Dr.

Prafull Vijayakar (Consulting Homeopath)

www.prafullvijayakar.com

APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study which deals with normal working or functioning of living being.
It is science which explains various mechanism going in the body on
i physical & chemical level
ii development/organization & progression of life , all of which are must to keep human
body alive

WHY PHYSIOLOGY IS IMPORTANT IN HOMEOPATHY?

Physiology vis-a visImportant in disease and cure.

Life is very precious: we have no right to play with anyones life. Human being is most
intricate machine in this world.so it is utmost important for the physician to know normal
functioning of this machine, until & unless we know normal functioning we cannot know
what happens in disease & cure

Hysiology vis-a- vis Homeopathic factors

Many explanation of unexplained phenomena in homeopathy can be substantiated from the
knowledge of physiology.
The question frequently asked by homeopaths are-----

1. Why our medicines are prepared from glucose & alcohol ?

2. How medicine brings about cure?
3. Why Herings law should be seen and what is explanation?
4. What usually do you know by homeopathic constitution?
5. What is partially similimum remedy?
6. When and when not to repeat a dose or to treat a patient?

And in repetition of doses.i.e.. whether to give homeopathic constitutional stimulus or wait &
watch. If we are born on this earth god gave us healing capacity; this is nothing but
immunity. If it fails then we have to intervene, not otherwise. Even in injury healing take
place within 24 to 48 hrs, if it give rise to any symptoms or bad sign then constitution is
required not otherwise.

example:
A] In malnourished patient tell him to take healthy diet but if he has no appetite or in spite
of eating well is weak, marasmic then right constitutional stimuli is required
B] If he has loose motion after eating in restaurant dont immediately give him medicines .
It is just a reaction of body to throw out toxins so wait & watch, what we call as
Indisposition in homeopathy.
C] Knowledge of vitamins can help us in condition like polyneuritis; indigestion
constipation; anorexia where vitamin B thiamin defecay can give rise to disease called
beri beri. Right amount of vitamins will restore a health of a person without a remedy.
D] In acute exacerbation, we have to consider the moon phases, general sensation of well
being if persist in any illness dont repeat as body has the capacity to heal itself.
E] If the patient during the treatment has taken allopathic treatment or if he has used any
external ointment and after that he comes to you, in such cases we have to just keep
him under observation. If any complain appear along with weakness than only we have
to repeat the constitution.
1. How can you give the scientific explanation of why no External application of any
ointment, eyedrops during homeopathic treatment which is harmful.
2. To understand the importance thermals, physical generals with scientific explanation.
3. To understand the importance of basic genetic nature as compared to feelings,
emotions, and delusion, illusion.
4. To understand the significance of dreams.
5. To understand the scientific explanation of various parameters After right constitutional
prescription.

WHAT IS HUMAN BODY MADE UP OF?

As we know that human being in made up of thousands of complex compound the main
substance is 70 to 80 % water protein lipids, inorganic salts i.e. metals & non metals
BODY is not just a static jumble of chemical but a dynamic, highly organized marvelous
designed living. It a) construct itself
b) It grows
c) Acts & reacts
d) Regulates its own activities
e) Keeps its part in fairly good repair.

And besides all that it reproduces so as to ensure the continuity of human life.

The most basic unit of the body is cell. The entire body contains about trillion cells.each has
some assigned place to occupy, some specific role to play. Cells are many types; they
perform function specific to the tissue or organ they form. Example: -some cells like those of
nervous system, liver &endocrine glands perform specialised function.
As you all know.
Many cells of similar structure & function together form a tissue number of tissue form an
organ.many organ form a system & the system make a body.

BODY FLUIDS

About 56% of the adult human body is fluid .The fluid can be
Intracellular i.e. inside the cell
Extra cellular i.e. outside the cell

The extra cellular fluid can be divided into interstitial fluid, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, and
intraocular fluid, fluid of gastro intestinal tract & fluid of potential spaces.

This extra cellular fluid is is in constant motion throughout the body by the blood
circulation
It contains proper concentration of of O2, glucose, amino acid, fatty substance, Na, k a
basic nutrition that are required for maintaining life. The product of excretion are put into the
extracellular fluid by the cell from where they are later removed. Thus all cell live in
essentially the same environment that is the extracellular fluid for which reason it is called
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT the body or the MILIEU INTERIOR
Normally the extracellular &intracellular fluid maintains equilibrium. Both this fluids have
different composition. These difference between the component of the intracellular &
extracellular fluid is extremely important of the cell. There is constant shift of fluid from
extracellular to intracellular space & viceversa.
Special mechanism for transporting ions through the cell membrane maintains these
differences.
This process of diffusion of fluid is caused by kinetic motion of the molecule in both
extracellular & intracellular fluid; it takes place within few seconds.
This maintenance of constant balance between this fluid is called HOMEOSTATIS. To
remain healthy this balance has to be maintained. Extreme dysfunction leads to death,
while moderate dysfunction leads to sickness.

Gyyton has mentioned in his book of physiology, this has automatically of the body. He
says, Each functional structure provides us share in maintenance of homeostatic condition
in extracellular fluid, which is called the internal environment, the cell of the body will
continue to live & function properly. Thus each cell benefits from homeostasis in turn each
cell contributes toward the maintenance of homeostatic. This reciprocal interplay provides
continuos automatically of the body until one or more functional system lose there ability to
contribute their shareof function, when this happens all the cell of the body suffer extreme
dysfunction lead to death while moderate dysfunction leads to sickness.
The same automatically is explained by our master Dr.Hahnemann in aphorism no nine
as:
In the healthy condition of man, the spiritual vital force (autocracy) the dynamics that
animates the material body (organism) rules with unbounded sway and retains as the part
of the organism in admirable, harmonious vital operation as regard both sense & function so
that our indwelling reason gifted mind can freely employ this healthy instrument for higher
purpose of our existence.
Hahnemann in those days could speak about automaticity what gyyton said about the cell
functioning in spite of no microscope or detailed knowledge of science in those times.
He distinctly calls a unit of action in the whole organism as vital force. He says harmony
itself is a vital force.
Kent in his lectuers says -: Vital force is a power or a cause without which effect is not
possible i.e. harmonious vital operation
Kent describes the automacity of body like the body does not move, think nor act unless it
has its interior degree of immaterial substance which acts upon the economy continuously
in the most beautiful manner, keeps all thing in order, in function.
Chapter 8 kents Lecture describes further Every cell has within it a vital substance each
having its particular kind of functions.

Stuart close says -: Human being the most intricate machine in the world, life the motive
power flows through them all and unites them into an organic whole. Each part depends
upon other part & all act together As one in health & disease no organ can become
diseased without a preceding disturbance of the life principle in which all the organs
participate-life in dynamical sense is energy.
Stuart close explains aphorism as meaning of dynamic is Greek noun it is a power or force,
the power or principle objectively considered applied by hahnemann to he life principle .it
can be explained as dynamical i.e. pertaining to motion as resultant force; opposed to static.

CELL :
Every living entity whether plants or animals are built of cells, cells are basic unit of life. As
we know it & it seems certain that first creature on our planet were primitive, single cell
organism living in sea were amoebae.
Each cell is self-containing living unit. Adult body made up of million of cells, started life as
one cell i.e. a fertilized egg in the womb.
The body might be looked upon as a vast family or community of cells, individual cell rely on
whole body for their livelihood & the body relies on the contribution of all for existence, just
as a member of a family have fundamental similimum so all cell have the same makeup &
structure.
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane & the cytoplasm is
separated from the surrounding fluid by cell membrane.
The different substances that make up the cell are called protoplasm. It is composed of
water (70% to 80%), electrolytes, proteins, lipids & carbohydrates.

IMPORTANCE OF THIS PROTOPLASM FROM HOMEOPATHIC POINT OF VIEW

In every cell water is main composition of protoplasm along with other salts. Our body
contains 70% of water along with salts. Incidentaly sea water also contains water and salt.It
is seen that gravitational force of moon on the earth affects the sea water resulting in high
and low tides with changes in moon phases.This changes do not occur in river or pond
water. So also our body which consist of 70% to 80% of water & sodium is affected by this
moon phases. This simple logic helps us to conclude that the small tics or wave like pull
exerted by moon phases cause the cell to contracts at the microscopic level thereby
causing upheaval in the biochemistry of protoplasm. Thus the aggravation in the respected
tissue results. Conclusion: therefore moon phases do affect temporary resulting in
aggravation of symptoms which is reversible. This is the reason why we see exacerbation of
certain disease like asthma, mental disorders in moon phases. An homeopath has to keep
his eye open to note such moon phases to avoid unnecessary repetition of similimum or
changing of remedy.

The cell is not merely the bag of fluid enzymes & chemical, but it also contains highly
organized physical structure called organelle, which are important to cell formation.
All the physical structure of the cell is lined up by membrane composed primarily of lipids &
proteins. This membrane provides barrier that prevents free movement of water & water in
soluble substance from one cell compartment to other. It also acts as a selective barrier
through where only little substance can pass.
The cytoplasm contains lot of structure each performing various functions.

The endoplasmic reticulum provides the machinery for metabolism function of the
cell
Ribosomes & granular endoplasmic reticulum-function in the synthesis of protein in
the cells
Golgi apparatus is involved in the secretary activity of the entire cell.
The liposome act as a bactericidal agent- it allows the cell to digest & remove
unwanted substance & structure especially damaged tissue or bacteria.
The peroxisomes: - contain oxidizes that detoxifies the cell which might otherwise
be poisonous to the cell, example: liver cell detoxifies alcohol that person drinks.
Secretory vesicles :- excretion of special substance i.e. in acinar cell of pancreas
Microflament & microtubular structure in the cell. In muscle all microfilament are
organized into special contractile machine, which help in muscle contraction
 throughout the body. Microtubules-they are stiff structure so act as cyto skeleton,
providing rigid physical structure for certain part of cells.
Mitochondria are called the powerhouse of the cell as it produces energy i.e. ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) to keep the cell going. each of the cell produces ATP
from the food we eat cell extract energy from Oxygen & energy from the food stuff
like ,
Converts to
CARBOHYDRATE ------------------------ GLUCOSE
PROTEINS ----------------------- AMINOACID
FATS ---------------------- FALLY ACIDS

Under the influences of various enzymes this food stuff reacts chemically with
Oxygen to release an ATP i.e energy.

Uses of ATP for normal cellular function.

Membrance transport i.e Na, K,CA , H ions
Synthesis of chemical compound throughout the cell i.e phospholipids, cholestrol
etc
Mechanical work to supply energy needed during muscle contraction

The important substance ATP, present throughout each cell provide energy for all the bio-
chemical ptocess that are taking place, including the manufacture of proteins.But if this ATP
is used for wrong reasons the person gets weakness. Thus every time a disease is
suppressed, the toxins are pushed upwards. The stored energy ATP that was supposed to
be used for daily natural activities of the cell is used up. This gives rise to weakness. Thus it
proves that any treatment which is accompanied by weakness is leading to suppression.
Any treatment which produces a sense of well-being by pushing the toxins downwards
towards outer layers and thus proceeding towards cure.

CELL FUNCTION:

Each of the countless million of cells that together make up the human body has a life of its
own.there are certain basic which are must to preserve that cycle. But at the same time
every cell has a duty to the body as a whole & no matter how specialised it may be in
informer in function ;it must cooperate with other cells if the whole body is to function
smoothly.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF EACH CELL:-

The most basic functions every cell has to perform are;

Survival of individual cells-

a) Ingestion & assimilation: In all cell Oxygen combines with carbohydrates , fats or
protein to release the energy required for all functions.
b) Respiration: Cells have to breathe for the survival .they take Oxygen brought by the
blood give Carbondioxide as the waste product.
c) Excertion: the waste product as a result of a catabolism & respiration is sent out of
cell to the extracellular fluid & from there by blood to lungs, kidney etc for excertion
d) Excitability & conductivity: cell can be stimulated by physical, chemical,
mechanical, electrical & other mean to which they respond. This cause the cell
to contract, (as in the case of muscle cells) to produce secretion ( as in the cells
of the stomach or the endocrine gland) to conduct an impulse (as in nerve cell) atc.

We also can call it as Homeostasis.It is nothing but a function necessary for every cell and
Individual to live. It is controlled and governed by various control systems in body by normal
secretions.
Disturbance of this function leads to disturbances in the functioning of
Organs and system and we homeopath call this as Psoric Trait

Survival of individual species

Propogation or reproduction This is also 2nd most important function of cell. Every cell
has ability to reproduce whenever cell of particular type are destroyed from one cause or
another the remaining cell of this type usually divide again & again until appropriate number
is replenished
in order to live healthy and survive in the world. One has to look after oneself to survive.
Every cell has a code to multiply, and if this code is disturbed, multiple
Reproduction of more cells takes place resulting in overgrowth. The homeopaths call it as
Sycotic Trait.

Survival from danger -

Defence It is a function to protect the cell and individual from external harmful agents.
Impairment of defence leads to injury of the organs and tissues, and hence simulates the
Syphilitic Trait.

NUCLEUS:

All the cells have a nucleus with chromosomes. Chromosome bears on them large number
of structure called gene. It is a protein called deoxyribonucleic acid. Genes are unit which
guide the performance of cells these genes or DNA is called code of life. Human being is
nothing but macrocell. The whole man is inside the gene. Each of us began life as solitary
cell, a fertilized egg within a womb. It is hard to believe considering the size & complexity of
fully-grown body, that such a microscopic matter could ever contain a complete set of
instruction for building a new human being. Yet these packed into the cells nucleus there
are not only instruction to build a body confirming to the human plan with living tissues,
organs system intricately woven into a whole, but also instruction that refuse & give an
infinite number of individual variation to the familiar basic pattern. As a human being we are
all similar, but as a person we are different each of us has unique array of physical & mental
characteristic. This vast amount of information about everything from the length & color of
our eyelashes & the size of our feet, to how we should digest different food, liking, disliking
& how fast our heart should beat is compressed into so small space that only by thinking in
term of molecule can we begin to explain the nucleus is thus a memory bank for everything
concerning worth cell function to explain the mechanism.

These genes have triplet code called generic code. These genes have two functions

a) this genetic code is inherited from parents to children

b) it control all chemical reaction & reproduction of cell

So the nucleus in which these genes are present is called control system of the cell. The
gene holds key to hereditary & the organization of all living things.

Each gene controls the formation of specific proteins. And these proteins are of two types.

A) Structural proteins: It forms in association with various lipids, various structure and
organelles in the cell.

It is these proteins which are responsible for solid structure of the individual. These proteins
are synthesized differently in according to the nature inherited by the individual hence the
shape and features and face of a person shall to great extent reflect his nature.
It imparts structure, build, looks for an individual.

B) Enzymatic proteins: de-repressed genes synthesize these. These are fluid proteins,
which form the part of human biochemistry and are circulated in the blood. These proteins
are either in form of enzyme or catalyst and are associated directly or indirectly with all
these reactions.
When one code is active other or opposite strand is inactive. Genes are expressive
[dominant gene] or non-expressive [recessive gene] if one gene is going to express the
person will be extrovert or Introvert.
It is these enzymatic proteins which play a major role in different chemical reactions in the
cell. It is this protein which decided whether person is CHILLY or HOT patient.i.e.
Constitution of a person depends on this different chemical reaction i.e. Increase chemical
reaction in the cell will produce increase heat in body so person has to regulate its internal
heat so less fat deposit underneath skin he will be thin person, will feel hot will not
tolerate hot due to increased chemical reaction in the cell increased exhaustion of energy
so he will eat more but will remain thin, so constitution like tuberculium, Iodium will come
in picture.

Same way decreased chemical reaction decreased heat generated in the body so to
conserve heat they will deposit more fat underneath the skin so they will be obese.
Therefore these drugs are chilly example Calcarea Carb, capsicum, ferrum, graphite.
Decreased reaction will also cause less exhaustion of energy so person inspite of eating
less accumulation of fat deposits will make him obese. The speed at which this chemical
reaction takes place varies from person to person. The speed of the person is very
important along with speed of the remedy. The speed of reaction is the depth of the
medicine. Action is not important but reaction of the remedy is important. Therefore,
calcarea carb, Baryta.carb, Helleborous are slow speed so marked slowness in them.
On the other hand, tarentula, merc sol, belladonna are fast speed.

The reaction to stimuli varies from person to person It is this reaction which gives us a
basic nature of a person, when we ask a person how he feels! The feeling differs according
to different situation i.e. At one time person feels sad, angry, excited. They keep on
changing according to different situation.
But his reaction i.e. When we ask him how he reacted to a situation i.e. He will say I reacted
mildly, defiant, cowardly. These reactions are involuntary; they are innate in a person.
These are the basic nature of that person.
By treating feeling we try to treat Diseases in man and not Man in diseases.
Physiologically also, this feelings arises from hypothalamus i.e. Limbic system.
When a partially similinum remedy is given an individual, the neurotransmitter in our body
which are also responsible for our basic characteristic of an individual are either secreted or
depressed on all levels. In fact, all this neurotransmitter are controlled by genetic codes, so
in a way we give partial change in a person just as other allopathic psychiatric drugs do,
example like Ignatia can act like an Anti depressant in grief, arsenic can act as an
tranquilizer in anxiety. Thus suppressing the symptoms in a case, as genes control all this
neurotransmitters. Taking into consideration only emotions we try to reach partially
similimum and thus may suppress the case.

Genetic code is entirely responsible for what is going to constitute the resultant individual.
It is responsible for-
a) The structure and build and looks of an individual.
b) The basic nature of an individual.
c) The nature of upsets- physical and mental that he will be prone to.
d) His tolerance to various external factors likes heat, cold, sun, wind, moon, rain,
electrical disturbance etc.
Genome: In 1998, Morden Science came with a research work on genetics. The heading in
the paper read Operation genome opens up new frontiers. He further wrote, This is one
of the biggest surprises In this revolutionary genome project, they claimed that it is
genes, which differentiate all individuals from one another, different persons require so
different medicines. This is nothing but what Dr. Hahnemann said 200 years back. Even
they further said genes are responsible for an individuals particular disease like cancer,
diabetes etc. Dr. Kent in his Kent Lectures explains this by using the word Diathesis
Define it as an individuals hereditary disposition to contract a particular group of
sicknesses. He further says it is just an imagination. It has no foundation

Cell Membrane: Cell membrane is a soft, pliable skin which acts as a control gate for the
entry and exit of substances involved in cell functions. It is highly selective in allowing
substances to pass into and out of the cytoplasm. The substances that are taken in are
different from cell to cell, and vary according to the cells role in the body.
Bone marrow cell takes iron to incorporate in the hemoglobin of red blood corpuscles, the
bone cells take in the calcium salts that go to make up bone. Its surface is dotted with
minute cavities and sometimes has finger like projection. This increases the surface area of
the cell and so help the exchange of materials that is constantly occurring between the cells
content and the surrounding fluids If the cell is to live and grow it must obtain nutrients and
other substances from the surrounding fluids. This extracellular fluid supplies the cells,
nutrients and other substances needed for cellular functions.
These substances can pass through the cell membrane in 3 separate ways.

Cell Equilibrium: To function properly the cell must maintain a stable internal environment,
therefore, transfer of materials has to be achieved without an excessive buildup of
chemicals. When particular molecules are needed for example glucose, the cell will take
these in and discard other material to preserve equilibrium.

There are 3 types of transport when maintaining cell equilibrium.

A) Passive transport
Occurs when chemicals concentrated outside the cell cause a flow of small molecules to
push through the membrane until a balance exists. This process is also known as diffusion.
All molecules and ions in the body fluids including both water molecules and dissolved
substances are in constant motion, each moving its own separate way. Motion of these
particles generate heat greater the motion, higher the temperature. Motion never ceases
under any conditions except at absolute zero temperature.

Therefore all hot remedies have increased activity.

Example Iodum, Tuberculinum, Chamomilla, Tarentula, Merc, Kali Sulph
Among the most important substance that cross the cell membrane by this diffusion are
glucose and amino acids.

B) Active transport
It is a process using chemical energy, by which cell takes in large molecules that would
otherwise be unable to enter in sufficient quantities, combine with carrier molecule within
the cell membrane. It is always against an energy gradient, such as from low
concentration to a high concentration, a process that requires ATP, an energy molecule to
cause these movement.
In a cell, no substances can diffuse against an electrochemical gradient which is the sum
of all diffusion forces acting at the membrane.

The forces are caused by

a) Concentration difference
b) Electrical difference
c) Pressure difference

It is said that substances cannot diffuse uphill. To cause movement of a substance uphill,
energy is required. It is just like compression of air by a pump.
Different substances that are actively transported through the cell membrane are Na, K, Ca,
Fe, H+ ions, Urate chloride, iodide sugars and amino acids.
In the same way, toxins suppressed at cellular and tissue levels example by ointment,
anesthetics, perfumes, medicated powder on skin level is transported higher and higher
through the 7 layers and it is called Trans-cell transport. This active transport as a rule
requires energy, which is taken from ATP, in mitochondria of every cell.

C) Endocytosis

A mechanism in which membrane actually engulfs particular matter or extracellular fluid and
its contents.
i) Pinocytosis small molecules
ii) Phagocytosis large particles as bacteria, cells or portion of degenerating tissue.
This mechanism helps us to understand that body has the self-healing capacity.

Transport through the cell membrane.

In Short,

Extracellular fluid intracellular fluid

Increase Na Less Na
Decrease K Increase K
Increase Ca Decrease Ca
Increase Cl Decrease Cl

Diffusion of the substance through lipid bilayer i.e. Cell membrane depends on how far the
substance is lipid soluble.
Oxygen, Nitrogen and alcohol are very highly soluble in lipid so it can dissolve directly in the
lipid bilayer and diffuse through the cell membrane.

This is the reason why homeopathic remedies are prepared with alcohol as a vehicle for
succession and trituration.

Lipid insoluble:

Water is insoluble in the membrane lipids, but it penetrates the cell membrane very readily
because the water molecules are small enough and their kinetic energy great enough that is
the reason that they simply penetrate.
As the molecular size of substance increases they are difficult to diffuse.
Water, urea, glucose are lipid insoluble.
The glucose molecule, which has a diameter less than three times that of water molecule,
penetrates the lipid bilayer 100,000 less rapidly than water. Glycerol penetrates easily than
urea because of lipid solubility in spite of great in diameter.

Failure of ions to diffuse through lipid bilayer

Water molecules are uncharged so they diffuse through the membrane but even small one
such as H ions, Na ions, K ions penetrate less rapidly than water the reason is because of
their electrical charge. Electrical charges of the ions interact with the charge of the lipid
bilayer.
Therefore when charged ions try to penetrate either ve or +ve electrical barrier it is
instantaneously repulsed.

Cell membrane has protein channels through which diffusion of the substance takes place
from one side of the membrane to the other.
Two important characters of this channels are-
i) It is often selectively permeable to certain substances due to diameter, shape and nature
of electrical charges along its surface.
Example a protein channel.
Na channels are strongly negative charged, so they pull the Na ions into the channel. Other
is K channel, which are slightly smaller than Na channel and are not negatively charged.
Therefore, no strong attractive force is pulling ions into the channels.
ii) Many of the channels can be opened or closed by gates.

It provides means for controlling the permeability of the channels. The gates are actual
gate-like extension of the transport protein molecule, which can close over the opening of
the channel or can be lifted away from the opening.
In case of Na channels, these gates open and close on the outer surface of the cell
membrane whereas for the K channel it opens and closes on the inner surface. Gates are
controlled by 2 ways.

Voltage gating In this molecular confirmation, the gate responds to the electrical potential
across the cell membrane. For instance, when there is strong ve charge inside the cell
membrane, the Na gates remain tightly closed, yet when the inside membrane loses its ve
charge then gates open suddenly and allow Na to pass inwards through the Na pores.
This is the basic cause of action potential in nerves that are responsible for Nerve signals.
Same way K gets open when cell membrane is positive charged inside the cell, Na gates
open faster then K gates open slowly.

Ligand gating Some protein channel gates are opened by the binding of another
molecule with protein. This is called ligand gating. The substance that binds is called ligand.

One of the most instance of ligand gating is the effect of acetalcholine channel. This gate is
very important in the transmission of signals from one nerve cell to another and from nerve
cell to muscle cells. The gate of the pores snap open and then snap close, each snapping
event occurring within a few millionths of a second.

Na K pump

The active transport mechanism in a body is the one that transports Na ions out of cells to
the exterior and at the same time pump K ions from the outside to the inside is called Na K
pump.
This pump is present in all cells of the body, and it is responsible for maintaining the Na K
concentration difference across the cell membrane as well as establishing a ve electrical
potential inside the cells.
Important function of this pump is to control volume of the cells, without this most cells of
the body would swell and burst. This pump pumps 3 Na+ ions to the outside of the cell for
any 2K+ ions pumped to the interior. This obviously creates +ve outside the cell and ve
inside. Therefore, this pump is called electrogenic as it causes electrical potential across the
cell.
Ca pump

Ca ions are normally maintained at extremely low concentration in the intracellular fluid, at a
concentration about 10,000 times less than that in the extracellular fluid. This pump
achieves this.
The fluid both inside and outside the cells is electrolytic solutions. Generally ve ions
accumulate immediately inside the cell membrane along and equal number of +ve ions
accumulates immediately outside the membrane. This is membrane potential inside and
outside the cells.

Membrane Potential: Electrical potentials exist across the membranes of essentially all cells
of the body and some cells such as nerve and muscle cells are excitable i.e. Capable of
self generation of electrochemical impulses at their membrane end, this impulse helps in
transmitting signals along the membrane.
It is seen that concentration difference of ions across semipermeable membrane can cause
the creation of a membrane potential. The membrane potential of large nerve fiber when
they are not transmitting nerve signals ie. When they are in the so-called resting state is
about ~ 90 millivolts (mV).
In normal nerve fiber, the permeability of the membrane to K is about 100 times as great as
to Na.
Na K pump continually pumps Na to the outside of the fiber and K to the inside, continuation
of this process leads to excess of positive charges, are pumped to the outside than to
inside, and excess of ve ions on the inside. Thus, nerve membrane becomes vely
charged inside.
Because of the ability of Na K pump to create such a membrane potential it is called
electronic pump. This process is continuous and appropriate concentration gradient is
maintained.

Na (outside) 142 mEq/L

Na (inside) 14 mEq/L
K (outside) 4 mEq/L
K (inside) 140 mEq/L

Nerve Action Potential: Nerve signals are transmitted by certain potentials, which are rapid
changes in Membrane potential. To conduct a nerve signal the action potential moves along
the nerve fiber until it comes to fibers end in successive changes i.e. sudden change from
normal resting negative potential to positive potential and then ends back again to the
negative potential.

This takes place over a period of a few 10,000th of a second. It takes place in 3 stages:
i) Resting stage
ii) Depolarization stage
iii) Repolarization stage

Resting stage
It is the resting membrane potential before the action potential occurs

Depolarization stage
Membrane suddenly becomes very permeable to Na ions allowing tremendous number of
Na ions to flow to the interior of the axon. The normal resting membrane potential scale of
~90 mV is lost, with the potential rising rapidly in the +ve direction. This is called
depolarization.

Repolarization stage
Within few 1000,000th of second after the membrane becomes highly permeable to Na
ions, Na channels close almost as rapidly as they had opened. The rapid diffusion of K ions
to the exterior re-establishes the normal ve resting membrane potential. This is called
reploarization of the membrane.

No action potential will occur in normal nerve till it is disturbed. I any rise in the membrane
potential from 90 mV up towards the zero level, the rising voltage directly affects voltage
gate Na channels causing them to be activated (opened). This allows rapid inflow of Na ions
which causes still further increase in membrane potential and still Na is drawn inside. But
within fraction of a millisecond, the rising membrane potential causes inactivation of Na
channel, and then action potential soon terminates.

This stage is depolarization. This stage travels in both directions along the fiber. The
transmission of depolarization process along the nerve or muscle impulse. It is seen that an
action potential is triggered at any point on the membrane of a normal fiber. The
depolarization process will travel over the entire membrane and it applies to all normal
excitable tissues.
Due to transmission of nerve impulse along the nerve fiber, this reduces concentration
difference of Na and K between, inside and outside the membrane and this is maintained by
Na K pump.

Energy required for this process is from ATP.

Nernst equation governs the Na and K in all tissues and cell states.

Diffusion potential (in millivolts) = -61 x log [concentration of Na/K inside]

for Na and K opath call this as Psoric Trait

Survival of individual species

Propogation or reproduction This is also 2nd most important function of cell. Every cell
has ability to reproduce whenever cell of particular type are destroyed from one cause or
another the remaining cell of this type usually divide again & again until appropriate number
is replenished
in order to live healthy and survive in the world. One has to look after oneself to survive.
Every cell has a code to multiply, and if this code is disturbed, multiple
Reproduction of more cells takes place resulting in overgrowth. The homeopaths call it as
Sycotic Trait.

Survival from danger -

Defence It is a function to protect the cell and individual from external harmful agents.
Impairment of defence leads to injury of the organs and tissues, and hence simulates the
Syphilitic Trait.

NUCLEUS:

All the cells have a nucleus with chromosomes. Chromosome bears on them large number
of structure called gene. It is a protein called deoxyribonucleic acid. Genes are unit which
guide the performance of cells these genes or DNA is called code of life. Human being is
nothing but macrocell. The whole man is inside the gene. Each of us began life as solitary
cell, a fertilized egg within a womb. It is hard to believe considering the size & complexity of
fully-grown body, that such a microscopic matter could ever contain a complete set of
instruction for building a new human being. Yet these packed into the cells nucleus there
are not only instruction to build a body confirming to the human plan with living tissues,
organs system intricately woven into a whole, but also instruction that refuse & give an
infinite number of individual variation to the familiar basic pattern. As a human being we are
all similar, but as a person we are different each of us has unique array of physical & mental
characteristic. This vast amount of information about everything from the length & color of
our eyelashes & the size of our feet, to how we should digest different food, liking, disliking
& how fast our heart should beat is compressed into so small space that only by thinking in
term of molecule can we begin to explain the nucleus is thus a memory bank for everything
concerning worth cell function to explain the mechanism.

These genes have triplet code called generic code. These genes have two functions

a) this genetic code is inherited from parents to children

b) it control all chemical reaction & reproduction of cell

So the nucleus in which these genes are present is called control system of the cell. The
gene holds key to hereditary & the organization of all living things.

Each gene controls the formation of specific proteins. And these proteins are of two types.

A) Structural proteins: It forms in association with various lipids, various structure and
organelles in the cell.

It is these proteins which are responsible for solid structure of the individual. These proteins
are synthesized differently in according to the nature inherited by the individual hence the
shape and features and face of a person shall to great extent reflect his nature.
It imparts structure, build, looks for an individual.

B) Enzymatic proteins: de-repressed genes synthesize these. These are fluid proteins,
which form the part of human biochemistry and are circulated in the blood. These proteins
are either in form of enzyme or catalyst and are associated directly or indirectly with all
these reactions.
When one code is active other or opposite strand is inactive. Genes are expressive
[dominant gene] or non-expressive [recessive gene] if one gene is going to express the
person will be extrovert or Introvert.
It is these enzymatic proteins which play a major role in different chemical reactions in the
cell. It is this protein which decided whether person is CHILLY or HOT patient.i.e.
Constitution of a person depends on this different chemical reaction i.e. Increase chemical
reaction in the cell will produce increase heat in body so person has to regulate its internal
heat so less fat deposit underneath skin he will be thin person, will feel hot will not
tolerate hot due to increased chemical reaction in the cell increased exhaustion of energy
so he will eat more but will remain thin, so constitution like tuberculium, Iodium will come
in picture.

Same way decreased chemical reaction decreased heat generated in the body so to
conserve heat they will deposit more fat underneath the skin so they will be obese.
Therefore these drugs are chilly example Calcarea Carb, capsicum, ferrum, graphite.
Decreased reaction will also cause less exhaustion of energy so person inspite of eating
less accumulation of fat deposits will make him obese. The speed at which this chemical
reaction takes place varies from person to person. The speed of the person is very
important along with speed of the remedy. The speed of reaction is the depth of the
medicine. Action is not important but reaction of the remedy is important. Therefore,
calcarea carb, Baryta.carb, Helleborous are slow speed so marked slowness in them.
On the other hand, tarentula, merc sol, belladonna are fast speed.

The reaction to stimuli varies from person to person It is this reaction which gives us a
basic nature of a person, when we ask a person how he feels! The feeling differs according
to different situation i.e. At one time person feels sad, angry, excited. They keep on
changing according to different situation.
But his reaction i.e. When we ask him how he reacted to a situation i.e. He will say I reacted
mildly, defiant, cowardly. These reactions are involuntary; they are innate in a person.
These are the basic nature of that person.
By treating feeling we try to treat Diseases in man and not Man in diseases.
Physiologically also, this feelings arises from hypothalamus i.e. Limbic system.
When a partially similinum remedy is given an individual, the neurotransmitter in our body
which are also responsible for our basic characteristic of an individual are either secreted or
depressed on all levels. In fact, all this neurotransmitter are controlled by genetic codes, so
in a way we give partial change in a person just as other allopathic psychiatric drugs do,
example like Ignatia can act like an Anti depressant in grief, arsenic can act as an
tranquilizer in anxiety. Thus suppressing the symptoms in a case, as genes control all this
neurotransmitters. Taking into consideration only emotions we try to reach partially
similimum and thus may suppress the case.

Genetic code is entirely responsible for what is going to constitute the resultant individual.
It is responsible for-
a) The structure and build and looks of an individual.
b) The basic nature of an individual.
c) The nature of upsets- physical and mental that he will be prone to.
d) His tolerance to various external factors likes heat, cold, sun, wind, moon, rain,
electrical disturbance etc.

Genome: In 1998, Morden Science came with a research work on genetics. The heading in
the paper read Operation genome opens up new frontiers. He further wrote, This is one
of the biggest surprises In this revolutionary genome project, they claimed that it is
genes, which differentiate all individuals from one another, different persons require so
different medicines. This is nothing but what Dr. Hahnemann said 200 years back. Even
they further said genes are responsible for an individuals particular disease like cancer,
diabetes etc. Dr. Kent in his Kent Lectures explains this by using the word Diathesis
Define it as an individuals hereditary disposition to contract a particular group of
sicknesses. He further says it is just an imagination. It has no foundation

Cell Membrane: Cell membrane is a soft, pliable skin which acts as a control gate for the
entry and exit of substances involved in cell functions. It is highly selective in allowing
substances to pass into and out of the cytoplasm. The substances that are taken in are
different from cell to cell, and vary according to the cells role in the body.
Bone marrow cell takes iron to incorporate in the hemoglobin of red blood corpuscles, the
bone cells take in the calcium salts that go to make up bone. Its surface is dotted with
minute cavities and sometimes has finger like projection. This increases the surface area of
the cell and so help the exchange of materials that is constantly occurring between the cells
content and the surrounding fluids If the cell is to live and grow it must obtain nutrients and
other substances from the surrounding fluids. This extracellular fluid supplies the cells,
nutrients and other substances needed for cellular functions.
These substances can pass through the cell membrane in 3 separate ways.

Cell Equilibrium: To function properly the cell must maintain a stable internal environment,
therefore, transfer of materials has to be achieved without an excessive buildup of
chemicals. When particular molecules are needed for example glucose, the cell will take
these in and discard other material to preserve equilibrium.
There are 3 types of transport when maintaining cell equilibrium.
A) Passive transport
Occurs when chemicals concentrated outside the cell cause a flow of small molecules to
push through the membrane until a balance exists. This process is also known as diffusion.
All molecules and ions in the body fluids including both water molecules and dissolved
substances are in constant motion, each moving its own separate way. Motion of these
particles generate heat greater the motion, higher the temperature. Motion never ceases
under any conditions except at absolute zero temperature.

Therefore all hot remedies have increased activity.

Example Iodum, Tuberculinum, Chamomilla, Tarentula, Merc, Kali Sulph
Among the most important substance that cross the cell membrane by this diffusion are
glucose and amino acids.

B) Active transport
It is a process using chemical energy, by which cell takes in large molecules that would
otherwise be unable to enter in sufficient quantities, combine with carrier molecule within
the cell membrane. It is always against an energy gradient, such as from low
concentration to a high concentration, a process that requires ATP, an energy molecule to
cause these movement.
In a cell, no substances can diffuse against an electrochemical gradient which is the sum
of all diffusion forces acting at the membrane.

The forces are caused by

a) Concentration difference
b) Electrical difference
c) Pressure difference

It is said that substances cannot diffuse uphill. To cause movement of a substance uphill,
energy is required. It is just like compression of air by a pump.
Different substances that are actively transported through the cell membrane are Na, K, Ca,
Fe, H+ ions, Urate chloride, iodide sugars and amino acids.
In the same way, toxins suppressed at cellular and tissue levels example by ointment,
anesthetics, perfumes, medicated powder on skin level is transported higher and higher
through the 7 layers and it is called Trans-cell transport. This active transport as a rule
requires energy, which is taken from ATP, in mitochondria of every cell.

C) Endocytosis
A mechanism in which membrane actually engulfs particular matter or extracellular fluid and
its contents.
i) Pinocytosis small molecules
ii) Phagocytosis large particles as bacteria, cells or portion of degenerating tissue.
This mechanism helps us to understand that body has the self-healing capacity.

Transport through the cell membrane.

In Short,

Extracellular fluid intracellular fluid

Increase Na Less Na
Decrease K Increase K
Increase Ca Decrease Ca
Increase Cl Decrease Cl

Diffusion of the substance through lipid bilayer i.e. Cell membrane depends on how far the
substance is lipid soluble.
Oxygen, Nitrogen and alcohol are very highly soluble in lipid so it can dissolve directly in the
lipid bilayer and diffuse through the cell membrane.

This is the reason why homeopathic remedies are prepared with alcohol as a vehicle for
succession and trituration.

Lipid insoluble:
Water is insoluble in the membrane lipids, but it penetrates the cell membrane very readily
because the water molecules are small enough and their kinetic energy great enough that is
the reason that they simply penetrate.
As the molecular size of substance increases they are difficult to diffuse.
Water, urea, glucose are lipid insoluble.
The glucose molecule, which has a diameter less than three times that of water molecule,
penetrates the lipid bilayer 100,000 less rapidly than water. Glycerol penetrates easily than
urea because of lipid solubility in spite of great in diameter.

Failure of ions to diffuse through lipid bilayer

Water molecules are uncharged so they diffuse through the membrane but even small one
such as H ions, Na ions, K ions penetrate less rapidly than water the reason is because of
their electrical charge. Electrical charges of the ions interact with the charge of the lipid
bilayer.
Therefore when charged ions try to penetrate either ve or +ve electrical barrier it is
instantaneously repulsed.

Cell membrane has protein channels through which diffusion of the substance takes place
from one side of the membrane to the other.
Two important characters of this channels are-
i) It is often selectively permeable to certain substances due to diameter, shape and nature
of electrical charges along its surface.
Example a protein channel.
Na channels are strongly negative charged, so they pull the Na ions into the channel. Other
is K channel, which are slightly smaller than Na channel and are not negatively charged.
Therefore, no strong attractive force is pulling ions into the channels.
ii) Many of the channels can be opened or closed by gates.

It provides means for controlling the permeability of the channels. The gates are actual
gate-like extension of the transport protein molecule, which can close over the opening of
the channel or can be lifted away from the opening.
In case of Na channels, these gates open and close on the outer surface of the cell
membrane whereas for the K channel it opens and closes on the inner surface. Gates are
controlled by 2 ways.

Voltage gating In this molecular confirmation, the gate responds to the electrical potential
across the cell membrane. For instance, when there is strong ve charge inside the cell
membrane, the Na gates remain tightly closed, yet when the inside membrane loses its ve
charge then gates open suddenly and allow Na to pass inwards through the Na pores.
This is the basic cause of action potential in nerves that are responsible for Nerve signals.
Same way K gets open when cell membrane is positive charged inside the cell, Na gates
open faster then K gates open slowly.

Ligand gating Some protein channel gates are opened by the binding of another
molecule with protein. This is called ligand gating. The substance that binds is called ligand.

One of the most instance of ligand gating is the effect of acetalcholine channel. This gate is
very important in the transmission of signals from one nerve cell to another and from nerve
cell to muscle cells. The gate of the pores snap open and then snap close, each snapping
event occurring within a few millionths of a second.

Na K pump

The active transport mechanism in a body is the one that transports Na ions out of cells to
the exterior and at the same time pump K ions from the outside to the inside is called Na K
pump.
This pump is present in all cells of the body, and it is responsible for maintaining the Na K
concentration difference across the cell membrane as well as establishing a ve electrical
potential inside the cells.
Important function of this pump is to control volume of the cells, without this most cells of
the body would swell and burst. This pump pumps 3 Na+ ions to the outside of the cell for
any 2K+ ions pumped to the interior. This obviously creates +ve outside the cell and ve
inside. Therefore, this pump is called electrogenic as it causes electrical potential across the
cell.

Ca pump

Ca ions are normally maintained at extremely low concentration in the intracellular fluid, at a
concentration about 10,000 times less than that in the extracellular fluid. This pump
achieves this.
The fluid both inside and outside the cells is electrolytic solutions. Generally ve ions
accumulate immediately inside the cell membrane along and equal number of +ve ions
accumulates immediately outside the membrane. This is membrane potential inside and
outside the cells.

Membrane Potential: Electrical potentials exist across the membranes of essentially all cells
of the body and some cells such as nerve and muscle cells are excitable i.e. Capable of
self generation of electrochemical impulses at their membrane end, this impulse helps in
transmitting signals along the membrane.
It is seen that concentration difference of ions across semipermeable membrane can cause
the creation of a membrane potential. The membrane potential of large nerve fiber when
they are not transmitting nerve signals ie. When they are in the so-called resting state is
about ~ 90 millivolts (mV).
In normal nerve fiber, the permeability of the membrane to K is about 100 times as great as
to Na.
Na K pump continually pumps Na to the outside of the fiber and K to the inside, continuation
of this process leads to excess of positive charges, are pumped to the outside than to
inside, and excess of ve ions on the inside. Thus, nerve membrane becomes vely
charged inside.
Because of the ability of Na K pump to create such a membrane potential it is called
electronic pump. This process is continuous and appropriate concentration gradient is
maintained.

Na (outside) 142 mEq/L

Na (inside) 14 mEq/L
K (outside) 4 mEq/L
K (inside) 140 mEq/L

Nerve Action Potential: Nerve signals are transmitted by certain potentials, which are rapid
changes in Membrane potential. To conduct a nerve signal the action potential moves along
the nerve fiber until it comes to fibers end in successive changes i.e. sudden change from
normal resting negative potential to positive potential and then ends back again to the
negative potential.

This takes place over a period of a few 10,000th of a second. It takes place in 3 stages:
i) Resting stage
ii) Depolarization stage
iii) Repolarization stage
Resting stage
It is the resting membrane potential before the action potential occurs

Depolarization stage
Membrane suddenly becomes very permeable to Na ions allowing tremendous number of
Na ions to flow to the interior of the axon. The normal resting membrane potential scale of
~90 mV is lost, with the potential rising rapidly in the +ve direction. This is called
depolarization.

Repolarization stage
Within few 1000,000th of second after the membrane becomes highly permeable to Na
ions, Na channels close almost as rapidly as they had opened. The rapid diffusion of K ions
to the exterior re-establishes the normal ve resting membrane potential. This is called
reploarization of the membrane.

No action potential will occur in normal nerve till it is disturbed. I any rise in the membrane
potential from 90 mV up towards the zero level, the rising voltage directly affects voltage
gate Na channels causing them to be activated (opened). This allows rapid inflow of Na ions
which causes still further increase in membrane potential and still Na is drawn inside. But
within fraction of a millisecond, the rising membrane potential causes inactivation of Na
channel, and then action potential soon terminates.

This stage is depolarization. This stage travels in both directions along the fiber. The
transmission of depolarization process along the nerve or muscle impulse. It is seen that an
action potential is triggered at any point on the membrane of a normal fiber. The
depolarization process will travel over the entire membrane and it applies to all normal
excitable tissues.
Due to transmission of nerve impulse along the nerve fiber, this reduces concentration
difference of Na and K between, inside and outside the membrane and this is maintained by
Na K pump.

Energy required for this process is from ATP.

Nernst equation governs the Na and K in all tissues and cell states.

Diffusion potential (in millivolts) = -61 x log [concentration of Na/K inside]

for Na and K [concentration of Na/K outside]

This relationship is important in understanding the transmission of nerve impulse.

SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP IN A CELL

In every cell, potassium (K) is inside and Sodium (Na) is outside the cell membrane.

As soon as any stimulus comes, Na goes inside and K has tendency to go outside. This is a
reason behind why Kali are extrovert and Natrum are introvert.

Timid Kali with slightest provocation or stimuli has a tendency to go outside and it has to be
pushed in to maintain Na/K pump. This tendency to go outside with stimuli make them
extrovert and expressive. And the Natrum with slight stimulus has a tendency to go inside
across cell membrane and push Na. So Natrum are introvert, they go alone in room and cry.

In Na/K pump, when Na ions come and interior and K ions go out this stage is called
depolarization. When excessive K is outside Na/K pump starts functioning fast as K ions are
supposed to be inside and Na ions are supposed to be outside. This requires tremendous
energy, which is used from ATP.

In a cell wall, what makes the gate open easily when excessive K is outside, so in Kali
patient when excessive K ions are in extracellular fluid and the voltage of cell wall is low,
any stimulus given make the voltage gate open fast , and depolarization takes place then
impulse goes throughout down along the nerve. So Kali patient with slight stimulus they
startle easily as gate open fast with slight stimulus.

This is exactly opposite of Cale Carb. In these patients, when slightest stimulus is given
they react exactly opposite to Kali. In Cal Carb, a lot of Calcium ions are in extracellular
fluid, so when stimulus is given they react after a few minutes. They react to any stimuli very
slowly so we can never confuse between Calc Carb and Kali Carb. No doubt both these are
obese, timid, chilly, thirsty, anxious, crave sweet but difference between them is that Kali
react fast and Calc Carb reacts slowly. Startling is marked in Kali. Kali has a lot of facial
expression but Calc Carb has no expression on face because they are less expressive in
mind too.

Kali are also sluggish, relaxed. This is only after Kali are excited too much. When so much
K has gone out, when constant stimulus is given Na/K pump is used much so lot of energy
is been used. This given, Kali has tremendous weakness. The weakness of Kali is
secondary and Cal. Carb weakness is primary.

Excitation of nerve fibres

a) Chemical acetalcholine nor-epinophrine

b) Mechanical crushing, pinching, pricking nerve fiber
c) Electrical stimulation

Inhibition of Excitability

1) Increase Ca Ion Extracellular decreases the membrane permeability and

simultaneously decrease the excitability. So calcarea carb patients are slow to react.
2) Decrease K in extracellular fluid decreases the permeability of K channel, likewise act as
stabilizer and decreases membrane excitability.
Small Kali group of remedies and sluggish but also they are startling.
3) Even local anesthesia, cocaine, procaine and many drugs acts directly on the activation
gates of Na channel making it much more difficult for these gates to open and thereby
reducing the membrane excitability. When excitability reduces too low nerve impulse fails
to pass through the anaesthetized area.
Also, all this local application including homeopathic calendula, arnica, graphites ointment
alter the electropotential gradient at the cellular and tissue level of the skin, thereby
abstracting our third excretory system i.e. skin (first two stool and urine) from extracting
toxins on to the skin.

To understand the importance of physical general symptoms like sweating, thirst, hot and
chilly, it is important to study and understand the insulator system of the body.

The are two temperatures of the body.

1. Core temperature
2. Surface temperature

Sometimes, it varies with exercise and with extreme of temperature of the surrounding.
The temperature of the deep tissues of the body the core remains almost exactly constant
within +/-1 degree F, except in fe