Lecture Notes in

Differential Calculus
Chapter 1

Oscar M. Bumanglag Jr.

oscarjr 07@yahoo.com

June 7, 2015
2
Contents

1 Functions and their Graphs 5

1.1 Graphs of an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Intercepts and Symmetry of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Useful Classes of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Operations on Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3
4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Functions and their Graphs

This chapter reviews some basic mathematical concepts that prepare students in the study of
calculus. These concepts include graphs of equations and functions, mathematical models and
some applications.

1.1 Graphs of an Equation

An ordered pair of real numbers is an object of the form (x, y), where x and y denote real
numbers. In calculus, we usually represent every point P of a given plane by an ordered pair.
We start by fixing two perpendicular lines called the x-axis and the y-axis and every point P is
labeled (x, y) if P is of distance y from the x-axis and of distance x from the y-axis. The ordered
pair (x, y) is then called the coordinate of P . The number x and y are called the abscissa and
ordinate of P , respectively. Thus, we identify the plane as the set
R2 = {(x, y) | x, y R}.
The set R2 is called the cartesian plane.
y

B 4
3 A
2
1

x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1
2
D
3
C
4

Figure 1.1: The Cartesian Coordinate System

5
6 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 1.1 shows a portion of the cartesian plane illustrating the points A, B, C, and D with
coordinates (2, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3) and (3, 2) respectively.

In calculus, we will be concerned with equations relating two or more variables. If an equation
relates two variables, we can geometrically represent the equation as a subset of a the cartesian
plane.

Definition 1.1.1. The graph of an equation relating the variable x and y is the set of all ordered
pairs (x, y) such that the equation holds.

Example 1.1.1. Consider the equation 2x + y = 4. Observe that for a given value of x, there is a
corresponding value of y for which the equation holds, since if the equation holds, then y = 2x+4.
Thus, the graph of the given equation has infinitely many points in it. We can plot some of the
points in the graph of 2x + y = 4 by constructing the following table of values.

x 1 0 1 2 3
y 6 4 2 0 2

Therefore, (1, 6), (0, 4), (1, 2), (2, 0) and (3, 2) are some points in the graph of 2x + y = 4.
The figures below show the plotted points and the portion of the graph of 2x + y = 4.

y y

(1, 6) 6 (1, 6) 6
5 5
(0, 4) 4 (0, 4) 4
3 3
2 (1, 2) 2 (1, 2)
1 1
(2, 0) (2, 0)
x x
2 1 1 2 3 4 2 1 1 2 3 4
1 1
2 (3, 2) 2 (3, 2)

Example 1.1.2. Sketch the graph of y = x2 4x + 2.

Solution: We first construct a table of values.

x 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 7 2 1 2 1 2

We next plot the points (1, 7), (0, 2), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (4, 2) and connect them us-
ing a smooth curve.
1.1. GRAPHS OF AN EQUATION 7

(1, 7) y

6
5
4
3
(0, 2) 2 (4, 2)
1

x
2 1 1 2 3 4
1 (1, 1) (3, 1)
2
(2, 2)

The graph of the equation y = x2 4x + 2 is called a parabola.

Warning! The point plotting method presented in the previous examples is easy and convenient
to use. However, it can be misleading too. For example, consider the equation

1
y= x(39 10x2 + x4 ).
30

Note that the points (3, 3), (1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1) and (3, 3) are in the graph of the given
equation. From these five points, one might conclude that the graph is a straight line. However,
the actual graph is not a line. See figures below.

5 5

4 4

3 (3, 3) 3 (3, 3)
2 2
(1, 1) (1, 1)
1 1
(0, 0) (0, 0)
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(1, 1) 1 1
(1, 1)
2 2

(3, 3) 3 (3, 3) 3

4 4

5 5
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

1.1.1 Intercepts and Symmetry of Graphs

if a graph of an equation passes through a point (a, 0), we say that the graph has an x-intercept
a. On the other hand, if the graph passes through (0, b), we say that the graph has a y-intercept
b. Thus, given an equation, to determine the x-intercepts of the graph, we set y = 0 and solve
for all values of x. Similarly, the y-intercepts of the graph can be obtained by setting x = 0 and
solving for all the values of y.
Example 1.1.3. Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of y 2 = x2 3x.

Solution: To find the x-intercepts, let y = 0 and solve for x.

x2 3x = 2
x2 3x + 2 = 0
(x 2)(x 1) = 0
x = 2 or 1
To find the y-intercepts, let x = 0 and solve for y.

y2 = 0
y = 2
Therefore, the x-intercepts are 2 and 1 and the y-intercepts is 2.
Example 1.1.4. Consider the graph of (x 2)2 + (y 2)2 = 1. Observe that if x = 0, then
4 + (y 2)2 = 1. Thus, (y 2)2 = 3 which has no real solutions for y. Thus, the graph has no
y-intercepts. Similarly, the graph also has no x-intercepts.
y

2
(2, 2)
1

x
1 1 2 3 4
1

In sketching graphs of equation, it is useful to know if the graph is symmetric with respect to a
given line. we consider three types of symmetry in the following:
Definition 1.1.2. .
1. A graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is a point
on the graph, then the point (x, y) is also a point of the given graph.

2. A graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is a point
on the graph, then the point (x, y) is also a point of the given graph.
1.1. GRAPHS OF AN EQUATION 9

3. A graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if whenever the point (x, y) is a point
on the graph, then the point (x, y) is also a point of the given graph.
If the graph of an equation is symmetric about the y-axis, then the portion of the graph to
the left of the y-axis is the mirror image of the portion to the right of the y-axis. If the graph of
an equation is symmetric about the x-axis, then the portion of the graph below of the x-axis is
the mirror image of the portion above the y-axis. If the graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin, then the graph is unchanged when we rotate the graph 180 about the origin.

We now summarize the tests for symmetry.

Theorem 1.1.1. (Tests for Symmetry).

1. The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if and only if replacing x
by x yields an equivalent equation.
2. The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if and only if replacing y
by y yields an equivalent equation.
3. The graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to the origin if and only if replacing x
by x and y by y yields an equivalent equation.
Example 1.1.5. Consider the equation x2 + 4y = 4. Note that if we replace x by x, we get
(x)2 + 4y = 4 = x2 + 4y = 4.
Thus, the graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
Example 1.1.6. The graph of the equation |x| + |y| = 1 is symmetric about the y-axis, x-axis,
and the origin since | a| = |a| for any real number a. The graph of this equation is shown below.

2 1 0 1 2
1

2
10 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

1.2 Functions
There are several types of functions in mathematics. In calculus, we are interested in a particular
class of real-valued functions which can be used to model real life relationships and phenomena.
Calculus can be thought as the study of real-valued functions and its analytical properties which
are directly affected by change.

Even though functions can be used to represent real life relationships, a function as a mathematical
entity is a very abstract concept that we cannot be able to define it at this point as we lack
prerequisites. We shall be using an intuitive definition instead.

Definition 1.2.1. Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function from A to B is a rule assigning
to each element x A a unique element y B. In this case, we call y as the image of x under
f and we express this by writing y = f (x).

In calculus, the sets A and B in the definition are usually sets of real numbers, e.g. the interval
[0, 1], the set Z of integers, or sometimes R = (, ) itself. In such a case, f is called a
real-valued function of a real variable.

The set A of inputs is called the domain of f . The set {f (x) : x A} of all outputs of f is called
the range of f . Necessarily, the range of f is a subset of the set B which is called the codomain
of f .

We usually define a function by giving a formula for f (x). And in this case, the domain of f is
taken to be the largest set of real numbers for which f (x) is defined.

Example 1.2.1. Let f (x) = 1 x2 . Then f is a function since for each x, a f (x) has a unique
value. The formula means that f assigns the input x to the output 1 x2 . In particular,

f (5) = 1 (5)2 = 24 and f (0) = 1 (0)2 = 1.

Since f (x) is defined for all real number x, then the domain of f is (, ). The range of f
is the set {1 x2 : x (, )}. But for x (, ), x2 0. So, 1 x2 1. In fact,
1 x2 = 1 if and only if x = 0. Hence, the range of f is the interval

(, 1] = {y : y 1}

Definition 1.2.2. The graph of a function f is the set {(x, y) : y = f (x)}.

Example 1.2.2. The graph of the function f (x) = 1 x2 is the set {(x, y) : y = 1 x2 }. The
graph is nothing but the graph of the equation y = 1 x2 which was studied in the previous section.
Geometrically, the graph of f is a parabola. Sometimes, we specify the domain where the function
is defined. For example, if q(x) = 1 x2 , for 1 x < 2. This means that g is only defined on the
interval [1, 2) and it is undefined outside [1, 2). The graphs of f and g are shown figure 1.2
1.2. FUNCTIONS 11

y y
2 2

1 1

x x
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

1.2.1 Useful Classes of functions

Some functions appear frequently in calculus as they have useful applications and their definitions
are convenient.

Definition 1.2.3. Let n be a positive integer. A polynomial function of degree n is any function
of the form

f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 ,

where ai R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n and an 6= 0.

In particular, if n = 1, we say that f is linear. If n = 2, we say f is quadratic and if n = 3, we

say f is cubic. The domain of a polynomial function is (, ).

1
Example 1.2.3. The function f (x) = x5 2x3 x + is a polynomial function of degree 5.
4
2
On the other hand, the functions g(x) = x x, h(x) = +x and (x) = |x|+2x2 are not polynomial
x
functions.

Definition 1.2.4. A rational function is a function that takes the form of

p(x)
f (x) = ,
q(x)

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0.

Example 1.2.4. The rational function

x+2
f (x) =
x2 1

has domain R {1, 1} since x2 1 6= 0 x 6= 1, 1. The graph of f is shown below.

12 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1

x+2
Observe that the graph of f (x) = has vertical asymptotes x = 1 and x = 1.
x2 1
We now recall the six trigonometric functions.
1. sin x, which is defined as the ordinate of the point where the ray from the origin, making
an angle of x radians, from the positive x-axis crosses the unit circle.
2. cos x, which is defined as the abscissa of the point where the ray from the origin, making
an angle of x radians, from the positive x-axis crosses the unit circle.
sin x
3. tan x = , x 6= + k, where k Z.
cos x 2
cos x
4. cot x = , x 6= k, where k Z.
sin x
1
5. sec x = , x 6= + k, where k Z.
cos x 2
1
6. csc x = , x 6= k, where k Z.
sin x
Some functions are defined independently on a set of disjoint intervals.
Example 1.2.5. (Piecewise Defined Functions).
Let a function h be defined by

4 x2 if x 0
h(x) = 2 if 0 < x 1 .
2x if x > 1

1.2. FUNCTIONS 13

This means that the function h is defined independently on the disjoint intervals (, 0], (0, 1]
and (1, ). The graph of h is the union of the graphs of h(x) = 4 x2 , for x 0, h(x) = 2, for
0 < x 1 and h(x) = 2x, for x > 1. The graph of h is shown below.
y
6

x
3 2 1 1 2 3
1

The absolute value function is a function defined by


x if x 0
f (x) = |x| = .
x if x < 0
The graph of the absolute value function is shown figure.

4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1

If x is a real number, then it is known that there is a unique integer n such that n x < n + 1,
that is every real number can be sandwiched between two consecutive integers. The unique integer
n is denoted JxK called the floor of x. The integer JxK is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Example 1.2.6. J4K = 4, J2.5K = 2, JK = 3, J2 + 2K = 3, J2.23K = 3, J 10K = 4
The greatest integer function or the floor function is the function defined by
f (x) = JxK,
14 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Note that f can be defined piecewisely as

..


.
1 if 1 x < 0




0 if 0x<1

f (x) = |x| = .

1 if 1x<2
2 if 2x<3



..



.
whose graph is

2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1

1.2.2 Operations on Functions

We can combine functions to form new functions by performing different operations.

Definition 1.2.5. Let f and g be functions. We define the following functions for all x where
f (x) and g(x) are defined.

1. Addition: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

2. Subtraction: (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

3. Multiplication: (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

 
f f (x)
4. Division: (x) = , provided g(x) 6= 0
g g(x)
5. Scalar Multiplication: (c f )(x) = c f (x), where c is a constant

6. Composition: (f g)(x) = f (g(x)), where g(x) is in the domain of f .

1.2. FUNCTIONS 15

1
Example 1.2.7. Let f (x) = x2 + 3x and for h 6= 0, let g(x) = x + h. Calculate [(f g) f ](x).
h
Solution:

1 f (g(x)) f (x)
[(f g) f ](x) =
h h
f (x + h) f (x)
=
h
(x + h)2 + 3(x + h) (x2 + 3x)
=
h
x2 + 2xh + h2 + 3x + 3h x2 3x
=
h
2xh + h2 + 3h
=
h
= 2x + h2 + 3

Example 1.2.8. Let f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x 3. Determine the domain of fg .
 
f f (x) x+1
Solution: Note that (x) = = . For (f /g)(x) to be defined, we must ensure
g g(x) x3
that x + 1 0 and x 3 > 0. This implies that x 1 and x > 3, thus x > 3. Therefore, the
domain of f /g is the interval (3, ).
r
x+1
Remark 1.2.1. If we consider the function h(x) = , it turns out that h has a different
x3
domain with f /g as in the previous example. In fact, the domain of h consists of all real numbers
x+1
x such that 0 and x 6= 3. Thus, the domain of h is (, 1] (3, ).
x3