REACTIONS OF

CARBOHYDRATE
STARCH & SUGARS
 At the end of the lecture, you should:
Know the reactions involving starches in a
food system;
The reactions involving sugars and how it
affects the appearance and flavour of a food
system.
 Warm Up Questions

Briefly explain what happen to a starch

molecule when added to water.
What happen when you heat a starch
solution?
What are the Functions of Starch in a
Food System?
Thickening of sauces, gravies.
Bread-baking and flour-goods
for crumb structure and texture of
the products.
 Question..

Why do starches from different

plant sources differ in their ability
to gel?
 CARBOHYDRATE
The strength of a starch gel depends on:
Proportion of starch and water. Starch gel
strength
Proportion of amylose.
Presence of sugars. Compete with starch for
water, thus reducing gel strength.
Presence of acid. Acid hydrolyses starch,
reducing gel strength
 CARBOHYDRATE
Amylose though gels well, are not stable tend
to unwind, resulting in opaque, pulpy-sponge-
like gel. This is known as retrogradation
occur especially in food that goes through
freeze-thaw cycle.
Instead use high amylopectin starch, e.g, waxy
corn starch, chemically modified starch or
pregelitinized starch.
REACTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE
Gelatinization
Gel Formation
Retrogradation
Dextrinization
 Gelatinization

Occurs when starch in

solution is heated.
Temperature of 60 71 C, and complete at
88 90 C

Heat causes hydrogen bond between starches

are broken and new bonds are formed
between starch molecules and water

Biferingence (loss of ordered starch

structure). Starch becomes translucent .

As temperature increases, granules become

larger as more water uptake occurs.

Swollen granules take up space and make

the mixture thicker.

Further cooking develops flavour. Granules

might rupture causing mixture to thin.
STEPS INVOLVED IN GELATINIZATION
Critical Temperatures of Gelatinization
STARCH SOURCE CRITICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COOKED
TEMPERATURE ( oC) STARCH

Roots and tubers 56 76 Form viscous, long-bodied, relatively

(potato and tapiioca) clear pastes; weak gel upon cooling.

Cereal grains 62 75 Form viscous, short-bodied pastes;

(corn, sorghum, rice set to opaque gel upon cooling.
and wheat)

Waxy hybrids 63 74 Form heavy-bodied, stringy, clear

(corn and sorghum) pastes; resistant to gelling upon
cooling.

High amylose hybrids 100 - 160 Form short-bodied pastes; set to

(corn) very rigid opaque gel upon cooling.
Factors Influencing Gelatinization
Water
Temperature
Time
Stir
Acid
Sugar
Fat/Protein present
 Agitation

Salt Acid

Factors to
Control during
Sugar Gelatinization
Enzymes

Duration Temperature Fats &

Type of heat proteins
Rate of heating
 GEL FORMATION
AMYLOSE AMYLOPECTIN
When cooled, amylose Highly branched, thus
sets to form gel. do not readily forms
This is known as gelation. bonds or a gel.
Amylose, being linear
(straight) will arrange
It consists of 2-phase
once cooled forming a systems containing a
colloidal, elastic and solid phase dispersed
solid, 3-dimensional, 2- in a continuous liquid
phase systems of solid phase called sol.
amylose polymers
holding a liquid disperse
phase.
 Gelling Potential of Starch
FORMS GEL DOES NOT FORM GEL

Cornstarch Waxy cereals

Wheat starch Tapioca
Wheat flour

Gels are non-pourable and very high viscosity.

Starch with high amylose form opaque gels
compared to those with low amylose, which
form clear gels.
 DEXTRINIZATION
Dextrins are the remains of starch molecules
which have been broken down by (dry)
heating.
When starch is heated in dry conditions these
products include pyrodextrins, which are
brown in color and have a characteristic
flavoring recognizable in bread crust and
toast.
 RETROGRADATION/SYNERESIS
Starch retrogradation has been defined
as the process, which occurs when
the molecular chains in gelatinized
starches begin to re-associate in an
ordered structure (Atwell, Hood,
Lineback, Varriano Marston, & Zobel,
1988).
 RETROGRADATION/SYNERESIS- cont.

Although both amylose and amylopectin

are capable of retrograding, the
amylopectin component appears to be
more responsible for long-term quality
changes in foods (Miles, Morris, Orford,
& Ring, 1985;Ring et al., 1987).
For more info, refer to the webpage below:
https://www.msu.edu/~lentnerd/NewFiles/sta
rch.html?iframe=true&width=100%&height=1
00%
How To Prevent
Retrogradation
/Syneresis??
 Use Modified
Starches/
Stabilizers

Use
Fast Cooling
Immediately

Prevents
Retrogradation
 Research has well established that the cooling conditions
will impact the strength of the gel. Generally, if cooled too
fast, the amylose will not have time to form the vital
micelles necessary for the three-dimensional structure. If
cooled too slowly, the amylose fractions will have a chance
to align too much and become too close together and the
liquid portion will not be trapped in the micelles. On both
instances, there will be weeping and syneresis

Oregon State University.

http://food.oregonstate.edu/learn/starch.html
 MODIFIED STARCHES
Natural starches may be modified chemically
to produce physical changes that contribute
to:-
i. Shelf stability
ii. Appearance
iii. Convenience
iv. Performance
of the finished products
SUGARS
 Properties of Sucrose
1. Solubility
- Varies.
- Fructose < sucrose < glucose
- Solubility increases with temperature
- At room temp., solubility is at 67% sucrose:
33% water
 Elevates Boiling Point
% of Sucrose in Syrup % Water Boiling Point (C)

0 100 100
20 80 100.6
40 60 101.5
60 40 103
80 20 112
90 10 123
95 5 140
99.5 0.5 166
 Hygroscopic
What is hygroscopicity ?

Fructose-containing (HFCS, molasses, honey)

more hygroscopic than sucrose thus
important to control. Why?
Sugar stored
in a humid Lumpy sugar
condition

Candies
prepared on Soft candies
a humid day
 Recommendation
Store sugar & sugar products in Moisture
proof container.

Encapsulate sugar in sugar products to:

Prevent hygroscopy
Sugar is time-released, hence prolonged
sweetness perception & sucrose can withstand
expected processing conditions.
Separating Agents
&
Lump Formation
 Lump Formation

Lumps form due to unequal swelling or

clumping.
Separating agents should be added to just
starch/flour ingredient to separate grains prior
to its addition to a recipe.
Produced a smooth textured mixture.
 Separating Agents
Cold Sugar
Fat Water

Forms film around When mixed with Commonly used in

individual starch insoluble strach, a sweetened mixture.
granules, allowing each slurry is formed. Mixed with starch
to swell independently. This can then be added prior to
A roux is made as to hot liquid for
starch is browned & incorporation into
thickening.
separated by agitation Important to use cold
liquid.
with liquid fat during water as hot watre will
heating. partly gelatinized the
Starch lose thickening starch.
ability as dextrination Used when the final
occurs. product is to remain
fat-free or sugar-free.
 CRYSTALS FORMATION
Sucrose molecules are able to align & form
large lattice arrangements of crystals.
 Other sugars, for example fructose & glucose
(invert sugars) possess different shapes that
interfere with aggregation & crystal
development.
HFCS, honey & invert sugar can be added to
candy to manipulate the crystal size &
development.
candies with too much invert sugar will fail to
harden ....deemed unsatisfactory.
 Crystallization
Important for candy making
Involves development or inhibition of
crystallization
Noncrystalline candy Key is to prevent grainy
texture caused by crystallization
Prevent crystallization
Clear sides of pan of particles
Dont agitate during cooling
Use high soluble sugar
 Major Candy Types
Candy Type Final Temp. (C) Percent Sucrose
Crystallline
Fudge 112 80
Fondant 114 81

Amorphous
Caramel 118 83
Taffy 127 89
Peanut brittle 143 93
Crystal Candy Amorphous Candy

Formed in the Higher sugar content

crystallization process Noncrystalline
when heat of crystallization Contains large amount of
is given off. interfering agents.
Highly structured crystalline Low moisture level
patterns.
Crystals suspended in sugar
solution.
Large crystal glasslike, eg
rock candy; small & smooth
textured crystals eg
fondants & fudge candy.
Factors affecting development (or lack
of it) of crystals
Temperature

Use of
added FACTORS
Type & sugar
substances concentration

Cooling
method
 For more info, refer to the webpage
below:

http://www.medicinenet.com/artificial_sweeten
ers/article.htm
 BROWNING
REACTIONS

NON-
ENZYMATIC
ENZYMATIC

Maillard Fruits &

Caramelization
Reaction Vegetables
 ENZYMATIC BROWNING
In cut fruits & vegetables,
browning is due to enzymatic,
oxidative browning.
 NON-ENZYMATIC BROWNING
Sugar is involved in non-enzymatic browning:
Low temperature Maillard browning reaction;
High temperature caramelization
 BROWNING
Browning Reactions Caramelization
Maillard reaction Results from heating
Browning reactions dry sugar or solution
involving reducing so water evaporates
sugars and protein and turns into brown
liquid
Glucose, fructose, At 320F sucrose will
maltose are reducing begin to caramelize
sugars; sucrose is not Less sweet, but more
flavorful
 Maillard Browning
A free carbonyl group of a reducing
sugar reacts with a free amino acid
group on a protein when heated and
the result is brown colour.
Different from enzymatic browning.
 Maillard Browning
The Maillard reaction is favoured by the
following:
High sugar content
High protein concentration
High pH
High temperatures
Lower water content
 MAILLARD BROWNING
Involves the reaction of the carbonyl group of
a reducing sugar with amine group of an
amino acid thus involves protein.
Occurs at relatively low temperature, high pH
& low moisture.
Responsible for the colour change in baked
breads, cakes, pie crust, canned milk, meats
and caramel candies.
 Maillard Browning
Responsible for discolouration of food
products such as powdered milk and
powdered egg.
Maillard reaction causes the lost of amino
acids which are essential to human. Thus
important to retard the reaction when
sending food supplies to underdeveloped
countries.
 CARAMELIZATION
Non-enzymatic browning process that occurs
in sugars heated to high temperature.
When sugar is heated above its melting point
(170 C), it dehydrates & decomposes. The
sugar ring (either furanose or pyranose)
opens & loses water.
The sugar becomes brown, more
concentrated & develops a caramel flavour as
it continues to increase in temperature.
 NEXT WEEK
Prepare warm up question.
Look up notes in i-learn
Read on lipid structures and rancidity.