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The Influence of Hydrogeological Factors on

Variations of Volcanic Spring Distribution,
Spring Discharge, and...

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 To be submitted to BULETIN GEOLOGI
Vol 35 No 1 Tahun 2003

The Influence of Hydrogeological Factors on Variations of Volcanic Spring

Distribution, Spring Discharge, and Groundwater Flow Pattern
Deny Juanda PURADIMAJA
D. Erwin Irawan
Lambok M. Hutasoit

Hidrogeology Laboratory
Department of Geology, Institut Teknologi Bandung,

Abstract

This study has been conducted on east slope of Mt. Ciremai, a strato-type volcano with elevation of 3072 masl,
in Kabupaten Kuningan, West Java, Indonesia.

Result of 20 observations had shown that spring discharge varies from 10 l/sec to 400 l/sec, consisted of deviated
and isolated groundwater flow patterns. Analysis on available data and facts also indicates that there are three
hydrogeological factors which influence the variations of spring distribution, spring discharge and groundwater
flow pattern: distribution of lithology and morphology; intensity of macro fracture; thickness and final
infiltration rate of residual soil.

The first factor, the change of rock distribution forms slope break at elevation range of 500 - 650 masl, slope
angle changes from 190 to 40. The change of slope angle controls the hydraulic of unconfined groundwater to
develops the largest spring distribution at Zone 2 (500 650 masl). The elevation range of 100 1250 masl is
discharge area, while the elevation range of 1250 3100 masl is recharge area. In detailed scale, volcanic deposit
distribution forms morphological feature of ridges and valleys which controls the groundwater flow pattern. The
second factor, fracture zone controls the level of spring discharge in volcanic terrain. The fracture system occurs
on Laharic Breccia, the fractures stretch consecutively to rock distribution, which also controls the isolated
groundwater flow; on Lava flow. The fractures are in form of cooling joints with unsystematic pattern, which
controls the deviated groundwater water flow. The third factor, the weathering processes in the study area is very
intensive, resulting in thick residual soil and high final infiltration rate, which is very potential to store and to be
infiltrated by rain water and surface water.

Keywords: Volcanic fracture spring, hydrogeological factors, groundwater flow pattern

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1. INTRODUCTION

The vast growing population and industrial activities had caused groundwater resource to
decrease rapidly. Its depletion rate has raised concerns and urgent calls for conservation and
immediate spring management measures.
Identification of geological control is a pre-requisite in determining groundwater flow system.
Mandel (1981)1 explains that volcanic aquifer system shows a distinctive feature,
characterized by rapid change of deposits, where pyroclastic and lava materials are
interchanging in close distance.
Studies on identification of recharge-discharge system of volcanic aquifer system have been
carried out previously by Asseggaf and Puradimaja (1998)2, Irawan et.al. (2000)3, Irawan and
Puradimaja (2002)4, using physical-chemical properties analysis, combined with surface and
subsurface geological observation. The general result indicates that groundwater flow in
volcanic area is controlled by distribution of volcanic aquifers.

This research study was carried out on the east slope of Mt. Ciremai, a strato-type volcano
with elevation of 3072 masl, situated 20 km south of Cirebon, in Kecamatan Cilimus
Jalaksana, Kabupaten Kuningan, West Java Province (Figure 1). The diameter of Mt. Ciremai
from the peak to the foot slope is about seven km. This location was selected because of the
existence of a groundwater system which forms spring belt with no less than 300 springs,
discharging over 1500 l/sec of water (IWACO-WASECO, 1989)5. The scientific interest of
this study is to determine the geological control on spring distribution, spring discharge and
groundwater flow and spring discharge.

Scale 1 : 1.500.000

A B

C D

Location of
Study Area

Figure 1. Location of study area

2. METHOD

Hydrogeological condition is a combination of two main aspects: the solid and the fluid. The
solid aspect comprises the material and the geometry of an aquifer, and the hydraulic
properties of the aquifer; while the fluid aspect involves the hydraulic behaviour of the
groundwater. Therefore, two complementary methods have been carried out in this study:

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(1). Surface mapping of volcanic aquifer system with 1 : 25.000 scale, to identify the
geometry of the aquifer and the hydraulic properties of soil (unconfined aquifer). The data
were obtained from observation of 20 springs and volcanic rock exposures; and also
supported by 10 field permeability measurements.
(2). Flow net analysis, to identify the groundwater flow system. The analyzed system were: a.
Regional flow in Linggarjati and Cibulan areas; b. Detailed flow at Cibulan spring area.
The flow net analysis was based on water table measurement at dug well and spring
elevation.

3. FIELD OBSERVATION

Observation has been done on 21 spring location, which is limited to large springs, discharge
more than 10 l/sec of groundwater. Based on the observations, all of the springs are fracture
spring.

3.1 Characteristics of Fracture Spring

All of the observed-aquifers are unconfined. Based on its elevation, springs in the east slope
of Mt. Ciremai (Cilimus-Jalaksana area) can be divided into two zones as follows: Spring
Zone 1: 100-650 masl; and Spring Zone 2: 650-1250 masl. The spring zonation is presented in
Figure 2, while the hydrogeological condition and volcanic facies distribution is summarized
in Table 1.

Based on Table 1, there are three volcanic facies:

1)Volcanic core facies is distributed at 3050-3100 masl, consists of andesites to dacite rock.
This facies is impermeable with no spring;
2)Volcanic Proximal facies is distributed at 650-3050 masl, consist of:
2a)Proximal 1 at 1250 3050 masl, composed of impermeabel Pyroclastic flow and fall
deposit with andesite boulder and tuff matrices;
2b)Proximal 2, composed of permeable andesite to dacite lava flow at 650 1250 masl.
On Proximal 2 facies, there is Spring Zone 1 with three springs which are discharge a
total of 98 l/sec. The estimated thickness is at least 100 m (IWACO-WASECO,
19896).
3)Volcanic Distal facies is distributed at 100 650 masl, consist of permeable laharic breccia,
with small to large andesite to dacite boulders planted in tuff and volcanic sand matrices.
The rock is fractured with unidentified dimension and geometry, which set up a good
permeability. On this facies, there is Spring Zone 2 which consists of 18 springs with total
discharge 1063 l/sec. The estimated thickness is at least 100 m (IWACO-WASECO,
19896).

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Table 1 Summary of hydrogeological conditions

Volcanic facies Description Slope Spring Physical and hydraulic properties

(according to Symbol Lithology Zone Number Discharge
McPhie, 19936) o10o 20o 30o o (L/s)
0 45
Volcanic Core Volcanic neck, consists of - 0 0 Impermeable rock with less, no other
(3050 masl- andesites to dacite data is available
estimated
3100 masl)
Volcanic Proximal
(650 3050 masl)

Volcanic Proximal 1
(1250 3050 masl)
Volcanic Proximal 2
(650 1250 masl)
Volcanic Distal
(100 650 masl)
Pyroclastic fall and pyroclastic - 0 0 Impermeable rock, high infiltration rate of
flow. Consists of andesite soil 1.5 cm/min, no other data is available
boulder and tuff matrices
Lava flow. Consists of 1 3 98 Permeable, secondary permeability:
andesite to dacite lava (class 1-3)* cooling/sheeting joint with unsystematic
pattern, thick residual soil (2-5 m), final
infiltration rate of 0.5 1.2 cm/min
Laharic breccia. Consists of 2 18 1063 Permeable, secondary permeability:
andesite to dacite boulder (class 1-3)* fractured with isolated pattern, thick
with tuff and volcanic sand residual soil (2-5 m), final infiltration
matrices. rate of 1.26 2.53 cm/min

* according to Meinzer classification of spring discharge (op.cit Todd, 19847)

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A B
Recharge area Discharge area
Pyroclastic fall

Pyroclastic flows
Lava flows
Laharic deposit
Zone 3
Zone 1 and zone 2

Figure 2 Volcanic Deposit Distribution. Laharic breccia is deposited at the lowest elevation (100 - 650 masl). At the upperpart, series
of lava flow are deposited at 650 1250 masl of elevation, and series of pyroclastic (flow and fall) is deposited at 1250 3100 masl of
elevation. The changing of rock type, from lava flows to pyroclastic breccia, forms a slope break. The slope changes from 4 to 190 at
500 650 masl of elevation. Zone 1 consists of 3 spring observation with total discharge 98 l/sec. Zona 2 consists of 13 spring
observation with total discharge 1063 l/sec.

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1. Fractures on lava flow

The fractures are constituted of cooling joints which form narrow openings in rock.
The observed dimension of the joints ranges from few cm to 20 cm. The pattern of the
joints is not known, but seemingly to be unsystematic, showed by many orientations as
follows: N630E, N900E, N1170E (Figure 3).

2. Fractures on laharic breccia

The observed dimension of the fracture ranges from 10 cm to 60 cm. The fractures
stretch continuously to rock distribution. At Cibulan spring, the orientation of fracture
is N930E, which is in the same direction as the ridge (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Fractures on lava flows and laharic breccia. There are 2 spring systems
at this location. The upper spring occurs in lava flows aquifer and emerges
from cooling joints. The lower spring occurs in laharic breccia and emerges
from fractures between large boulders.

3.2 Characteristics of Groundwater Flow Pattern

Regional isophreatic map covers 2 spring areas, 1) Linggarjati and 2) Cibulan. The
Linggarjati spring areas emerges from lava flow, discharging 80 l/sec of groundwater; while
the Cibulan spring area is located at the edge of a ridge, and discharging overall 400 l/sec of
groundwater (Figure 4A).

The groundwater flow pattern in Linggarjati Area is SW-NE with 0.4 of hydraulic gradient
and 0.6 of slope. The groundwater flow appears to be in deviated, controlled by the
unsystematic fractures orientation.

The groundwater flow pattern in Cibulan Spring Area shows NW-SE direction with 0.3 and
0.4 of slope. The isophreatic contour shows an straight pattern.

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4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Based on the observations, there are three hydrogeological factors which controls spring
distribution, spring discharge, and groundwater flow pattern as follows: the distribution of
lithology and morphology; the intensity of macro fracture; the thickness and final infiltration
rate of residual soil. The details of each factors are described below.

4.1 Distribution of lithology and morphology

According to Freeze and Cherry8, morphology and geology controls the distribution of
potentiometric condition. Many variation os potentiometric pattern produces varied input-
output system of groundwater flow. Another view from Purbohadiwijoyo9 indicates that
spring distribution is strongly controlled by three types of geological condition: Type one).at
the slope break of volcano. Groundwater moves from recharge area to discharge area at slope
break, form spring belt; Type two)at contact between aquifer and intrusion as boundary.
Groundwater emerges in form of contact spring at contact between aquifer and intrusion;
Type three)at volcanic rock coastal zone, which only occurs at near-sea volcano. Groundwater
moves from recharge area to the coastal zone. Spring can emerge either above sea level or
below sea level, known as under water spring.

At Mt Ciremai, morphology is controlled by change of rock distribution. Such condition

forms slope break at elevation range of 500 - 650 masl. The measured slope angle changes
from 190 to 40. The change of slope angle controls the hydraulic of unconfined groundwater to
develops spring belt in the area, with the largest spring amount at Zone 2 (500 650 masl).
On the other hand, at the upper slope (1250 3100 masl), there are no spring occurrences.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the elevation range of 100 1250 masl is discharge area,
while the elevation range of 1250 3100 masl is recharge area.

In more detailed scale, the volcanic deposit distribution forms morphological feature of ridges
and valleys. Such features functions as passageway of groundwater (Figure 4A). The analysis
is proven by some springs discharge from ridge edges. The groundwater flow matches the
topographical contour, as shown in Figure 4B. The ridge consists of 10 m thick of Laharic
breccia deposit (Figure 4C). The thick Laharic breccia deposit functions as productive aquifer.

4.2 The intensity of macro fracture

Fracture zone controls the level of spring discharge. There are two genetics type of fractures:
a) Fractures on lava flow
The fractures are constituted of cooling joints which form narrow openings in rock.
The pattern of the joints is unsystematic, with many orientations as follows: N630E,
N900E, N1170E. The orientation of the fracture controls the deviated groundwater
flow pattern.
b) Fractures on laharic breccia
The fractures stretch continuously to rock distribution with. At Cibulan spring, the
orientation of fracture is N930E, which is in the same direction as the ridge. The
unidirection fracture controls isolated groundwater flow pattern.

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Mt. Ciremai
A

Figure 4 The 3 figures show the situation of Cibulan spring area,

the isophreatic map, and the section of groundwater flow. 4A.
Location of Cibulan spring; 4B. The isophreatic and groundwater
flow at the ridge; 4C. The cross section of Cibulan spring (400
l/sec).

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4.3 Thickness and Final Infiltration Rate of Residual Soil

The intensity of weathering processes in the study area is very high, resulting in thick residual
soil. The thickness of residual soil is ranging from 2 m to nearly 10 m. Such thick residual soil
is very potential to store and to infiltrate rain and surface water in to the aquifer.

Infiltration test (according to Chow et.al., 196410; Miyazaki, 199311) is carried out to verify
the final infiltration rate of residual soils. Residual soil from lahar shows the largest values of
1.26 2.53 cm/min, followed by residual soil from pyroclastic breccias 1.5 cm/min, and from
lava flow 0.5 1.2 cm/min. High final infiltration rate (Linsley & Franzini, 197812) indicates
the high capacity of residual soil to be infiltrated by rain water and surface water.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Results from 21 observations had shown that spring distribution, spring discharge, and
groundwater flow pattern are controlled by three hydrogeological factors as follows:
distribution of lithology and morphology; intensity of macro fracture; thickness and final
infiltration rate of residual soil.

The first factor, the change of rock distribution forms slope break at elevation range of 500 -
650 masl, slope angle changes from 190 to 40. The change of slope angle controls the
hydraulic of unconfined groundwater to develops the largest spring distribution at Zone 2
(500 650 masl). The elevation range of 100 1250 masl is discharge area, while the
elevation range of 1250 3100 masl is recharge area. In detailed scale, volcanic deposit
distribution forms morphological feature of ridges and valleys which controls the groundwater
flow pattern. The second factor, fracture zone controls the level of spring discharge in
volcanic terrain. The fracture system occurs on Laharic Breccia, the fractures stretch
consecutively to rock distribution, which also controls the isolated groundwater flow; on Lava
flow. The fractures are in form of cooling joints with unsystematic pattern, which controls the
deviated groundwater water flow. The third factor, the weathering processes in the study area
is very intensive, resulting in thick residual soil and high final infiltration rate, which is very
potential to store and to be infiltrated by rain water and surface water.

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References
1
Mandel S. (1981). Groundwater Resources: Investigation and Development.
Academic Press, pp. 217
2
Asseggaf, A. & Puradimaja, D.J. (1998). Identifikasi Kawasan G. Salak G. Gede
sebagai Zona Resapan dan Luahan Daerah Ciawi Bogor Kabupaten Bogor Jawa
Barat. Prosiding PIT IAGI XXVII, pp. 4-136 - 4-142
3
Irawan, D.E., Puradimaja, D.E., Yuwono, S. & Syaifullah, T.A. (2000)., Pemetaan
Endapan Bahan Volkanik dalam Upaya Identifikasi Akifer pada Sistem Gunungapi.
Studi Kasus: Daerah Pasir Jambu-Situwangi Soreang, Kabupaten Bandung, Jawa
Barat, Jurnal Buletin Geologi, Vol 3, Tahun 2000
4
Irawan, D.E., Puradimaja, D.J. (2002). Geological Mapping and Groundwater Physical-
Chemical Properties Characterization. An Approach to Spring Recharge Area
Conservation, Proceeding of International Conference on Urban Hydrology, Kuala
Lumpur, pp.
5
IWACO-WASECO. (1989). West Java Provincial Water Sources Master Plan for
Water Supply: Kabupaten Kuningan. Vol A, Directorate of Water Supply, Ministry of
Public Works
6
McPhie. (1993), Volcanic Textures,
7
Todd, DK., 1984, Groundwater Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons
8
Freeze & Cherry, 1979, Groundwater, Prentice-Hall
9
Purbo Hadiwijoyo (1965), Hydrogeology of Stratovolcanoes, International Association of
Hydrogeologists, Memoires Congress of Hannover
10
Chow, VT (ed). (1964). Handbook of Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill, pp. 12.1-
12.30
11
Miyazaki, T. (1993). Water Flow in Soils. Dekker, pp. 29 45
12
Linsley, R.K. & Franzini, J.B. (1978). Water Resources Engineering. McGraw Hill

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