ENGINE OPERATION Internal combustion engines require different engine compo- rents depending on the number of strokes and the type of fuel used. Four-stroke cycle engines are the most common type of internal combustion engine. Two-stroke cycle engines are light in woight and have few moving parts. Diesel engines are internal combustion engines that ignite fuel by compression. Engine output is measured in torque and horsepower. Cea ENGINE COMPONENTS Internal combustion engines convert potential chemi- cal energy in the form of heat derived from a fuel into ‘mechanical energy. Approximately 30% of the energy released in an internal combustion engine is converted into work. The remaining energy is lost in the form of heat and friction in the engine. Engine components are designed to convert energy in an internal combustion engine for maximum efficiency. Material used for engine components must withstand heat and stress generated inside the engine during operation, and meet size and weight requirements. Engine components commonly required in reciprocating engines include the engine block, cylinder head, crankshaft, piston and piston rings, connecting rod, bearings, flywheel, and valve train, Engine Block The engine block is the main structure of an engine which supports and helps maintain alignment of inter nal and external components. The engine block consists ‘of a cylinder block and a crankcase. See Figure 3-1. An engine block can be produced as a one-piece or two-piece unit. The cylinder block is the engine com ponent which consists of the cylinder bore, cooling fins on air-cooled engines, and valve train components, depending on the engine design. The cylinder bore is a hole in an engine block that aligns and directs the piston during movement. The bore of an engine is the diameter of the eylinder bore. The stroke of an engine is the linear distance that a piston travels in the eylin- der bore from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC), a7SMALLENGINES Figure 3-1. The engine block is the main structure of the en- gine which helps maintain alignment of internal and external engine components, Top dead center (TDC) isthe point at which the ton is closest to the cylinder head. Bottom dead center (BDC) is the point at which the piston is farthest from the cylinder head. Displacement (swept volume) is the volume that a piston displaces in an engine when it travels from TDC to BDC during the same piston stroke. See Figure 3-2. When bore and stroke are known, the displacement of a single-cylinder engine is found by applying the formula: D = 0.1854 x Bx S where D = displacement (in 0.7854 = constant BF = bore squared (in in.) = stroke (in in) Forexample, whats the displacement ofa single-cyl- inder engine that has a 2.5” bore and a 2” stroke? 0.7854 x Bx S = 0.7854 x (2.5 x 2.5) x2 0.7854 x 6.25 x 2 D=98175 = 9.82cuin, Multiple-cylinder engine displacement is determined by multiplying the displacement of a single cylinder by the number of cylinders. Generally the larger the displacement of the engine, the more power it can produce. in.) as Parner aes (CYLINDER HEAD What isthe ciplacement of a snglo-oyinder engine hat has @ 3.25" boro anda 3.378" soe? 7954 8x8 7854 x (8.25% 3.25) x3375, 0.7854 x 105625 x3.575 = 279962 =28 eu in. Figure 3-2. Engine displacement is determined by the bore and stroke of the engine. An air-cooled cylinder block has cooling fins on the exterior. A cooling fin is an integral thin cast strip designed to provide efficient air circulation and dissipa- tion of heat away from the engine cylinder block into the air stream. Cooling fins increase the surface area of the cylinder block contacting ambient (existing) air for cooling efficiency. Cooling fins cast into or bolted onto the flywheel act as fan blades to provide air circulation around the eylinder block and head. Air circulation dis- sipates heat generated during combustion to maintain optimum engine temperatures. A crankcase is an engine component that houses and supports the crankshaft. In a four-stroke eycle engine, the crankcase also acts as an oil reservoir for lubrication of engine components. The crankcase may be a part of the engine block or a separate component. Some crankcases consist of multiple parts such as a sump or crankcase cover.‘The sump is a removable part of the engine crankcase that serves as an oil reservoir and provides access to internal parts. The sump provides a bearing surface for vertical shaft engines and forms the lower section of the engine. Horizontal shaft engines do not have a sump. In horizontal shaft engines, the engine block and crankcase cover serve as an oil reservoir. The crankcase coveris an engine component that provides access to internal parts in the crankcase and supports the crankshatt. ‘The crankcase breather is an engine component that relieves crankcase pressure created by the recip- rocating motion of the piston during engine operation. See Figure 3-3. When the piston moves toward TDC, volume in the crankcase increases, resulting in a lower than ambient (existing) pressure in the crankcase. ‘When the piston moves toward BDC, the volume in the crankcase decreases, generating a higher than ambient pressure in the crankease. ‘The crankcase breather functions as a check valve allowing more air to escape than can enter the crank- case, This maintains a crankcase pressure less than atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi at sea level). Crankease ‘gases, partially spent combustion gases, and other engine «gases are then routed to the carburetor. ‘The crankcase breather also serves as an oil mist col lector, preventing crankcase oil from escaping whenever the crankcase breather opens. The oil mist collector ‘consists of a wire screen pack. The wire screen pack (ie ead CRANKCASE BREATHER PISTON MOVEMENT CREATES LOW PRESSURE IN CRANKCASE VOLUME IN CRANKCASE INCREASES —~ CRANKCASE BREATHER ‘OPENS —~ CRANKCASE Gases ROUTED TO CARBURETOR ~ CRANKCASE PRESSURE RELIEVED CRANKCASE BREATHER — (CREATES HIGH PRESSURE INGRANKCASE. VOLUME IN CRANKCASE DECREASES: OPERATION Engine Operation allows compression gases and other harmful vapors to pass through while collecting crankcase oil for retum back to the crankcase. Crankcase breathers are available in different configurations and are required on most four-stroke cycle engines. Cylinder blocks are cast from materials strong enough to withstand the heat and stress generated inside the engine during operation, The cylinder block must also meet size and weight requirements dictated by the specific application, Cylinder blocks are commonly constructed from cast aluminum alloy, cast iron, or cast aluminum alloy with cast iron cylinder sleeves. Cast aluminum alloy cylinder blocks are lightweight and dissipate heat more rapidly than cast iron cylinder blocks. Cast iron cylinder blocks are heavier and more expensive, but are more resistant to wear and less prone to heat distortion than cast aluminum alloy cylinder blocks. Cast aluminum alloy cylinder blocks with cast iron cylinder sleeves combine the light weight of alumi- num with the durability of cast iron. See Figure 3-4, ‘Outdoor power equipment sales in North America follow seasonal cycles. The highest monthly sales for walk-behind lawn mowers occur in May. The highest monthly sales for snow throwers occur in December, crankcase | BREATHER | ‘CRANKCASE BREATHER ‘cARBURETOR~/ CONFIGURATION cansuncton~/ Figure 3-3 The crankcase breather functions as a check valve to maintain crankcase pressure and to route gases tothe carburetor. agSMALL ENGINES (Reema esd ele Figure 2-4, Cast aluminum alloy cylinder blocks with cast ron cylinder sleeves combine the light weight of aluminum with the durability of cast ion, Cylinder Head A oplinder head is a cast aluminum alloy of cast iron engine component fastened to the end of the cylinder block farthest from the crankshaft. A head gasket is the filler material placed between the cylinder block and cylinder head to seal the combustion chamber. Head gaskets are made from soft metals and graphite layered together. Head gaskets allow for even heat distribution between the cylinder block and cylinder head for ef ficient heat dissipation. See Figure 3-5. Armuajackis a machine thatis used aise sated concrete slabs by pumping ‘a mud slury under the settled area. 50 CYLINDER, Brock Figure 3-5, The head gasket is placed between the cylinder block and cylinder head to seal the combustion chamber and to provide even heat distribution. ‘Some two-stroke eycle engines combine the cylinder head and the eylinder block into ajug. A jug isan engine component in which the cylinder block and cylinder head are cast as a single unit, This provides maximum structural integrity and eliminates the potential for un- desirable leaks in the combustion chamber. Cylinder head design and components vary depend- ing on whether the engine is an overhead valve engine or an L-head engine. An overhead valve (OHV) engine ig an engine that has valves and related components located in the cylinder head. An L-head engine is an engine that has valves and related components located in the cylinder block. A direct overhead valve (DOV) engine is an engine that has valves and related components located within the cylinder heads, above the combustion chambers, and drives the valves in a more direct manner compared to OHV and L-head engines. Crankshaft ‘The crankshaft is an engine component that converts the linear (reciprocating) motion of the piston into rotary motion. The crankshaft is the main rotating component of an engine and is commonly made of ductile iron. See Figure 3-6, Orientation of the crank- shaft classifies the engine as a vertical shaft engine or horizontal shaft engine,ire aes BEARING (/ SOURNAL v= CRANKEIN SOURNAL _- BEARING SOURNAL Figure 2-6, The crankshaft is the main rotating component of the engine and is commonly made of ductile ton. Features ofa crankshaft include the crankpin journal, throw, bearing journals, counterweight, crankgear, and power take-off (PTO). A crankpin journal is a preci- sion ground surface that provides a rotating pivot point to attach the connecting rod tothe crankshaft. The throw is the measurement from the center of the crankshaft to the center of the erankpin journal, which is used to determine the stroke of an engine. The throw is equal to one-half the stroke. The longer the throw, the greater the stroke, or distance, a piston travels A bearing journal is a precision ground surface within which the crankshaft rotates. Bearing journals mate with bearing surfaces in the cylinder block. Most bearing surfaces are machined integrally in the cylinder block. Some engines feature a low-friction bushing or a ball or tapered roller bearing. A counterweight is a protruding mass integrally cast into the crankshaft which partially balances the forces ofa reciprocating piston and reduces the load on crankshaft bearing journals, Some small engines have a separate counterweight shaft located in the crankcase that is driven by the crank- shaft. The size of the counterweight is determined by the mass ofthe piston, the throw of the crankshaft, and the internal pressures and vibrations generated by the Engine Operation specific engine. The crankgear is a gear located on the crankshaft that is used to drive other parts of an engine. CCrankgears are not required on all small engines. The power take-off (PTO) is an extension of the crankshaft that allows an engine to transmit power to an application, For example, the PTO shaft on a garden tractor can be fitted with a pulley for a drive belt to transmit power to the mower deck. This riding lawn mower has an electric start and ls powered wih an overhead ve (OHV) engin. Piston and Piston Rings A piston is a cylindrical engine component that slides ‘back and forth in the eylinder bore by forces produced during the combustion process. The piston act as the ‘movable end of the combustion chamber. The stationary end of the combustion chamber is the cylinder head. Pistons are commonly made of a cast aluminum alloy for excellent and lightweight thermal conductivity. Ther mal conductivity isthe ability of a material to conduct and transfer heat. Aluminum expands when heated, and proper clearance must be provided to maintain fire piston movement in the cylinder bore. Insufficient clearance can cause the piston to seize in the cylinder. Excessive clearance can cause a loss of compression and an increase in piston noise Piston features include the piston head, piston pin bore, piston pn, ski, rng grooves, ing lands, and piston rings ‘The piston head isthe top surface (closest the cylinder head) of the piston which is subjected to tremendous forces and heat during normal engine operation. See Figure 3-7. The shape of the piston head is ether flat or contoured, depending on engine design. Some engine designs use the piston head as an integral part of the combustion chamber. For example, a dished piston head shape creates swirling effect to mix te ir and fuel more completely as it enters the combustion chamber. 51SMALLENGINES A piston pin bore isa through hole in the side of the piston perpendicular to piston travel that receives the piston pin. A piston pin is a hollow shaft that connects the small end of the connecting rod to the piston, The ‘skirt ofa piston isthe portion of the piston closest to the crankshaft that helps align the piston as it moves in the cylinder bore, Some skirts have profiles cut into them to reduce piston mass and to provide clearance for the rotating crankshaft counterweights. A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring groove which function as the sealing surface forthe piston ring. A piston ring isan expandable spit ring used to provide a seal between the piston and the cylinder wall. Piston rings are commonly mack from cast ion. Cast iron retains the integrity ofits original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder wall, and return oil to the crankcase. Piston ring size and configuration vary depending on engine design and cylinder material Piston rings commonly used on small engines in- clude the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring piston PIN BORE DISHED A FLAT ‘CONTOURED HEAD SHAPES. Figure 3-7.Thepiston acts asthe movable endotthecombus- __#oove closest othe piston head. The compression ring tion chamber and is designed to uiize the forces and heat _scals the combustion chamber from any leakage during Created during engine operation the combustion process. See Figure 3-8. Eanes COMBUSTION GAS PRESSURE = cevunoen PISTON it Veaaady MARKING INDICATES ‘TOP OF RING: — COMBUSTION GAS, PRESGURE FORCES. PISTON FING AGAINST CYLINDER, } WALL TO FORM SEAL PISTON —wiren FING SEALING ACTION RING: Ss gees @Ba gq LOCATION CONFIGURATIONS Figure 3-8, Piston rings commonly used on small engines include the compression rng, wiper ring, and oll ing.‘When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from combustion gases is applied tothe piston head, forcing the piston toward the crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel through the gap between the cylinder wall and the piston and into the piston ring groove. Combustion ‘gas pressure forces the piston ring against the cylinder ‘wall o form a seal. Pressure applied to the piston ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas pressure, ‘A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove between the compression ring and oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil. Combustion gases that pass by the compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring ‘Anil ring isthe piston ring located inthe ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is used to wipe excess oil from the cylinder wall during piston move- ment. Excess oil is returned through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block, Two-stroke cycle engines do not require oil rings because lubrication is supplied by mixing oil inthe gasoline, and an oil voir is not required Connecting Rad A connecting rod is an engine component that transfers ‘motion from the piston to the crankshaft and functions as a lever arm. Connecting rods are commonly made from cast aluminum alloy and are designed to withstand sudden impact stresses from combustion and piston movement. The small end of the connecting rod con- nects to the piston with a piston pin. See Figure 3-9. The piston pin, or wrist pin, provides a pivot point between the piston and connecting rod. Spring clips, or piston pin Jocks, are used to hold the piston pin in place. ‘The large end of the connecting rod connects to the crankpin journal to provide a pivot point on the crankshaft, Connecting rods are produced as one-piece ‘or two-piece components. A rod cap is the removable section of a two-piece connecting rod that provides a bearing surface for the erankpin journal. The rod cap is attached to the connecting rod with two rod cap screws for installation and removal from the crankshaft Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. tcan ‘only be converted from one form to another. Engine Operation escuchar PISTON PISTON PIN BEARING SURFACE: CONNECTING ROD — CRANKPIN SOURNAL BEARING SURFACE“ Figure 39. A connecting rod is designed to witnstand sudden impact stresses from combustion and piston movernent. ‘Stancby generators are rated in kilowatts. 53SMALL ENGINES Bearings A bearing is a component used to reduce friction and. to maintain clearance between stationary and rotating ‘components of an engine. Bearings, or bearing surfaces, are located on the crankshaft, connecting rod, and cam- shaft, and also in the cylinder block. Bearings can be subjected to radial, axial (thrust), or a combination of radial and axial loads. A radial load is a load applied perpendicularto the shaft. An axial load isaload applied parallel to the shaft. Bearings are classified as friction or antifriction bearings, See Figure 3-10. {A friction bearing consists of a fixed, non-moving bearing surface, such as machined metal or pressed-in bushing, that provides a low-friction support surface for rotating orsliding surfaces, Friction bearings commonly use lubricating oil to separate the moving component from the mated non-moving bearing surface. Friction bearing surfaces commonly consist of material that is sofier than the supported component. Friction bearings, because of their soft consistency, have the ability to embed foreign matter to prevent spreading in the engine. Friction bearings also have the ability to conform to slightly irregular mating surfaces. Friction bearings can be integrally machined, one-piece Eanes) NON-MOVING sleeve, split-sleeve for easy installation and removal, or a DU?®. A DU® isa friction bearing that consists ofa steel backing, a porous bronze innerstructure, and a polytetra- fluoroethylene (PTFE) and lead overlay on the bearing surface. The steel backing provides high load-carrying capacity and excellent heat dissipation, The porous bronze innerstructure (approximately 0.010”) serves as a reservoir for the PTFE-lead mixture, The PTFE-Iead overlay (approximately 0.001”) transfers an initial coating of oxide lubricant film to the mating surface. A DU? bearing is a low-friction, self-lubricating bearing that can be used with or without lubrication. ‘An antifriction bearing is a bearing that contains mov- ing elements to provide a low friction support surface for rotating or sliding surfaces. Antifriction bearings are commonly made with hardened rolling elements (balls ‘and rollers) and races. A race is the bearing surface in an antifriction bearing that supports rolling elements during, rotation. A separator is an antiftiction bearing component used to maintain the position and alignment of rolling elements. Antifriction bearings reduce lubrication re- quirements and decrease starting and operating friction, Reduced friction results in less power required to rotate engine components and increases overall engine output ) _~ BEARING SURFACE Wo PIECES SLEEVE BEARING SURFACE SEPARATOR SPLITSLEEVE POROUS BRONZE INNER STRUCTURE, INTEGRALLY MACHINED. ‘AXIAL Loaps FRICTION STEEL \_ / BACKING. PTFELEAD OVERLAY nee ANTIFRICTION Figure 3-10. Bearings and bearing surfaces are subjected to radial, axial (thrust), oF a combination of radial and axial loads. 54‘The crankshaft is supported by main bearings. A main bearing is a bearing that supports and provides a low-frietion bearing surface for the crankshaft. Small engines commonly have two main bearings, one at each end of the crankshaft, See Figure 3-11, Small engines with three or more cylinders may require more than two main bearings to provide additional support to the crankshaft, Main bearings are mounted in the crankcase and can be either friction or antftiction bearings. An- tifriction bearings used for main bearings increase the radial and axial load capacity of the engine design. NET Figure 3-11. Small engines commonly have two main bear- ings to provide a lowriction bearing surface on each end of the crankshaft Avrod bearing is a bearing that provides a low-friction pivot point between the connecting rod and the crank- shaft and the conneeting rod and piston. The large end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankpin journal ‘The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston pin, Rod bearings are friction bearings (integrally ‘machined, sleeve, or split-sleeve) or antifriction bear- ings. Most connecting rods for small engines use inte- ‘rally machined friction bearings. See Figure 3-12. Connecting rods and caps are mated to one another and should be marked accordingly prior to removal when servicing an engine. Engine Operation ROD BEARINGS BEARING PRESSED IN CONNECTING ‘ROD BORE CONNECTING ROD PROVIDES BEARING SURFACE INTEGRALLY MACHINED BEARING ‘SPLIT-SLEEVE ANTIFRICTION Figure 3-12. Rod bearings provide a low-friction pivot point between the connecting rod and the crankshaft and the con- necting rod and piston, Antiftiction bearings used on connecting rods are precision ground from hardened steel and are commonly used on two-stroke cycle engines. Friction rod bearings fare commonly made from nonferrous metals such as bronze, aluminum, and babbitt. A nonferrous metal is @ metal that does not contain iron, Bronze is a nonferrous ‘metal alloy that consists of brass and zine. Aluminum is a nonferrous metal commonly alloyed with zine or copper. Babbitt isa nonferrous metal alloy consisting of copper, Jead, and tin or lead and tin, Babbitt is commonly used on split-sleeve bearings consisting of a steel backing coated ‘with multiple thin layers of babbitt on the load bearing surface. Split-sleeve connecting rod bearing position in the large end of the connecting rod is maintained with an alignment tab. The alignment tab also prevents rotation of the bearing during engine operation 55SMALL ENGINES Flywheel ‘The flywheel is a cast iron, aluminum, or zine disk that is mounted at one end of the crankshaft to provide in- ertia for the engine, Inertia is the property of matter by which any physical body persists in its state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an extemal force. Inertia isnot a force, itis a property of matter. During the operation of a reciprocating engine, combustion occurs al distinct intervals. The flywheel supplies the inertia required to prevent loss of engine speed and possible stoppage of crankshaft rotation between combustion intervals. See Figure 3-13. ian counrenwersnts ” cranksuarr—! Figure 3-13. The flywheel supplies inertia to dampen acceler tion forces caused by combustion intervals in an engine. During each stroke of an internal combustion engine, the flywheel, crankshaft, and other engine components, are affected by fluctuations in speed and force. Dur- ing the power event in a four-stroke cycle engine, the crankshaft is accelerated rapidly by the sudden motion of the piston and connecting rod assembly. The flywheel absorbs some of the rpm and force deviation by its 56 resistance to acceleration. The inertia of the flywheel provides a dampening effect on the engine as a whole to even out radical acceleration forces and rpm deviations produced in the engine. Valve Train ‘The valve train of an internal combustion engine in- cludes components required to control the flow of gases into and out of the combustion chamber. This includes valves and related components required to allow the air-fuel mixture (o enter the combustion chamber, seal the combustion chamber during compression and com- bustion, and evacuate exhaust gases when combustion is complete. The type of valve train used for a recipro- cating engine varies with a four-stroke cycle engine or two-stroke cycle engine, FOUR-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston makes two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle. An operating cycle requires two revolutions (720°) of the crankshaft. The four-stroke cycle engine is the most common type of small engine. A four-stroke cycle engine completes five events in one operating eycle, including intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust events. Intake Event ‘The intake event is an engine operation event in which the air-fuel mixture, or ust air in diesel engines, is intro- duced to fill the combustion chamber. The intake event ‘occurs when the piston moves from TDC to BDC and the intake valve is open. See Figure 3-14. The move- ment of the piston toward BDC creates a low pressure. in the cylinder. Ambient atmospheric pressure forces the air-fuel mixture through the open intake valve into the cylinder to fill the low pressure area created by the piston movement, The cylinder continues to fill slightly past BDC as the air-fuel mixture continues to low from motion and inertia while the piston begins to change direction, The intake valve remains open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC. The number of degrees the intake valve remains open after BDC depends on engine design. The intake valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed inside the cylinder. EEOAR FUEL DOWN CREATES COW PRESSURE INGYLINDER Engine Operation eee serena IR-FUEL eS MIXTURE COMPRESSED Ue compresses INPSFUEL MIXTURE Figure 3-14.The intake event occurs when the ali-uel mixture Isintroduced into the combustion chamber as the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Compression Event ‘The compression event is an engine operation event in which the trapped air-fuel mixture, or just air in diesel engines, is compressed inside the cylinder. The combustion chamber is sealed to form the charge. The charge is the volume of compressed air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber ready for ignition. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to be released when the charge is ignited. Intake and exhaust valves must be closed to ensure that the cylinder is sealed to provide compression. Compression is the process of reducing or squeezing a charge from a large volume to a smaller volume in the combustion chamber. See Figure 3-15. The flywheel helps to maintain the momentum necessary to compress the charge. When the piston of an engine compresses the charge, an increase in cohesive force supplied by work being done by the piston causes heat to be generated. The ‘compression and heating of the air-fuel vapor in the ‘charge results in an increase in charge temperature and an increase in fuel vaporization, The increase in charge temperature occurs uniformly throughout the combus- tion chamber to produce faster combustion (fuel oxida- tion) after ignition Figure 9-18. The compression event is an engine operation event in which the trapped ai-fuel mixture is compressed to form the charge. ‘The increase in fuel vaporization occurs as small drop- lets of fuel become vaporized more completely from the heat generated. The increased droplet surface area exposed 1 the ignition flame allows more complete burning of the charge in the combustion chamber. Only gasoline vapor ignites. An increase in droplet surface area allows gasoline torelease more vapor rather than remaining a liquid. ‘Ride-on power trowels are used to fnish concrete n large areas. 57SMALL ENGINES ‘The tighter the charge vapor molecules are com- pressed, the more energy obtained from the combustion process. The energy needed to compress the charge is| substantially less than the gain in force produced dur- ing the combustion process. For example, in a typical small engine, energy required to compress the charge is one-fourth the amount of gain in force produced during combustion, Gain in force during combustion from compression of the charge is considerably higher in diesel engines. ‘Compression Ratio. The compression ratio of an engine isa comparison of the volume of the combustion chamber ‘with the piston at BDC to the volume of the combustion chamber with the piston at TDC. See Figure 3-16. This area, combined with the design and style of combustion ‘chamber, determines the compression ratio. Gasoline en- ‘gines commonly have a compression ratio ranging from 6:1-8.5:1. Diesel engines commonly have a compression ratio ranging from 14:1~25:1. The higher the compres- sion ratio, the more fuel-efficient the engine. A higher compression ratio normally provides a substantial gain ‘COMPRESSION RATIO ‘coMBUSTION (CHAMBER LL) PISTON TRAVEL Swe AEA ‘in combustion pressure or force on the piston. However, higher compression ratios increase operator effort required to start the engine, Some small engines feature a system to relieve pressure during the compression stroke to reduce operator effort required when starting the engine. ‘Sun-and-planet gearing was the forerunner to the crankshaft Ignition Event ‘The ignition (combustion) event is an engine operation cevent in which the charge is ignited and rapidly oxidized through a chemical reaction to release heat energy. See Figure 3-17. Combustion is the rapid, oxidizing chemi- cal reaction in which a fuel chemically combines with ‘oxygen in the atmosphere and releases energy in the form of heat — COMPRESSED CHARGE. _— PISTON GASOLINE ENGINE 6:1 COMPRESSION RATIO comeusion ‘CHAMBER | PISTON TRAVEL ‘SWEPT AREA FOAL ALD PISTON PISTON DIESEL ENGINE 14:1 COMPRESSION RATIO Figure 3-16. The compression ratlo of an engine is a comparison ofthe volume of the combustion chamber with the piston at ‘80C and TDC, 58SPARK INTIATES: / comBusTiON BOTH VALVES FLAME FRONT SPREADS THROUGHOUT Engine Operation CHARGE BEGINS. BURNING FLAME FRONT ‘COMPLETES BURN ‘COMBUSTION CHAMBER, Figure 3-17. During the ignition event, atmospheric oxygen and fuel vapor in the charge are consumed by the progressing flame front Proper combustion involves a short but finite time to spread a flame throughout the combustion chamber. The spark atthe spark plug initiates combustion at approxi- mately 20° of crankshaft rotation before TDC (BTDC). ‘The atmospheric oxygen and fuel vapor are consumed by a progressing flame front. flame front is the bound- ary wall that separates the charge from the combustion by-products. The flame front progresses across the com- bustion chamber until the entire charge has burned Power Event ‘The power event is an engine operation event in which hot expanding gases force the piston head away from the cylinder head, Piston force and subsequent motion are transferred through the connecting rod to apply torque to the crankshaft. The torque applied initiates crankshaft rotation, See Figure 3-18. The amount of torgue pro- duced is determined by the pressure on the piston, the size of the piston, and the throw of the engine. During the power event, both valves must be closed eae BOTH VALVES: (CLOSED. _—cHance = INTED —PisTON DRIVEN ‘TOWARD BDC ‘CONNECTING Roo’ cranksHaet _/ ROTATES / Figure 3-18. During the power event, hot expanding gases force the piston head away from the cylinder head,SMALL ENGINES Exhaust Event ‘The exhaust event is an engine operation event in which spent gases are removed from the combustion chamber and released to the atmosphere, The exhaust event is the final event and occurs when the exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed. Piston movement evacu- ates exhaust gases to the atmosphere. As the piston reaches BDC during the power event, combustion is complete and the cylinder is filled with exhaust gases. See Figure 3-19. The exhaust valve ope and inertia ofthe flywheel and other moving parts push the piston back to TDC, foreing the exhaust gases past the open cexhaust valve. Atthe end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is ‘aU TDC and one operating cyele has been completed. Bina INTAKE VALVE ewust GASSES EXHAUST VALVE \SOPEN~ EXHAUST GASES EvacuaTeD TO f ATMOSPHERE Figure 3-19. During the exhaust event, piston movement ‘evacuates exhaust gases to the atmosphere, Valve Overlap Valve overlap is the period during engine operation when both intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time, Valve overlap occurs when the piston nears TDC between the exhaust event and the intake event. Duration of valve overlap is between 10°20? of crankshaft rota- tion, depending on the engine design. See Figure 3-20. ‘The intake valve is opened during the exhaust event just before TDC, initiating the flow of a new charge into the combustion chamber. 60 eae EXHAUST, VALVE OPEN EXHAUST, INTAKE INTAKE VaWeoren | /"VAWWEOPEN /' VALVE / / OPEN Piston| “CCRANKSHAFT a B c emust nae event ia EVENT 100° soc | TDC | oc \ os ' 1 \ i ia! oe | 7\I i INTAKE valve 1 UF a intace | VALVE: ARIE NY MINE ON. | Gioses \ intake 7p NINE / Loouusr | wave / | wie | | oses bye OvERLAP Leqmusr be iatee ones Figure 3-20. Valve overiap is the period between the exhaust ‘event and the intake event when the piston nears TOC. AAs the exhaust gases are evacuated from the combus- tion chamber, a small but distinct low-pressure area is created on the surface of the piston head. By opening, the intake valve earlier than TDC, the charge begins to fill this low-pressure area while exhaust gases exit. The low-pressure area on the head of the piston assists the fresh charge in filling the combustion chamber to its ‘maximum capacity.