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Examples:
x3
(a) sin x x 6
for all x [0, 2 ].
Result: Let f : I R be differentiable. Then
(a) f 0 (x) = 0 for all x I iff f is constant on I .
(b) f 0 (x) 0 for all x I iff f is increasing on I .
(c) f 0 (x) 0 for all x I iff f is decreasing on I .
(d) f 0 (x) > 0 for all x I f is strictly increasing on I .
(e) f 0 (x) < 0 for all x I f is strictly decreasing on I .
(f) f 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x I f is one-one on I .
Examples:
x3
(a) sin x x 6
for all x [0, 2 ].
(b) If f (x) = x 3 + x 2 5x + 3 for all x R, then f is one-one
on [1, 5] but not one-one on R.
Intermediate value property of derivatives: Let f : I R be
differentiable and let a, b I with a < b. If f 0 (a) < k < f 0 (b),
then there exists c (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = k.
Intermediate value property of derivatives: Let f : I R be
differentiable and let a, b I with a < b. If f 0 (a) < k < f 0 (b),
then there exists c (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = k.
1+x1 1sin x
Examples: (a) lim x
(b) lim
x0 x 2 1+cos 2x
x 2 sin x1 1
(c) lim (d) lim ( sinx x ) x (e) lim xsin x
x0 sin x x0 x 2x+sin x
Taylors theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be such that
f , f 0 , f 00 , ..., f (n) are continuous on [a, b] and f (n+1) exists on
(a, b).
Taylors theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be such that
f , f 0 , f 00 , ..., f (n) are continuous on [a, b] and f (n+1) exists on
(a, b). Then there exists c (a, b) such that
00 (a) (n) (a)
f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(b a) + f 2!
(b a)2 + + f n!
(b a)n
(n+1)
+ f (n+1)!
(c)
(b a)n+1 .
Taylors theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be such that
f , f 0 , f 00 , ..., f (n) are continuous on [a, b] and f (n+1) exists on
(a, b). Then there exists c (a, b) such that
00 (a) (n) (a)
f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(b a) + f 2!
(b a)2 + + f n!
(b a)n
(n+1)
+ f (n+1)!
(c)
(b a)n+1 .
x x2
x
Example: 1 + 2
8
1+x 1+ 2
for all x > 0.
Taylors theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be such that
f , f 0 , f 00 , ..., f (n) are continuous on [a, b] and f (n+1) exists on
(a, b). Then there exists c (a, b) such that
00 (a) (n) (a)
f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(b a) + f 2!
(b a)2 + + f n!
(b a)n
(n+1)
+ f (n+1)!
(c)
(b a)n+1 .
x x2
x
Example: 1 + 2
8
1+x 1+ 2
for all x > 0.
an (x x0 )n ,
P
Power series: A series of the form
n=0
where x0 , an R for n = 0, 1, 2, ... and x R.
Taylors theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be such that
f , f 0 , f 00 , ..., f (n) are continuous on [a, b] and f (n+1) exists on
(a, b). Then there exists c (a, b) such that
00 (a) (n) (a)
f (b) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(b a) + f 2!
(b a)2 + + f n!
(b a)n
(n+1)
+ f (n+1)!
(c)
(b a)n+1 .
x x2
x
Example: 1 + 2
8
1+x 1+ 2
for all x > 0.
an (x x0 )n ,
P
Power series: A series of the form
n=0
where x0 , an R for n = 0, 1, 2, ... and x R.
an x n .
P
It is sufficient to consider the series
n=0
Convergence - Examples:
n
x
n!x n xn
P P P
(a) n!
(b) (c)
n=0 n=0 n=0
Convergence - Examples:
n
x
n!x n xn
P P P
(a) n!
(b) (c)
n=0 n=0 n=0
Result:
an x n converges for x = x1 6= 0, then it converges
P
(a) If
n=0
absolutely for all x R satisfying |x| < |x1 |.
Convergence - Examples:
n
x
n!x n xn
P P P
(a) n!
(b) (c)
n=0 n=0 n=0
Result:
an x n converges for x = x1 6= 0, then it converges
P
(a) If
n=0
absolutely for all x R satisfying |x| < |x1 |.
an x n diverges for x = x2 , then it diverges for all
P
(b) If
n=0
x R satisfying |x| > |x2 |.
Convergence - Examples:
n
x
n!x n xn
P P P
(a) n!
(b) (c)
n=0 n=0 n=0
Result:
an x n converges for x = x1 6= 0, then it converges
P
(a) If
n=0
absolutely for all x R satisfying |x| < |x1 |.
an x n diverges for x = x2 , then it diverges for all
P
(b) If
n=0
x R satisfying |x| > |x2 |.
an x n , there
P
Radius of convergence: For every power series
n=0
exists a unique R satisfying 0 R such that the series
converges absolutely if |x| < R and diverges if |x| > R.
Convergence - Examples:
n
x
n!x n xn
P P P
(a) n!
(b) (c)
n=0 n=0 n=0
Result:
an x n converges for x = x1 6= 0, then it converges
P
(a) If
n=0
absolutely for all x R satisfying |x| < |x1 |.
an x n diverges for x = x2 , then it diverges for all
P
(b) If
n=0
x R satisfying |x| > |x2 |.
an x n , there
P
Radius of convergence: For every power series
n=0
exists a unique R satisfying 0 R such that the series
converges absolutely if |x| < R and diverges if |x| > R.
The series may or may not converge for |x| = R.
Methods to find the radius/interval of convergence:
Methods to find the radius/interval of convergence:
xn (1)n
1)n
P P
Examples: (a) n2
(b) n4n
(x
n=0 n=1
Methods to find the radius/interval of convergence:
xn (1)n
1)n
P P
Examples: (a) n2
(b) n4n
(x
n=0 n=1