as though it is an outright
sexist act, but it is not difficult to see that it was once a respected deed. I
imagine that when cultures developed this custom of sharing livestock that
it was a means of promoting family unity. But today, in a world where men
and women share equal opportunities, this tradition is beginning to seem a
little out of place. We must begin to view these customs as perpetuating
patriarchy in African cultures. Until we begin to view patriarchy as a

15
completely redundant aspect of African culture, we cannot predict any
liberation movement being successful. By enforcing submissive roles onto
women, we are insuring that the African culture stays in the past and if the
number of women willing to be submissive is declining, a result of that will
then be a decline in the number of women willing to support the patriarchal
order.

- Cultural Norms

The culture of a certain group of people usually always includes structures

and practises that support patriarchal order by legitimising values,
expectations and behavioural patterns. In other words, culture is indicative
of a shared belief system of traditions and values of a particular group.
Every aspect of ones existence is determined by ones culture and the lives
of both men and women are fashioned by the social world they live in.
Furthermore, social roles are regulated strongly by the culture we inhibit.
Traditional cultures, such as the one portrayed in the novel Nervous
Conditions, shape distinctive roles for men and women. The father or oldest
male in the home is recognised as the sole decision maker, and the novel
clearly demonstrates the acceptance that male dominance is a natural part
of life in rural African communities.

Masculinity is something that young boys must earn through the act of
initiation, in which they are subjected to a number of difficult tasks that
challenge both the body and mind. On the other hand a woman does not
need to earn her femaleness. From an early age her role as a wife,
housekeeper and mother is cemented into her future with little chance of
flexibly. These gender roles are deeply rooted within societal customs which
would take generations to change, as Peplau states: The qualities that
cultures link with masculinity and femininity are not innately male or
female. Instead they are, in the language of social science, and socially
constructed. (Peplau, 1997)

Womens general acceptance of demotion is perpetuated by men who defend

their superiority as culturally important, therefore, the ideology is that
patriarchy becomes culture and culture becomes nature. This point is
illustrated by Dangarembga; as the protagonist, Tambu, is denied access to
equal education because she is female. Her fathers refusal to allow her to
attend school is fuelled by cultural assumptions, which consider education
as a male privilege. Tambus perceived place is at home, catering for her
family and later for her husband and children. Women in all communities

16
throughout Africa and the world are often denied their fundamental rights
by governments who rationalize this deprivation through referring to
cultural norms. Butengwa substantiates this concept by suggesting that
greater exploration of culture would show that only those parts of culture
which uphold the subordination of women are considered culture.
(Butengwa, 1993, p. 27) According to most African traditions a women will
always be supported by males, be it a husband, father, brother or uncle.
Butengwa argues that women are regarded as legal minors, from birth to
death. (Butengwa, 1993, p. 28)

In African societies, the oldest male is usually the decision maker for the
family and women are expected to remain mum on any important matters.
Dangarembgas portrayal of womens powerlessness is illustrated through
Miagurus remarks to Tambu about her dislike for her husbands careless
spending habits; she resents her husband (Babamukuru) for supporting his
bothersome family with her wages. However, her role as a wife forbids her to
speak out against him. Boyce-Davies suggests in an analysis of the Nigerian
situation that; the women, as a daughter or sister has greater status and
more rights in her linage. Married, she becomes a possession, voiceless and
often right-less in her husbands family, except for what accrues to her
through her children. (Boyce-Davies, 1994, p. 9)

In traditional and often rural societies the women has limited choice of a
partner. Butengwa suggests that marriage proposals are conducted by the
men, without much consideration of the women. Many women are forced
into a marriage and in situations such as these many women opt to conform
as denial on their part is considered rebellious and a violation of cultural
rules. The role of a woman as a wife is then sometimes further degraded by
the prospect of polygamous relationships. This practice has been around for
centuries in many African communities and usually observed as a further
example of oppression. Women are forced to surrender to their husbands
desire to take another wife, sometimes many wives, with the womens
emotional concerns not taken into account. One only has to look at some of
the more powerful and popular men in Africa such as South Africas own
present Mr Jacob Zuma and king Mswati of Swaziland to see how this
tradition of taking wives works. One can also look to ceremonies such as the
annual Zulu Reed Dance which is an event that takes place over several
days that involves young Zulu women presenting themselves to the Zulu
king and other wealthy men signalling that they are ready for marriage. At
times, African men take on multiple wives with no regard for socioeconomic
status and in many circumstances; men often do not have the means to care

17
for multiple wives. This is portrayed in Nervous Conditions when Takesure,
the cousin of Babamukuru, had apparently come to help Jeremiah in the
fields, when in all reality it was apparent that he was running away from his
financial responsibility of looking after his two wives. While the men in
traditional African communities may take as many wives as he can afford,
women may only have one husband with female adultery being
unacceptable and resulting in heavy fines for both the womans father and
her new partner. If she chooses to persist with the affair she may get
divorced and be separated from her children as men usually have custodian
rights. In contrast, if a man chooses to have extra marital affairs, he may
only be advised against it and kinsmen may only politely suggest that he
take his mistress as an additional wife. A man is considered wealthy if he
has many cattle, a large piece of land and many children. For a woman, the
birth of her first child secures her place in the family, for if a woman is
unable to produce children, she is as good as worthless. If a husband dies,
his wife is inherited by one of the mans family members, should she
refuse, a claim may be made against her to pay back her Lobola, especially
in the case that she is still of child-bearing age.

On another note, African practices and customs continue to maintain the

illiteracy of women. As a result women have no choice but to be dependent
on men, illiteracy leads to a decrease in participation in the formal economic
sector and leadership positions: in the proper use of education lies the
salvation of sex. As long as she is ignorant, so long will she remain dejected,
oppressed and incapable of sharing mens pursuits and ideals. But educate
her, help her organise her efforts and she will respond to the changed
environment. It is education and useful organisation that she can give true
freedom and enlightenment. (Shama, 1995)

Assertiveness in African cultures is considered taboo for women. In many

African marriages, a womans assertiveness leads to spousal conflict and
may result in physical violence. This sort of physical abuse is a common
practice and womens lenience of such abuse stems from the idea that
women should submit to their husbands, as being submissive is indicative
of a good wife. In Nervous Conditions, Lucia demonstrates the
characteristics of a female aggressor when she manhandles Takesure in
the company of clan elders.

18
PART B - A Literature Review of Nervous Conditions

Tsitsi Dangarembgas reference to writer Frantz Fanons statement, The

condition of the native is a nervous condition in her title of the book draws
on Fanons statement in the 1963 edition of The Wretched of the Earth that
when the native is confronted with the colonial order of things, he finds
himself in a state of permanent tension. (Fanon, 1963) Additionally, close
reference was paid to certain Scholars articles such as the dissertation; A
Feminist Analysis of Tsitsi Dangarembgas Nervous Conditions by P Mbatha
(Mbatha, 2009). In which the writer pays close attention to the roles that the
women in Nervous Conditions fill. In her book Talking with African Writers:
Interviews with African poets, Playwrights, and Novelists, author Jane
Wilkinson interviews Tsitsi Dangarembga. During the course of the interview
Dangarembga stated that she wrote Nervous Conditions to correspond with
the things that she had observed herself and had direct experience with.
(Wilkinson, 1992, p. 190) Nervous Conditons took four years to be published
and Dangarembga recalls it being criticised by male critics as being negative
and illustrating an unrealistic picture of the lives of women in Zimbabwe.
(Wilkinson, 1992, p. 03)

- Education as Depicted in the Narrative

The novel opens with us meeting the narrator and main protagonist,
Tambudazi, Tambu for short, right away she states: I was not sorry when
my brother died. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 1) This powerful opening
sentence speaks volumes about the message Dangarembga is trying to
portray. She also chooses to use the word brother instead of the boys name
- Nhamo, this suggests that she wants the reader to know that they are
siblings because right away we are searching for the answer to the question,
why is she not upset about the death of her brother? What did he do that
she had so much hatred for him? This question is on the forefront of our
minds as we continue to read. After this statement we are brought back to
the time before her brother goes to school, the novel shows us Tambu, at the
time, a mere 13 years old trying to earn money for her school fees by selling
maize because it was considered unnecessary for a family to waste money to
fund a girls education. Here the reader is shown the determination of this
young girl and we have to admit, her efforts are admirable. Right from the
start we become aware of the gender bias towards girls and educational
opportunities. Tambu tells the reader at some length about her older brother
Nhamo, the only son and eldest child in the family. Nhamo is chosen, as the
only son, to go to a white, mission school, some distance away to further his

19
education as this was a means of securing the familys financial future by
having a successful son that would bring in a relatively decent income and
support the rest of the family. Tambu portrays her jealousy for her brother
because she feels as though she deserves a chance to improve her education
as she feels that she is a better student. She suggests to the reader that she
does not think that he deserved the better schooling. Nhamo regards himself
as superior to his sisters, and this is suggested in Tambus depiction of his
leaving to go to the missionary school, when Nhamo demands that his
female relatives should carry his bags, Tambu states, he did not need help,
that he only wanted to demonstrate to us and himself that he had power,
the authority to make us do things for him (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 16),
and from the very first chapter and foremost theme Tambu states, the
needs and sensibilities of the women in my family were not considered a
priority, or even legitimate (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 15).We then skip
forward again, this time to a year since Nhamo has left the homestead.
Nhamo appears to have changed dramatically and claims to have forgotten
how to speak his native language (Shona). This points towards the white
influence in the country at the time and dabbles with the idea of western
influence diluting the cultural traditions of the Native people. Nhamo begins
to visit his homestead less and less until eventually he dies from an
unknown disease while away at school. After Nhamos death the narrative
jumps ahead again to 1968, Tambu shows no emotional grieving and
instead she recognizes that his death has come as a secret gift to her, for
now she, as the second eldest, will be able to go to school in his place and
therefore secure her own future by receiving a Western education that would
have otherwise been denied to her.

- Girls and Education in Africa Today

The central issue of gender bias with regards to education is a dilemma that
Tambu grapples with throughout the novel and this is an issue that affects
many young women in Africa. According to UNICEF, even though the past
few decades shows an increase of female students finishing high school, the
boy/girl ratio is still in high favour of male student, even though the top
mark percentile of students are female. (Sy, 2012, p. 1) In rural areas in
particular young girls are often forced to drop out of school to take over
household responsibilities, due to mothers needing help or parents being ill
due to HIV/AIDS-related illnesses. Furthermore, girls are more likely than
boys to be victims of rape or other forms of abuse which may result in teen
pregnancy and also result in school absenteeism or complete withdrawal of
the education system to care for children.

20
- Cultural Hybridization

We then meet Tambus other family members when she moves away from
her mother and father and goes to live with her uncle, Babamukuru, his
wife Maiguru, their daughter and Tambus cousin Nyasha and her brother
Chido. Chido does not play a significant part and makes few appearances in
the novel, although he is referred to in some detail. It seems as though the
character of Chido is used as comparative measuring stick as to what men
are allowed to do and what women are not, by comparing Chidos amount of
freedom allowed to him by his parents and that of Nyashas amount of
freedom allowed to her.

We learn that Babamukuru and his wife have been educated in England
where her cousins spent some time in an English school. Gender inequality
is illustrated again through Tambus encounters with Nyasha who, on
returning to Africa, has discovered the truths about the vast differences
between the culture in Africa and that of England, especially where women
are concerned. Tambu comments on how Nyashas desire to be independent
gets her into a lot of trouble which often results in fights with her father.
However Tambu is in awe of her cousin and her desire to study; yet she
notes that Nyashas worldliness had forced her to withdraw into herself as
she finds herself different from other girls in her school and the culture of
the country, Tambu states ; each time she came [home] I could see she
had grown a little duller and dimmer, the expression in her eyes a little more
complex, as though she were directing more and more energy inwards to
commune with herself about issues that she alone had seen.
(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 51) Nyasha absorbs herself in her studies and
isolates herself from the Shona community. She finds comfort in books,
especially history books that she uses to expand her search for solutions,
Tambu states; she read about Arabs on the East coast and British on the
West, about Nazis and Japanese and Hiroshima and Nagasaki. She had
nightmares about these things, the atrocities; but she carried on reading all
the same, because, she said, you had to know facts if you were ever going to
find solutions. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 93) No longer able to suppress the
tension, Nyasha denounced that the system has failed her, she flies into
suicidal rage cutting her arms with anything she can get her hands on and
in the end she turns to Tambu and says; look at what they have done to us,
Im not one of them , but Im not one of you. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 201)
From this we can say that Nyasha finds herself in a position of hybridization
of the two different cultures because she feels as though she doesnt belong
to either.

21
- Gender Discrimination and Abuse

Some time passes between this incident and the next when Nyasha returns
home late from a school dance. Babamukuru is angered by his daughters
lack of obedience and states; Children must be obedient, if they are not,
they must be taught, So that they develop good habits. You know this is
very important to me, especially in the case of girls. My wife here would not
have disobeyed me (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 171).Here we see a comparison
between Nyasha and Chido because we have come to learn that Chido has a
white girlfriend and stays at friends houses with girls but when Nyasha
arrives home late for simply speaking to a boy she is accused of whoreish
behaviour. We have come to learn that the most important role of women
and children is to be submissive and not disobey the male members and
this is of the utmost importance in the Shona tradition. By defying her
father, Nyasha is undermining Babamukurus power and authority and in
the heat of the argument Babamukuru tries to assert his dominance over
his daughter once again and a physical fight breaks out between them; how
can you go about disgracing me? Me! Like that! No, you cannot do it. I am
respected at this mission. I cannot have a daughter who behaves like a
whore. She has dared to raise a fist to me to challenge me. Me! Her
father. I am telling you today she shall not live. We cannot have two men in
this house. (Dangarembga, 1988, pp. 114 - 115) This effects Tambu in a
way that we would not expect, and she relates to Nyasha on another level
after this, her inner monologue wonders ;Babamukuru condemning Nyasha
to whoredom, making her a victim of her femaleness, just as I had felt
victimised at home when Nhamo went to school and I grew my maize. The
victimisation, I saw, was universal... Men took it everywhere with them.
(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 118)

From this encounter and Tambus own interpretation of the situation, we

can argue that in order for the dominant African male to assert his own
authority he passes on his feelings of inferiority to his female counterpart in
order regain his own self worth. This can be directly related to situations
such as rape and abuse. Men such as Babamukuru attempt to transfer
their pain to his female relatives, the result being a redefinition of females as
no more than reflections... women, as a certain kind of person, were only
myths; frightening to acknowledge that generations of threat and assault
and neglect had battered these myths into the extreme (Dangarembga,
1988, p. 138)

22
Tambu is initially excited to live with her Uncle, Aunt and cousins, she
respects Babamukuru a great deal for his wisdom and success in the
community, but after some time she begins to question his ways. She
becomes confused because she claims that, although he has certain
Western values, he still chooses to enforce some traditional methods of
being. This becomes evident in his strong desire to give Tambus parents a
Christian wedding, stating that a traditional wedding is not legitimate and
has left them living together in sin and producing bastard children. This
affects Tambu greatly, yet because of her deep-rooted belief that speaking
back to a man is wrong, she cannot bring herself to vocalise her opinions to
Babamukuru for fear of his reaction. Her internal dialogue states, There
was definitely something wrong with me, otherwise I would have had
something to say. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 149)

Instead of speaking out, Tambu internalises her feelings, leaving her in a

state of anxiety and overwhelming guilt. This guilt stems from the realisation
that she no longer respects her uncle as the patriarchal head of the family
and to her this feeling could not feel more alien. The person who was once
an inspiration to her, for all that she could become, is reduced to the very
thing she hates; an oppressive male who attempts to control and manipulate
the women around him. On the day of her parents wedding Tambu has
slipped into an catatonic state of paralysis, the anxiety has become too
much for her: she tried to coax me out of bed, but I was slipping further
and further away from her, until in the end I appeared to have slipped out of
my body and was standing somewhere near the foot of the bed.
(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 166) For the first time in the novel, Tambu does not
seem to be concerned with displeasing Babamukuru, who is furious with
her behaviour, but instead of listening to her uncle, Tambu seems engrossed
in her own internal dialogue. This quotation captures Tambus sense of
being divided internally between her social gender conditioning and her own
critical thinking mind. It is then that Tambu realises that her two identities
that have been in conflict with one another will eventually drive her mad if
she does not get them to coexist. She attributes this consciousness to her
newly acquired identity. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 167)

- Maiguru (Women and Asset Acquisition)

Babamukurus wife and mother to Nyasha and Chido, Maiguru stands out
in comparison to other women in the community because she is educated.
She has a masters degree from England. In fact she is as educated as her
husband, but when moving back to Rhodesia that means very little. When

23
Tambu shows interest and surprise towards this knowledge, Maiguru
becomes irritated and opens up for the first time speaking out against her
husband, stating; when I was in England I glimpsed for a little while the
things I could have been, the things I could have done if- if- if things were
different- but there was Babwa Chido and the children and the family. And
does anybody realise, does anybody appreciate what sacrifices were made?
And as for me, no one even thinks about the things I gave up
(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 103). She goes on to say your uncle wouldnt be
able to do half the things he does if I didnt work as well! Where do you
think I would get a car from? Do you think I could afford to buy one?
(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 104) These statements raise important questions
both for Tambu and the reader because Maiguru describes what an
important element she is in her husbands success and in the lifestyle they
live, even though she gets no credit for this. She claims to earn her own
money, yet she is unable to finance a car for herself. This depiction is true
of many African marriages, as the man is the head of the family, the familys
success is given to him, he makes the decisions and he is in control of
finances. Even though Babamukuru and Maiguru seem to be more
westernised than other characters in the novel, it goes to prove that the
essence of traditional ways are deep rooted in both of them, firstly for him
enforcing these ways and secondly for her, even as an educated women, for
allowing it. The money that she earns goes straight to Babamukuru and
she does not argue; even though she dislikes the situation, she knows that
a good wife obeys her husband. Tambu sympathises and understands the
pain her aunt has been through and continues to go through to be a good
wife and mother and to uphold the Shona tradition but at great costs to her
own self worth. Tambu expresses her sadness by pronouncing; I felt sorry
for Maiguru because she could not use the money she earned for her own
purposes and had been prevented by marriage from doing the things she
wanted to do. (Dangarembga, 1988, p. 103) This new insight encourages
Tambu to excel in her studies and to not let marriage or tradition stand in
her way of a good future.

In this example we are forced to confront the theme of women being the
owner of expensive assets; such as cars and houses, as well as the overall
theme of interdependence that contributes to gender inequality in
patriarchal societies. Tsitsi Dangarembga illustrates the situation by using
Maiguru and her economic entrapment by her husband and thus having to
be completely dependent on him in order to survive even though she is an
educated woman with the means to care for herself. In the Shona tradition,

24
the men have full entitlement to any incoming funds from his nuclear family
including his wife. Tambus mother MaShingayi is equally trapped in her
marriage, bound to her husband for financial support even though they are
far less financially stable than Babamukuru and Maiguru. MaShingayi has
no history of formal education and therefore does not believe that Tambu
should be pursuing a dream she perceives as unrealistic and unnecessary.
In her mind an uneducated woman is bound to live the same life as an
educated woman in Zimbabwe, and she believes Tambu should start
preparing for reality of a life as a wife and mother.

Tambu portrays a deep commitment to the four women I have loved

(Dangarembga, 1988, p. 204): her mother, MaShingayi, exhausted and
overloaded, she characterizes the traditional female role in the Shona
community, she holds little respect from others, including her children and
family; Tambus aunt, Lucia, even though she was raised to respect the
traditional values of her community and culture, Lucia is the one character
apart from Tambu herself who truly transcends and overcomes her situation
to emancipate herself through work and education. Then there is Tambus
other aunt, Maiguru, whom even though her education allows her greater
opportunity for a more fulfilling life, she still chooses with great
contemplation to live a life in which she is subjected to the gender
discrimination and bias of the Zimbabwean culture. And lastly Nyasha, who
continues to struggle to find her identity, unwilling to silence her aversion to
the gender bias that derides her and her fellow female counterparts.
Together these women find comfort in each other and offer support that is
otherwise lacking from a paternal society, for without each other the
cornerstone of their security begins to crumble. (Dangarembga, 1988, p.
199) As Alice Echols describes in her book Daring to be Bad; Only women
can give to each other a new sense of self. That identity we have to develop
with preference to ourselves, and not in relation to men. This consciousness
is the revolutionary force from which all else will follow, for ours is an
organic revolution. (Echols, 1989, p. 216)

Dangarembga presents a well rounded illustration of the women in her novel

who stand up for themselves against the oppression of male dominance that
has continued to enforce gender inequality. The journey to equality is a
difficult road and acknowledgement of the patriarchal ruling ensures that
the characters pass through great stress and even risk exclusion from the
community, the final scene to Nervous Conditions leave the reader to
speculate whether or not Tambu attains partial or full escape from her
oppressions. However, it is not easy to assume that full escape from all ones

25
oppressions is possible without radical social change in regards to womanist
movements, one that, since then, has not been seen in Zimbabwe. At the
novels closure, the reader is forced to imagine how the older Tambu deals
with her personal process of expansion. Dangarembga forces her readers to
respond and thus they are drawn in to the tale, by leaving the ending open-
ended, she certainly achieves this in Nervous Conditions.

CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION

Tsitsi Dangarembgas novel Nervous Conditions presents an insightful

analysis of not only gender oppression but also of the complex systems of
colonisation, class and culture; essentially she illustrates numerous
struggles brought about by oppression. In Nervous Conditions all the female
characters have their experiences illustrated through Tambu. Although
Maiguru has the educational background to comprehend and rise above her
situation, her loyalty to her husband prevents her from doing so, therefore,
her loyalty to her husband outweighs her frustration with her community.
Although Maiguru does leave Babamukuru for a short time she does return
to him, her choice to return is validated by her feeling of empowerment,
knowing that she could leave him at any time if she wanted to. Her leaving
serves as a warning to her husband when she felt that his treatment of her
was unfair, however her return still proves that her husband and their
marriage is still of great importance and that she is willing to take the
chance to save it. Miagurus persistence to remain the perfect wife has made
her unable to face confrontation. This can be contrasted with the character
of Lucia, who decides to stand up for what she believed and face the
consequences thereof. The oppressive nature of African traditions against
women in the novel suggests that it is only a means to justify the violation of
womens rights. Not surprisingly then, only those aspects which aid the
oppression of women are considered unalterable in customs. I believe that
traditional customs should undergo change and allow for flexibility, suiting
the changing social, economic and political circumstances of the world
today. Many women have been, and are still trapped in domestic oppression.
Even those women who find work outside the home are still responsible for
domestic work and thus bare the double burden of work to support a family
financially and work to support a family as a wife and mother.

26
The unequal power and gender relations in marriage coerce one to see
marriage as an oppressive entrapment. Male supremacy is valued above all
else since tradition and practises reinforce their power. In Nervous
Conditions Maiguru weighs up the scenarios of freedom versus the
entrapment of a subservient wife, and the latter was victorious, even though
throughout the novel she speaks out about trying to break the burden of
oppression, she decides in favour of security regardless of the bondage. I
believe that what Dangarembga is trying to illustrate here is that the roots of
patriarchy are so deeply entrenched that, even with an education a woman
is still bound to her male counterpart as a financial crutch as well as the
risk of being rejected by the entire community.As women regardless of
society, class or race, we may share certain experiences of sexism, but what
unites us is our consciousness of this problem. Thus we should serve to link
the powerless, voiceless women in other social groups.

27
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