Personal Area Networks

Bluetooth/IEEE 802.15.1

Origin of the name:

The name Bluetooth comes from the 10th century Danish King Harald Blatand, or Harold Bluetooth
in English. Blatand managed to unite the warring factions in modern day Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark. Just as Blatand united the warring factions of his day, Bluetooth was intended to unite
several different industries under one standard.

History:

The Bluetooth specification was first devolved by the Swedish telecommunications equipment
manufacturer Ericsson. In September of 1998 The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) was
formed by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba and Nokia and formalized the standard. In 1999 the first
Bluetooth specification 1.0 was released. Two years later in 2000 the first Bluetooth consumer
product was released, a Bluetooth headset and phone adapter from Ericsson. In 2003 the Bluetooth
specification 1.2 was released with the main benefit of adding adaptive frequency-hopping spread
spectrum to the Bluetooth standard. In 2004 Bluetooth specification 2.0 was released with an
enhanced data rate of 2.1 Mbit/s. Bluetooth technology also reaches an installed base of 250
million devices.

What it is:

Bluetooth is a radio standard and communications protocol, designed to replace the cables and
complexity involved in connecting a variety of devices together. Bluetooth can be used to simply
replace wires for headphones, mice, and printers, or it can be used to seamlessly connect all the
electronics in your home. For example:

You are out at a picnic and your friend takes some great pictures on her Bluetooth enabled digital
camera. She can then send these to your Bluetooth enabled phone where you can query them up to
print and as soon as you get home your Bluetooth enabled printer will start printing the photos.

Benefits:

Low power - The Bluetooth standard was designed around using extremely low power. Each
transmission on your blue tooth cell phone uses about 1 mW of power. This means that Bluetooth
has almost no effect on the charge of your cell phone, and that Bluetooth enabled headsets are able
to get upwards of 15 hours battery life on a full charge.

Robust - Bluetooth is very robust for a number of reasons. Since it uses adaptive frequency
hopping, there is practically no interference at all, even with a number of other devices in close
proximity. Ad-hoc networking also increases Bluetooth’s robustness. Since there is no central
node, your entire Bluetooth network won’t go down if your digital camera runs out of batteries.
Being a radio standard, Bluetooth doesn’t need line of sight between two devices to communicate.
This means that you can walk out of the room wearing your Bluetooth headphones and not lose the
signal unlike a pair of infrared headphones.

How it works:

Bluetooth devices operate in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 Ghz. Since many other devices such
as cordless phones and garage door openers operate in this same 2.4 Ghz band, Bluetooth uses a
couple of techniques to limit interference. One way Bluetooth limits interference is by sending out
weak signals over short distances. Since a normal Bluetooth device only has a range of 10 meters
this limits the possibility of being in range of devices that could possibly interfere. Yet the real
reason why Bluetooth doesn’t interfere is because it uses a technique called spread-spectrum
frequency hopping.

“In this technique, a device will use 79 individual, randomly chosen frequencies within a designated
range, changing from one to another on a regular basis. In the case of Bluetooth, the transmitters
change frequencies 1,600 times every second, meaning that more devices can make full use of a
limited slice of the radio spectrum.” – howstuffworks.com

Bluetooth’s frequency hopping is also one step above normal spread-spectrum frequency hopping,
because it is adaptive. If you have a Bluetooth printer next to an old cordless phone the printer will
exclude the frequencies that are used by the phone, because of the constant interference on those
frequencies. This makes it easy for other technology to coexist alongside Bluetooth technology.

As a result of different needs for different applications Bluetooth devices are split into three
different classes by the power that they use and range that they can transmit. The majority of
consumer devices fall within the class 2 rating and class 1 is used primarily for industrial use cases.

Cellular Networks

GSM

Origin of name:

GSM earned its name from the group given the task of creating a cellular network standard, the
Groupe Spécial Mobile. As time progressed, the group became globally recognized and changed its
name to Global System for Mobile Communication.

What it is:

GSM is the largest cellular standard, used by over 3/4ths of all mobile users in the world.

History:

Cellular networks developed very haphazardly and without a global standard like Bluetooth or Wi-
fi. This caused many problems with compatibility between different standards. In 1982 the GSM
group, then known as Groupe Spécial Mobile was created by CEPT (European Conference of Postal
and Telecommunications Administrations) to attempt to come up with a solution. The technical
details of GSM were defined in 1987 and by 1990 the first GSM specification was completed. The
first commercial implementation of GSM began in1991 with Radiolinja in Finland. Since
Radiolinja made the first call in 1991 GSM grew internationally. In 1992 Australia became the first
non European country to launch a GSM network. In just four short years there were over 196 GSM
networks in 94 countries. Today there are GSM networks in over 210 countries and nearly 2 billion
GSM customers.

Benefits:

World Wide: A large problem with most cellular standards is that they are not globally accepted.
GSM is used in all of Europe and over 210 countries across the world. This gives GSM phones the
ability to roam internationally and allows the same phone to be used at home or abroad.

Convenience: As you will read below, GSM also offers an extra measure of convenience through
SIM cards. A SIM card is a piece of hardware containing a users phonebook and subscription
information that can be easily transferred from one phone to another.

How it works:

GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz radio frequencies in the majority of the
world. Yet in the USA and Canada these frequencies are allocated so American GSM uses the 850
Mhz and 1900 Mhz frequency bands. This means that unless a GSM phone is quad-band( 850, 900,
1800, 1900) it will not work all over the world.

GSM uses 25 MHz of bandwidth for both uplink and downlink. This 25 Mhz is divided into
frequency channels every 200 kHz. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight speech
channels for each radio frequency channel.

An important feature of GSM, that sets it apart from the other cellular standards, is the SIM card
(subscriber identity module). By transferring a SIM Card between two GSM phones you can
transfer all your information over to your new phone extremely quickly. This allows a user to get a
new phone and not go through all the hassle involved with switching information from phone to
phone. It also works in reverse, if you really like your phone, but would like to change carriers SIM
cards allow that as well. By taking out the SIM card from your old service provider and swapping
it with the one from your new service provider you can switch to their network.

Bibliography:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM
http://www.gsmworld.com/index.shtml
Wireless LANS

Wifi/IEEE 802.11

Origin of the name:

A common misconception is that Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity. However this isn’t the case as
Phil Belanger, a founding member of the WiFi Alliance recalls.

“Wi-Fi doesn't stand for anything.

It is not an acronym. There is no meaning.
Wi-Fi and the ying yang style logo were invented by Interbrand. We (the founding members of the
Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance, now called the Wi-Fi Alliance) hired Interbrand to come
up with the name and logo that we could use for our interoperability seal and marketing efforts. We
needed something that was a little catchier than "IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence".
Source : http://www.boingboing.net/2005/11/08/wifi_isnt_short_for_.html

What it is:

Wi-Fi is the brand that describes the technology based on the IEEE 802.11 specifications. Wi-Fi
has become the standard for wireless area networks, allowing users to go online, send files, or play
a game with their friends, practically anywhere in the world.

History:

In 1991 NC Corporation/AT&T invented the precursor to Wi-Fi originally intending for it to be

used in cashier systems. The first wireless products were marketed under the name WaveLAN with
speeds between 1 and 2 Mbit/s. The original generation of wireless LANs never took off due to
proprietary hardware and incompatible formats. In 1997 the IEEE released the original 802.11
standard, but it never gained mass acceptance due to the low max rate of 2 Mbit/s. It wasn’t until
1999 when IEEE released the 802.11b that people started to get behind Wi-Fi. 3Com, Aironet,
Harris Semiconductor, Lucent, Nokia, and Symbol Technologies formed the independent
organization the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA). WECA’s goal was to promote
Wi-Fi technology, and to perform testing and certify Wi-Fi product interoperability. In 2003 WECA
renamed itself the Wi-Fi Alliance since the Wi-Fi name had became synonymous with wireless
networking. Also in 2003 IEEE released the 802.11g standard. 802.11g operates in the 2.4 GHz
band, like 802.11b, but it has a much higher data rate. 802.11g is able to get 24.7 Mbit/s and is
compatible with 802.11b hardware.

Benefits:

Economical - The actual technology that is used to make devices wifi compatible is cheap, and
because of this Wi-Fi is an affordable option for networking. Since cables don't have to be run Wi-
Fi can be deployed in a lot of places where a traditional wired network wouldn't work, from an
apartment where you are not allowed to drill holes in the floor to run cable to a park in the middle
of the city.

Range - Unlike some other standards that make use of the 2.4 GHz band, Wi-Fi gets good range.
Indoors a Wi-Fi network will be have a range of 75 to 150 feet. Outdoors, where there is less
interference, a network can may reach more then 1,000 feet. Using antennas the range of a Wi-Fi
network can be extended to over a mile.
How it works:

The main foundations for a Wi-Fi system are access points (APs), hardware that broadcasts
network information. This information is sent at the lowest speed supported by Wi-Fi, using only a
small portion of the network and guaranteeing that all clients will be able to receive and interpret
the information. Users join the network through Wi-Fi cards, a piece of hardware connected to a
computer. The Wi-Fi cards constantly receive information from all access points and analyze
factors such as signal strength to determine which network would offer the best connection. As
with most hardware, Wi-Fi cards are produced at a variety of quality levels. Different brands and
models will have varying strengths, weaknesses and conflicts depending on the AP hardware. Wi-
Fi systems are susceptible to the same faults of other network systems such as collisions and
dropped signals because it travels through the air.

Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiFi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/wireless-network.htm
http://www.wi-fi.org/

Positive Effects of Wireless Technology

One of the largest benefits people get from advances in wireless technology is convenience.
Wireless technology has removed a lot of hassle associated with cords and cables. Portable devices
can now use wireless technology to transfer data without being physically connected to a computer
or any other devices.

Wireless networks can also be easier and cheaper to install. This is especially important in places
where running wires would be prohibited or impossible. Many organizations within large buildings
use WiFi to easily provide internet access to all machines within the building. Wireless technology
has allowed internet access in places where it would not have been possible.

Cell phones, laptops and PDAs allow for increased mobility and flexibility. This is a big benefit for
both personal and business users. Wireless technology allows cell phone users to talk with contacts
while traveling or performing other everyday tasks such as walking the dog. PDA’s and other
portable devices can receive and transmit data wirelessly, allowing people to work even when they
are out of the office.

Wireless technology allows people to be connected practically where ever they go. Cell phones and
other portable communication devices allow users to contact emergency services without a landline
or power outlet. Wireless communications offer a great sense of safety and security.
Negative Effects of Wireless Technology

Wireless technology has had and still continues to have a huge effect on society. While the
technological advancements offer many great conveniences and other benefits, there are also some
faults to wireless. Throughout history, the benefits and drawbacks of wireless have varied greatly.
In the authors’ opinions, as wireless technology has advanced, the primary drawbacks have
pertained to wireless privacy, security and related health issues.

Many new wireless phones offer Enhanced 911 services which allow emergency response personnel
to view a callers exact location when a call is made to 911. Even if this could be a life saving
feature it also creates a substantial privacy risk. If the history of a customers movement fell into the
wrong hands, it could be used for a plethora of wrongdoings ranging from targeted advertising to
stalking. Just imagine if a telemarketing company knew precisely when you entered your house
each evening or if a thief was able to determine how long it would take you to arrive home.

Wireless networking also opens up many security holes. The main issues arise due to the
fundamental functionality of a wireless network; broadcasting a signal out over an area. Any
computer within this area with the correct equipment can not only connect to an unsecured network,
but can also capture data that is being sent. Not securing your wireless network could have serious
consequences ranging from slow connection speeds and undesired liability to identity theft and
information leaks.

Many concerns have been stressed about radiofrequency energy emissions. Scientific studies show
that high levels of radiofrequency energy can warm spots of the body and lead to tissue damage.
However, cell phones and most other wireless devices only emit a very low level of radiofrequency
energy. Emission regulations have been set by the FCC with information from organizations such
as IEEE and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements since 1985. Contrary
to popular belief, current evidence does not show that any health problems are associated with using
wireless phones.
Even if cell phones do not directly cause physical problems, they can still be hazardous if not used
responsibly. A major cause of injury associated with wireless phones is distracted drivers. Talking
on cell phones while in a car leads to two main dangers. While dialing, drivers eyes are diverted
from the road and focused solely on their phone. Also, people can become so engrossed in their
conversations that their ability to concentrate on the road ahead of them is greatly impaired. Cell
phones slow reaction times and occupy drivers hands, greatly increasing the risk of an accident.
The hazards of distracted driving are further discussed in the news release
(http://www.iihs.org/news/2005/iihs_news_071205.pdf) for an Australian study in 2005 which
states “drivers using phones are four times as likely to get into crashes serious enough to injure
themselves.”

Another side effect of wireless communication is interference. The same radiofrequency energy
emissions discussed above can also interact with electronic devices such as pacemakers,
defibrillators and hearing aids. Many of these medical devices are essential to keeping a person
alive and wireless interference could cause a malfunction with dire consequences. For this reason,
the FDA and FCC monitor the use of wireless technology for possible interactions with medical
devices and work closely with manufactures to prevent and resolve any issues that may arise.

The above discussion outlines several drawbacks of wireless technology. However, if wireless
technology is used responsibly, its faults can be easily overcome. Organizations such as the FCC,
FDA and IEEE are crucial for ensuring that wireless technology is manufactured and used safely.
Bibliography:
http://news.com.com/Cell+phone+tracking+raises+privacy+issues/2100-1033_3-846744.html
http://www.fda.gov/cellphones/qa.html
http://www.iii.org/media/hottopics/insurance/cellphones/
http://www.pctoday.com/Editorial/article.asp?article=articles/2006/t0408/04t08/04t08.asp&guid=