Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Tfie purpose n f this chapter is lo introduce tlie studeni to of bit inciudes bits with steel cuners (Fig. 5.1), dianiond
he selection and operalion ofdnlling hits. ncluded in bits (Fig. 5.2), and polycry.stalline diamond (PCD) bits
tle chapter are discussions uf (I) various bit types (Fig. 5.3). An advantage of drag bits over rolling cutting
availahle, (2) criterio f o r selecting the best hit for ti bits is that they do not have any rolling parts, which re-
giveii xilualitm, (3) staiulurd methods f o r evaitang diitl quire strong, cican bearing surfaces. This is especially
hits, (4) factors uffeciin bit wear and dritliii> speed, important in the small hole sizes, where spacc is not
and (5) optitnization oj hit weight and rotary speed. availabie for designing strength into both the bit cutter
elements and the bearings needcd for a ixilling cutter.
The proccss ordrilling u holc in the ground requires ihc Also, since drag bits can be made from one sol id piece of
use of drllng bits. Indccd, the bit is the most basic toul Steel, there is less chance of bit breakage, which would
used by the drllng cngineer, and the selection of the leave junk in the bottom of the hole. Removing junk
best bit and bit operating conditions is one of the niost from a previous bit can lead to additional trips to the bot
basic problems that he faces. An extreniely large varicly tom and thus loss of considerable rig time.
of bits are manufactured for different situations cn- Drag bits with steel cutter elements such as a fishtail
countered during rotary drllng operations. Il is impor- bit perfomi best relative to other bit types in uniformly
tant for the drilling engineer to leam the fundamentis of sofi, onconsolidated formations. As the foniiations
bit design so he can understand fully the differences become harder and more abrasive, the rate of bit wear in-
among the various bits availabie. crea.ses rapidly and the drilling rate decreases rapidly.
This problem can be reduced by changing the shape of
5.1 Bit Ty pcs Availabie the cutter element and reducng the angle al which it in-
Rotary drllng bits usually are classified according to tersects the bottom of the holc. Also. in soft fomiations
their design as cithcr drag hits or rolUng cutter hits. Al! that tend to be " gu m m y, " the cuttings may stick to the
(Jrag bits consist of fixed cutter blades that are integral blades of a drag bit and reduco their effcctivencss. This
with the body of the bit and roate as a unit with Ihe problem can be reduced by placing a jet so that drillmg
drillstring. The u.se of this typc of bit dates back to the in- fluid impinges on the upper surfacc of the blade, Bccause
tnxluction of the rotary drilling proccss in the I9th cen- of the problems of rapid dulling in harder r<icks and bit
tury. Rolling cutter bits have two or more cones contain- cleaning in gummy fomiations. drag bits with steel cut
ing the cuning riements. whieh mtaie about the axis of ting elements largely have been displaced by other bit
the cone as the bit is rotatcd at the bottom of the hole. A ty[>es in almost all areas.
iwo-cone rolling cutter bit was introduced in 1909. Diamond bits perfomi be.st relative to other bit types in
nonbrittle formations that have a plstic mode of failurt
5.1.1 Drag Bits
for the stress conditions pre.sent at the bottom of the hole.
The design features of the drag bit include the number The face or crown of the bit consists of many diamonds
and shape of the cutting hiades or stones, the sizc and set in a tungsten carbidc ntatrix. Underproper bit opera-
location of the water courses. and the metallurgy of the tion only the diamonds contad the hole bottom. Icaving
bit and cutting elements. Drag bits drill by physcally a small clearance bctwcen the matn\ and the lile bot
plowing cuttings from the bottom of the borehole muci tom. Fluid course.s are provided jn the niatrix to direct
like a famier's plow cuts a furrow In the soil. This type the llow of drilling (luid over the face o) the hit. Thesc
ROTARY D R t L N G BITS 191
Fig. 5.1Example steel cutter drag bits dressed with tongsten carbide.
courses must be sizcd sniall eiiough so thal somc of the The dc.sign of the water-eourse pattem cut in tho face
fluki is forccd lo flow bclwccn ihc niatrix ;intl thc holc of the bit and the junk slotx cut in the sidc of thc bit face
txntom, thcrcby clcaning and ccioling the diamonds. Controls cuttings removal and diamond coong (Fig.
An important design feature of a diamond bit (Figs, 5.4A). Diamond bits are designed to be operated at a
5.4A tlirough 5.4C) is its shape or crown profite (Fig. given tlow rate and pressurc drop across thc tace of tbe
5.4C). A bil with a long taperassists in driliing a straight bit. Expcriments conducted by bit manufacturers have
hole and allows the use of higher bil weights, On the indieated tbe need for approximately 2.0 to 2,5 hhp/sq
other hand, a short taper is easicr to clcan becaue ibc in. of hole bottoni with an approximate 50- to 1,000-psi
available hydiuc energy can be concentrated over less prcssurc drop across ihc face of the bit lo olean and cool
surlace area, A more concave bit face can be used in the diamond adcquately, Thc pressurc drop across thc
directional driliing applications to assist in increasing the face of the bit at a given flow rate can be establishcd as
angle of deviation of the borehole from vertical, tbe difference between thc pump prcssurc mcasured with
The sic and number of diamonds used in a diamond thc bit ofl" bottom and tbe pump prcssurc mcasured wbilc
bit dcpcnds nii the hardncss of (he fomiatiun to be driliing, Tbe bit manufaciurer u.sually will prov de an
drilled. Bits for hard fomiations have niuny small (0.07- estimatc of thc approximate circulaling rale rcquired to
to 0,125-earjt) stones, wbilc bits for sol't tomiations establish the needed pre,ssure daip across thc bit face,
have a tew large (0.75- to 2-cardt) stones. Examples of
diamond bits for both hard and sol't foniiations are shown 5.1.2 PolycryslaDine Dianitmd (PCD) Bits
in Figs, 5,2A and 5.2B, If thc diamonds u.sed are too
large for ahiiost complete cmbcdment in the formal ion, Since the mid-1970's. a new faniily of drag hits has bccn
thc unil loadingon the diamond points wil) be exce.ssive, made possible by thc introduction of a sintercd
resulling in local izcd hcat gencration and polishing of thc ptilycry.stalline diamond dnll bkuik as a bil cuiter ele-
cutting edge of the stones. ment. The drill blanks eonsi.st of a layer of Nynthctic
(a)
Couriesy ol Norton Chnstensen
polycrystalline diamond about ihick that is bond- accomplished in sandstonc, siltstone, and shale.
cd to a ccmcnted (ungsten carbidc substratc in a high- although bit balling is a serious problcm in very soft,
pressure/high-temperature process. It contains niany gummy formations, and rapid cutter abrasin and
small diamond crysals bonded together. The cleavage breakage are serious problems in hard, abrasive forma
planes of thc diamond crystals have a random orientation tions. As in the case of the oider, steel cutter drag bits,
that prevents any shock-induced breakage of an in bit hydraulics can play an important role in reducing bit
dividua! diamond crystal from easily propagating balling.
through the entire cutter. As shown in Fig. 5.3, the The bit shape or crown profile is also an important
sintercd polycrystalline diamond compact is bonded design feature of PCD bits. In addition to the double-
either to a tungstcn carbidc bit-body matrix or to a cone profiles (Fig. 5.4C) used for diamond bits, single-
tungsten carbide stiid that is mounted in a steel bit body. cone profiles of various tapers and flat-bottom profiles
The PCD bits are still evolving rapidly, They perform are used for PCD bits. The hydraulic cleaning action is
best in sofi, firm, and medium-hard, nonabrasive fomia- usually achieved primarily by using jets for steel-body
tions that are not " g u m m y. " Good result.s have bcen PCD bits and by using water courses for matrix-body
reponed with PCD bits in drilling uniform sections of PCD bits.
carbonates orevaporitcs that are not brokcn up with hard Other importan! design features of a PCD bit includc
shale stringers. Successful use of these bits alsu has been thc size, shape, and number of cuttcrs used and the angle
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 193
COLLECTOR")
CROWFOOT fluid COURSES
OPENING 'Ieedr'
(Primory) J
JUNK SLOT
DIAMOND -C
SET PAD
CONTROL DIAMETERS
(TFA a Collector)
iCONE A N G L E
JOSE
APEX
FLANK ANGLE FLANK
CROWFOOT
SHOULDER RADIUS SHOULDER
GAGE POtNT
GAGE
GAGE LANDS
CROWN
j ; / C H AM F E R
BLANK
WELD
ALLIGNMENT THREADS
SHANK
BREAKER SLOT (2)
SMALLER
JU N K - S LOT S 'S T RONGE R CENTER
NEARLY f L AT REPLACES CROW-
FOOT PATTERN
15) DOWN-HOLE MOTOR ( 6 ) SIOE-TRACK (7) OlL-BASE (B) CORE-EJECTOR
FIg. 5. 4CDia mond cutter drag bit r adial and lee de r colleciors.
of attack betwccn the cutter and the surface of the ex- only at the expense of another critical part. This is
poscd formation. Cutterorientation is defincd in terms of especially true for the smaller bit sizes, Whereas mosi
back rake, siete rake. ard chip clearance or cutter ex- machines are designed to last for years, bits generally
posure (Fig. 5.5).' last at best only a few days.
At present, a negative back-rakc anglc of 20 is stan The drilling action of a rolling cutter bit depends to
dard on many steel-body PCD bits. However. snialler some extent on the offset of the cones. As shown in Fig.
back-rake angles, which are bctter-suited for soft forma- 5".7, the offset of the bit is a measure of how much the
tions, are also available, especially in the matrix-body cones are moved so that their axes do not intersect at a
PCD bits. The side-rakc assists in pushing the cuttings common pomt of the centeriine of the hole. Offsetting
formed to the side of the hole, much like the action of a causes the cone to stop rotating periodically as the bit is
plow. The exposure of the cutter provides room for the tumed and scrape the hole bottom much like a drag bit.
cutting to peel off the hole bottom without impacting This action tends to increase drilling speed in most for
against the bit body and packing in front of the cutter. mation types. However, it also promotes faster tooth
Cutter orientation must be properly matchcd to the wear in abrasive formations. Cone offset is sometimes
hardne.ss of the formation lieing drilled. In soft. expressed as the angle the cone axis would have to be
nonabrasive fomiations. where cutter wear is very slow, rotated to make it pass through the centeriine of the hole.
the orientation can be set to eniphasize aggressive cut Cone offset angle varies from about 4 for bits used in
ting. The high temperatures and wear rates caused by soft formations to zero for bits used in extremcly hard
harder, more abrasive foimations rcquire a less- formations.
aggressive cutter orientation to prevent an excessive The shape of the bit teelh also has a large cffect on the
wear rate. The cutter orientation also depends on the ex- drilling action of a rolling cutter bit. Long, widely
pected cuttei vclocity. whicli in lum depends on the spaccd, Steel teeth are used for drilling soft fomialions.
distance of the cutter location from the centerof the hole. The long teeth easily penetrate the soft rock, and the
5,1.3 Kolling Cutter Bits scraping/twisting action pmvided by altemate rotation
and plowing action of the offset cone removes the
The three-conc rolling cutter bit is by far the most com- material f)enetrated. The action of this typc bit ofien is
nion bit typc cuacntly used in rotary drilling operaliona. compared with pushing a shovel into the ground and then
This general bit type is available with a large variety of leaning back on the handle to rcmove a large piece of
tooth design and bearing types and. thus, is suited for a earth. The wide spacing of the teeth on the cone pro
vide variety of formation characteristics. Fig. 5.6 is an motes bit cleaning. Teeth cleaning action is providcd by
example of a rolling cutter bit with the various parts the intermeshing of teeth on different cones and by fluid
labeled. The three cones rotate about their axis as the jets between each of the three cones As the rock type
bit is rotaied on bottom. gets harder, the tooth length and cone offset must be
The largest lmitation a bit design engineer faces is ihat rcduced to prevent tooth breakage. The drilling action of
the bit must fit inside the borehole. The designer, thus, is a bit with zero cone offset is essentially a cmshing ac
rcquired to makc mximum use of a very iimited amouni tion. The smaller teelh also allow more room forthe con-
of space. The size of every critical part can be increa.sed struction of stronger bearings.
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 195
SPtCAL
M: TAI INL ArS
-UHf ACF
qiT .IG
BAi i MI I . D
SHIHT T(l i Ot BACKi-Act
\tJt HCur
tjAut SlRF ACfc
( s.
t \
MI HHUf'Tin\
NO 2CNE r.OM I; 'MU ? C O N NO ' CNt
bit wears, the grcase seis cvenlually fail and thc drilling or sealed bearing bits, much longer bit runs can be ob-
fluid can entcr the bearings and accelcrate the bcaring tained, thus eliminating some of the rig time spent on
wear. tripping operations.
Rolling cutter bits with ihe most advanced bearing
5.1.4 Standard Classification of Bits
assembly are the journal hearing bits (Fig. 5.10d). In
this type bit, ihe roller bearings are eliminatcd and the A large variety of bit designs are available from several
cone rotates in contact with thc journal bearing pin. This manufacturers. The Int!. Assn. of Drilling Contractors
type bearing has thc advantage of greatly increasing the (lADC) approved a standard classification system for
contact arca through which the weight on ihe bit is trans- identifying similar bit types available from various
mitted to the cone. Also, by eliminating one of the com- manufacturers. The classification system adopted is the
ponents (the rollers), additional space becomes available three-digit code.
for strengthcning the remaining componcnts. Journal The first digit in the bit classification scheme is called
bearing bits require effective grease seis, special the bit series number. The letter "D" precedes thc first
metailurgy, and extremely cise tolerances during digit if the bil is diamond or PCD drag bit. Series DI
manufacture. Silver inlays in the journal help to ihrough D5 are teserved for diamond bits and PCD bits
minimize friction and prevenl galling. While journal in the sofl. medium-soft, mdium, medium-hard, and
bearing bits are much more expensive than thc standard hard fonmation categories, respectively. Series D7
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 197
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
OFFSET
DISTANCE
OFFSET
ANGLE
Chippmg
W(or
ta) SEUF SHARPENIftG WEAR DUC TO HARO FACING >> SELF 5HARPENING DUE TO CASE HARDENINfi
Fig. 5,9Exampte lungsten carbde inser cutters used in rollmg culter b(t5
198 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
PRESSURE
AREAS
gl COMPENSATOft
/ PLUG
( COMPENSATOR
(3 CREASE
RESERVOIR
CONNECIING
HOLE
( ?) SEAL
BEARINC
COEEN
OURNAL PRESSURE AREA
. jG *1E
=. Sl'vi'l
4 Hl.t 7 '
Jourtvil
Riu.>
OTER B-l- B4CE
Bearirx)
CONE BAi-cSl NTEGiL oilOT PiM Pin
'Nhf o BALl OACt FlAnGE HARD
BUSHiWG
(b) Gas-cooled bearng design or drilitng wilh air or (d) Journal beanng design
natural gas.
thriiugh Dy iire rcscrvcd Ibr diami)nd core hits and PCD dcpcnding on the general typc ot bit bcing dcscribcd.
L'orc bits in tlie sofl-, nictiiuni-, und hard-l'ormatiiv Fcalurc numbcrs are defined ror(l) diamond und PCD
catcgorics. Series I, 2, and 3 aa rcservcd Cor milled drag bits, (2) diamond and PCD drag-type core-cutling
lODtli bils in the sol'i. iiicdium, and hard foniiaiion bits, and (3) rolling cutier bits.
cutegorics. rcspcciively. Series 5, 6, 7, und 8 are l'or in Eight standard diuniond and PCD drug bit leutures are
ser bits in the sofl. mdium, hard, and exlremely hard (1) stcp-typc profile. (2) long-tapcr pmfilc, (3) short-
Ibnnation categorics. respcctivciy- Series 4 is rcservcd tapcr profile, (4) nontaper prtifile, (5) downhole -mot or
Ior lulure use with spccial caiegories such us a "univer typc. (6) sidctrack lypc. (7) oil-baso typc, and (S) ai re -
s al" bit. cjcctor typc. The remaining fcature (No. 9) is r c s e a e d
The seeond digit is caled the lypc nuniber. Type O is Cor special Icatures sciccted by the bit manulacturcr.
rcservcd tVir PCD drag bits. Types 1 ihrough 4 desgnate Thcrc are two standard fcature nunibers tbr diamond
a liinuatiDn hardncss subelassiricatittn l'rinn the softcst lo and PCD drag-type eorc-cutting bils. Thcsc bii> are used
the hardest lomialion within cach catcgory. to rccovcr a length ol" Ibrmation sample cored Ironi the
The l'ealiire nunibers are interpreted dilerenlly. central portion of the bt>rehole. The two featurcs are (I)
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 199
MANFACTUBER
AMEflICAN COLDSET (a)
BIT DESIGN FEATURES
uoc iTtr UthG mor i MU DQWtHU Sf cai
StRlfS TK Ti/Efl TAnn TAPCil MCtOfl f(U itE cjtaofi lfHh
FOAMATDM WJHflR 1 2 ) 4 1 4 7 9
0 STflATACUT STHATAtUT
1 SHAftKTOOTH (MAKiTOOtti 1
SOFT DI 2 " MAUTOOlH
Tftttl UtAOii.LQ UD
"
3
4 1*
STRATACtiT stratacut
1 AWlADfLLO UUKtiTOOT* T cmHun uo
eTOOTH
2 | n
MEDIUM 02
2 " " "
SOFT "
4 f
5TRATACUT STRATACUT
1 T&TT tmc,Li UD
TftlGt ARHAOILLO
"
MEDIUM 03 3
" I* "
3 SHnW "
4 "
MANUFACTURER (b)
CHRISTENSEN BIT DESIG fEATURES
(C)
tIT DESIGM FEATURES
lAOC rr i P LMC p(01 M- OOWNMOll SlO{ Ok canf
lAPEH TAfCR lAfC* ftwtofl TRAOt MSC LMCTOm tmn
TTff
1 3 3 4 i 7 1 *
fORMATION
1 0
1 Rr V-2 0 cnv-?n CHIi-iO CH-ZO RFT-ZO S T - 20 RFV-20
SOFT DI 7 " RFV-21 RF V - Jl RF-21 RfT - 21 **
Rrv-21
3
ii * *
4
-ff "
0
1 RFV-30 CHV-20 CHV-20 CH-20 RF T -20 ST-10 RFV-20
* RFV-21
Rrv-21 RFV-21 l l F-21 RFT -21
MEDIUM D2 2_
CrtV-W cMV-30 CH-30 k'T-W RFV-30
S
SOFT 4 fi--- RFV-31 Rrv-31 *r-3i RFT-Jl HFV-31
0
1 Rrv-30 C H - 3 0 CHV-30 CH-in RF T -30 ST-iO RFV-30
MEDIUM D3 2 RFV-40 Rrv-31 RFV-31 KF-31 RFT -31
"
RFV-31
"
4
0
1 t-irv 60 :FV-40 Rrv-40 RF - 30 RF T -40 ST-40 RKV-0 1
1*
MEDIUM D4 2
"
RFV-4 RFV-Al RF-. I RFT -41 Rrv-4i
3
HARD R " " "
4
0
1 Rrv-0 RFV-i O RF T -50 RFV. 50
2 Rrv-M RFV-51 RFT-51 RFV-Sl S-M
HAftD D6
3 RS-SO " "
" " " '
4 CF-50
O
MANUFACTURER NL HYCALOG
BIT DESIGN FEATURES
U3C Ttf lOMC IHDflT mu IWWNHOH SiOI 011 omi 1
tnis nrt IWflt itrfii MTDn Tiun ust CitCTOK OTKIII
FORMATKW NUMBiO ' ] 3 4 i > 1 < in beari
0 SATIII.SATIV jnpfix TUPBOfAX ng capa
1 cily is
SOFT DI 901 511 possible
3 901 HSIT 9011 ST 9C15 90K( ion BI CNTP for the
4 901 MSIT 90n ST un 9015 yolct 204 bits wi
0 atjil IV IfTI-A TURBOLA;. th a hig
1 901 tlSl 73C t901 7301 57 9015 901Ct 201 her
MEDIUM D2
1 901 51 73! E1T901 730" SI 9CI15 901C[ 20a class nu
1 901 MSI 73f 17 901 7301 S7 9015 901Ct 204
SOFT 9ni KSl M51T9Q1 m 57 WM 9015 901CE 20 " mber. T
73
0 his is p
1 901 73q WT 9017 730- S7 9015 901 CE 730CE 204 ossible
MEDIUM 03 I 901 7 ir MIT 9017 730' S7 9015 901Ct 730Ct 204 due lo t
1 901 71f mi 901T7301 S7 901S 901Ct 730CE 204 "
0 STWTACCW
1 SNARft HtAfi f b
' **
MEOIM D8 2
3 til StAR -
4 * "
0
1 tH St M iham heao fd
MARO D9 2 ' -
3
4
ER: CHflJSTENSN DESIGN FEATURES
tJDC CeMVEMTICm
StRitS CVCURHH DISCHARGE DTHCR
VORMATIQM \ 9
0 lC-2 JC-3
1
SOFT 07 3 C,-22 C-35
2 c-j a C-f i
(b) 4
0
1
MEDIUM 08 2 c-*o C-IH
3 C-20I c-2a
4
0
1
HAno D9 2 r-?A
3 C-24
4 C-
4 * "
0 fOWDClAX- tjowCpAk'r
1 KD'0
HARD 09 2 4*
" "
1
"
4
*
TABLE5.3lADC ROLLING-CUTTER BIT
CLASSIFICATION CHART FOR FOUR MANUFACTURERS
(a)
MANUFACTURER: HUGHES TOOL CO.
F0RMATION5 FEATURES
AlEO StAl(S
SERIE stahdaho
TYPES MOUfA MNilA SM(0 (KHllN *(0 IftCliON
ROtUI tlAMWG m e bAfri 04Li *6 &Abi FRCTKM MC CACf DMUC
S MAME A4N MWIECTIO KARHiG nuricTi MAIMC mirtcKO tNMAl OTHIH
ti tti lll ID
(A son FowMAiims t gSC3AJ X3A Jl M3A
H 1 WITH lOW COMPftESSIVE 7 SC3J s J2
---- SIRINGTM AMO MCM n esciGJ J03 MXIG
T 4
_M__ K 1 wvj/ew4j JD4
O --
O 2 ORMATIOMS WltH 7 W0
H HIGH CtIMPRfSSrVI 1
O SIKtNGTK 4
HARO SCM AeRASiVE
j W7J/W7C H J7 ----
7 W7Raj
S 3 ANO ABRASIVI 3
fORMAllOMS HR
4 J6 JDB
SOrt fORMATlOflS t
4 HITH law COMPflESSIVE 7
SIRtNCrH AND HIGK 3 XII
OmtlAHlTY
4
SSn TO MEDIUM 1 X22 J32
5 rORMAlICWS WITH
lOW C<3MPRf(SSlVE
7 -
,1 HH33 X33 J33
STftfNGTH
4
--- MtOlOM HARO 1 HH44 - X44 J44
(b)
MAMUfACTURER; RECO ROCK BIT CO.
FORMATIONS FEATURES
110 Stl(D
SERIES trAhOAio KOiLia HH it l AUO 0M4 iiia
TYPES *C CkU MI C
OUII tumc mi 'Ci OlUA b CCf l<1iON
1 Ar6 MOMCtlO f n ot K i l D Otiit
121 |4l 1 lll
(l i |3
1
SQir fORMATlONS
witM iQw c oumssrvf _2_
4
STRfMilH AMO HICM 3
&i(UA|(UrY
4
son TO tl S jS l F PS t
S iONMAIlONS WlTM 2 S52 HS5IJP52
low c oMr((ss rv{ 3 S53 HPSMjFfS
jTNCtN
4 HPSM.FPM
NARO HPSM/P6a
2 yti'M S62
fORMAfKMS WITN HPSM,ft4
e
HICH COMRtSSrVf 3 Y63-JA Y63 S63 HP FP63
S1RENC1H
4 S64 rtPMH.FPW
HPMH.
NAW SfM( AVUSfVE
2 MMK. F7n
7 ANO AlHAStVE Y7Z S72
fORMAhONS 3 r73-JA 73 HPH, FP73 V73RAP_
A 574 m'ph . FP74
-- 8 UI IK M Clf AMO i
) HPK_
2
_ta3__
AtAASiVf QIIMAtHMt
3_ Ye3-JA sas FPB3 -
4 1
[INSERTBITS|
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 203
(C)
MANUFACTURER ; SECURITY 0<Vt
FOHMATIONS FEATURES
sfuia simo
TYPESSlftNDAftQ KHiC Oiiffl SfUCD ttkii* $(Alt FACIlOM
DlKll IfAAIN. kG Ci MOIliR ffW CACE Mfr 0* e<vc
KUWO ANt fdcrtcifo ifAMiMi ntOTfCUD MaNmC HtOIECTil) ncMui om*
ii| Ok Itk Ol ii4 (
F0RMAf4(MS 1 S3< S35S SWSG S33SF S 3S J0
1
MILLED WIIH (.(M COMPfEtSSlVf 83 S3T S33 S 3 F S3JD
srft{iiCrH AND HiGH
-- TOOTHB tmiLtAfliLm
3
4
4 S4T S 44 S4G
S/DSS 1
-- ITS WECNUM TO MfDlL>M HAflO ~ M4N M44N M4NF
2 FQRMATIONS WTH
HICN COMRESSIVE
Itit4
OM/DMM
.
irntHGTH M4L M44LF
4
H7 JiZI .. HTT lf77F
H4W 5{MI UlUjJVt
3 ANO URAStVf
7 -
fafWAilONS 1 H7SG t 7rsG
4 H77C H7 7CF
SOfT FO<*MAllDN
4 WlTH lOW CiXimESStVt 2
SmtNGTN AMO MGH
-- OmLlAftlUlT
3
A
(d)
MANUFACTUREH ; 5M(TH TOOL
F O f lM AT I OM S FEATURES
SIAUQ umio
SERIES TYPESSIMOAKD nomn MOllU 5tAlEa m.ii* ald
11011,(11 AtAM*C. MC CACI ftCkiEn iW (AC( FMCIXIIf BlC CNI OlREC
AiAHMlG AlR railCTED BCAfUNC mUCIFD tAhiHG PMTtCKCk no'MJ DTHCn
\M m Ih [4| ai iSk O lll
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1INSERTBI
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OPULAOILITY __DG GT _
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C L A S S l-t 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 3.4 CLASS l-l 1-2 1- 3 1-4 2-3 3.4
glz
10
9
i 1 10
9
BEARING CA PA C r r y
8 \, N U MBE R
8
7 \ rEEH \
7
V fi
6
\
5
A \ . \ 5 \
\ ___
4
A
'~
- TOOT H
- \
3
\
3 \
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2 2 \
TO O T H V
HARn FACING V
> I
> OFFSET
O FIg. 5
O
F0RMAT1ON SO F T M E D I UM HARO FORMATION SOFT MEOtUM HARO .12
Relativ
e ofisel and bearing capacty between dil-
lerent bit types
L
tan a = - ...... (5,1)
2xr
des'ign, more than onc mcchani.sm is usually present. In
The bottom clearance angle prevens the wedge from
this discussion, only ihe two ba-sic roiary drilling bit
types will be discussedi.e., thc drag bit and ihe rolling dragging the hole bottom whilc taking a chip and, thu.s,
cutter bits. causing the bit to jump and chatterand to wear fa.st. Thc
bottom clearance angle should nol be too great.
howcver, to preveni the bit from digging too dcep and
5.2.1 Failure Mechaiiisms of Drag Bits
stalling the rotary whenever the weight-to-toique ratio is
Drag bits are designed to drill piimariiy by a wcdging loo great. A slight rake angle can help promote an elTi-
mechanisni. I f drag bits could be kcpt drilling by wedg- cient wedging mechanism, although a positive rake
ing, they would noi dull so quickiy. It is whcn they are angle may not be necessary because of the downward
dragging and, Ihus. scraping and grinding that they drill slope of the hole bottom when the bit is operated proper-
slowly and dull quickly. A twisting action aiso may con ly. The bit tooth loses strength as thc rake angle is
tribute to rock removal from the center portion ol the increased.
hole. A schematic illustrating thc wedging action o f a
drag bit tooth jusl prior to cutting failure is shown in Fig.
5,13.- A vertical forc is applied to ihe tooth as a result
of applying drill collar weight lo the hit, and a horizontal
(after Estes*)
forc i.s applied to thc tooth as a result of applying the
torque nece Offset
Bil Type Class Formaton Type Tooth Descriplion
ssary to tum (degrees)
thc bit. The Steet-culter 1-1, 1-2 very soft hard-faced tip 3 to 4
result o f the. milled-iooth 1-3. 1-4 solt hard-faced skie 2 to 3
se two 2- \, 2-2 medijm hard-laced stde 1 to 2
forces defin 2-3 medium-hard case hardened 1 lo 2
es the plae 3 hard case hardened 0
of thrust o f t 0
4 very hard case hardened, circumferenlial
hc tooth or
wedge. Tungsten-carbide 5-2 soft 64 long blunt chisel 2 to 3
The cutting insen 5-3 medium-soft 65 to 80 long sharp chisel 2 10 3
s are sheare 6-1 mdium shales 65 10 80' mdium chisel 1 to 2
d off in a sh 6-2 mdium limes 60 to 70 mdium proiectile 1 to 2
ear plae at 7-1 medium-hard 80 10 90 shori chisel 0
an initial 7-2 mdium 60 to 70 short proiectile 0
Diamond drag bits are designcd to drill wiih a very Rock meehanics cxperts have applied .scvcral f'ailure
smaU pcnetration into ihc fonualion. The diameter on thc criteria in an attempt to relate rock .strength mca.sured in
individual rock grdins in a fomiation such a.s sandstonc simple compression tests to thc rotary dnlling proecss.
may noi t v mueh smallcr ihan the dcpth of pcnetration of One sucli failiine uriterion oficn used is thc Mohr ihcory
ihc diamonds. The drilling aciion ord i amon d drag bit in o f failure. The Mohr criterion states that yiclding or Irac-
ihis .siiuation is primarily a grinding action in which the turing should occur when thc shcar stress exceeds thc
ecmcnlaccous material holding thc individual grains is sum of thc cohesive resistancc of thc material < and the
broten by the diamonds. f'ctional resistancc of thc slip planes or fracture plae.
206 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
(a) normal to
Nr FAILURE plae
\
REFERENCE
AN6LE , (f>
a t
Itt
o-,
\
(b)
yCTn d Ap
crdA
rd A
-
'3
t M t
(c) .TndAr
3 3
\ CTj d A| Sin
4>y
V'
r = C + CTn tnn e
(d)
K COMPRESSION
T = -C - o- <on e
Fig. 5.1 5Mohr's circle graphical analysis (a) relefence rock specimen. (b) reference Iree-body siress elemenl. (c) lofce balance
normal and paralltjl lo failure ptane, o, and (d) consWuction o( Mohr's circle
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 207
T= +(c+ff tan0)........
(5,2)
where
T shear stress at tailure,
c = cohesive icsistance of thc material,
a = normal stress at the failure plae, and
6 angle of interna! friclion.
= Vi(<j) +03) - W(o 1 -(7i) cos(2<i)....... The shear strength is computed using Eq. 5.3b as
(5..la)
follows.
Summing forces parallel to ihe fracture plano gives T= 'A(o I ffj) sin(2())
BIT TOOTH Tho stress niimial tu the l'r.iclure plano is cmnpulcd usinj!
BOREHOLE PRESS Eq. 5.3i as tcillows
= '/i(l0.000 + 2.(X)0)-'yi(l0.(XK)
(A)TOOTH IMPACT
-2 , 00 0 ) (.os(54) = 3.649 psi.
10,000
STAT IC INDIANA LIMESTONE
"* 1/16" FLAT
1
8000 AP = 5000 P S I
m 1500
6000 //___y 1
O 1000
OC
O
Li.
I 4000 Isoo
l
O
o 2000 0
l 1 11 / 1 1
O 04 08 .12 .16 .20
predicied by ihe Mohr failurc critcria. The foruc at which 5.20a and 5.20b. Staning in Photograph 1, a tooth starts
fraciuring begins bcneath ihc looth is called the neshold to apply prcssure to the rock as the conc ralis forwand. In
forc. As ihe forcc oti thc tooth increascs above ihe Photograph 4. the thrtshold forc has been transmitted to
thrcshold valu, subsequent fracturing occurs in ihc the rock and fracture is initiated- In Photograph 5. which
regin abtwc the inilial fractiirc, forming a zonc of is shown in more dctail in Fig. 5.20b, ejection of the
broken rock (D). Al low difrerential pres.sure, the cut- rock fragments from the crter proceeds in an explosive
tings formed in the zonc of broken r(x:k are ejecied easily manner. Chips continu to be ejected in Photographs 6
fmm the crter (E). The bit tooth then moves forward through 9 as the tooth sinks furiher into the rock. Final-
until it rcaches thc bottom of the crter, and thc process ly, in Photograph 10, particle dischargc diminishes and
niay be repeated (F.G). At high differential pressures, the next tooth begins to apply forc to thc rock.
the downward pressurc and frictional forces bciwcen thc The drilling aclion of rolling cutlcr bits dcsigncd wilh
rock fragments prcvent ejection of the fragmcnts (E'). a large offset for drilling soft, plstic formations is con-
As thc forc on thc tooth is incrcased, displaccrncnt take.s siderably more complex than the simple erushing aciion
place aiong fracture planes parallel to thc initial fractun; that results when no offset is uscd. Since each cone alter-
(F'.C). This gives the appcarance of plstic deforma- nately rolls and drags, considerable wedging and
tion, and craters formed in this nianner are called twisting action is present. Shown in Fig. 5.21 is a com-
pseudoplastic cralers. Typical forcc displacement curves parison of the bottomhole pattems generatcd by a bit
for increasing vales of differential pressurc are shown with no offset and a bit with considerable offset. Thc
in Fig. 5.18. altemate rolling and dragging action of the high offset
Examples of craters fomied at both high and low cones is evident from the boitomholc pattem of the bit
vales of differential pressurc- are shown in Fig. 5.19. tceth.
A 5-nim tungsten carbidc penetrator was loaded to pro
duce failure in a sample of Rush Springs .sandstonc, The
5.3 Bit Selection and Evaluation
sample was coated with plstic to simlate the buildup of
a mudcake that would prcvent thc wellbtirc fluid from Unfortunately, the selection of the bcst availablc bit for
cntcnng thc porc space uf thc rock and cqualizing ihc the job, likc the selection of the bcst drilling Huid or
prcssure differential. Thc two craters on thc Icft wcre drilling cement composition, can be determined oniy by
madc with thc formal ion at atmosphcric pressurc and trial and error, Thc most valid tritcrion for comparing
with bit t<Mrth loads of 1,61X) and 2.2(X> Ibf. Thc chips the performance of various bits is thc drilling cost per
fomicd wcre removed easily. Thc two craters on the unit intcrval drillcd. The cost-pcr-fcH>t fonnula prescnted
right wcre made at a pressurc differential of 5,(XX) psi in Chap. I (Eq. 1.16) can be uscd for this purpose, Since
and bit tooth loads of 3,500 and 4.(XX) Ibf. The material no arnount of arithmctic allows us to drill the same scc-
cxtruded from the cralers that is charactcristic of tion of hole more than once, comparisons must be madc
pseudoplastic crter fomiation was not removed easily, between succceding bits in a given well or bctwcen bits
although it was weaker than the undisturbed fomialion. used to drill the same formations in differcnt wells. Thc
High-speed movies** of full-scac bits drilling at at formations drillcd with a given hit on a previous ncarhy
mosphcric conditions with air as thc circulaling fluid wcll can be correlatcd to thc well in progrcss using well
have vcrified that thc mcchanisms of failure for rolling logs and mud logging records.
cuitcr bits with litllc or no offset is not ttMi diffcrcnl fmm Thc initial sclcclion of hit type in a wildcat arca can be
that observ'cd in single bit-tooth impaci expcnmcnts. madc on thc basis of what is known about thc fonnatioit
This is shown in the scquencc of phott)graphs in Figs. charactcristics and drillmg cost m an arca. Thc tcnns
210 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
lADC Bit
ClassHication Formalion
1-1 Sott formalions having low compressive strengtti and high
1-2 drillability (soft shales, clays, red beds, sal, soft limestone,
5-1 unconsolidaled (ormalions, etc.)
6-2
also important to maintain careful written records of the wom more ihan others, and some may be broken,
perfonnance of each bit forfuture references. The lADC Oenerally, the broken teeth are indicated by recording
has adopied a numetical code for reporting tbe degiee of "BT" in a "remarks" column, and the average wear of
bit wear rclative to the (1) tcth, (2) bearings, and (3) bit the row of teeth with the most severe wear is reponed.
diameter (gauge wear) stnicture. Thi.s code allows some The best way to obtain the tooth wear is to measure the
of the more important aspects of bit wear to be quantificd tooth height before and afier the bit run. However, with
and logged quickly in the bit repons. experience, more rapid visual estimates of tooth condi-
tion can be made using a profile chart guide like the one
5.3.1 Grading Tfoth Wear
shown in Fig. 5.22. Visual estimates are usually
The tooth wea rof milled tooth bits is graded in temis of satisfactory whcn a single bit type is used in the well.
the fractiona! tooth heighl that has been wom away and Changes in the original tooth heights due to changing bit
is rcported to the ncarest eighth. For example, if half the types can cause inaccurate visual estimates of tooth
oiiginal tooth heighl has been wom away, the bit will be wear.
graded as a T-4i.e., the teeth are % wom. Unfottunate- In some arcas, unacceptably low penetration lates may
ly, it is somelimes difficult to characterize the tooth wear occur before the tooth structure is completely wom.
of an entire bit with a single number. Some teeth may be However, the penetration rate of the bit just before pul-
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.21Comparison of bottomhole palterns ol hard and soft formalion rolling cutler bils: (a) hard formation bd (zero cone offset)
and (b) soft formation bit (mximum cone offset)
212 APPLIED ORILLING ENGINEER1NG
ing ihe bit should not influence the toolh wear evaJua- Fig. 5.24 frequently is used in determining the proper
tion. There are times when a T-3 will not drill, but this bearing wear code.
does not mean it shouid be reported as a T-8.
The cutting stmctures of insert bits generally are too 5.3.3 Grading Gauge Wear
hard to abrade as significamly as a milled steel tooth. When the bit wears excessively in the base area of the
The tooth inserts become broken or lost rather than rolling cones. the bit will drill an undersized hole. This
wom. Thus, the tooth wear usually is reported as the can cause damage of the next bit run in the undersized
fraction of the total number of inserts that have been hole. A ring gauge and a ruler must be used as shown in
broken or lost to the nearest eighth. Thus, an insert bit
Fig. 5,25 to measure the amount of gauge wear, The loss
with half the inserts broken or lost would be graded a of diameter is reported to the nearest eighth. Thus, a bit
T-4i.e., % of the inserts are broken or lost, that has lost 0.5 in, of diameter is graded a G-O-4, The
"O" indicates the bit is "out of gauge" and the "4" in-
5.3.2 Grading Bearng Wear
dicates the diameter has wom in, An "I" is used to in
The field evaluation of bearing wear is very difficuU. dcate an "in-gauge" bit,
The bit would have to be disassembled to examine the In additon tu grading the bearings, teeth, and gauge of
condition of the bearings and joumals. An examination the bit, addtional comments about the bit condition may
of the dull bit will reveal only whether the bearings have be necessary, These remarles about the bit condition
failed orare still intact. Bearing failure usually resuUs in should enable those who subsequently will use the bit
(1) one or more "locked" cones so that they will no records to visualize readily the actual condition of the
longer rotate or (2) one or more extremely loose cones so bit. Usted alphabetically in Table 5.6 are some common
that the bearings have become exposed (Fig. 5.23). abbreviations used to describe the bit condition, Recall
A bearing failure s reported using the code B-8i.e., that the ames used to describe various parts of a rol! ing
the bearings are % wom. A slightly loose cone usually is cutter bit are given in Fig. 5.6.
reponed as a B-7. When bearing wear cannot be
detected, it usually is estimated bascd on the number of
hours of bearing life that the drilling engineer thought the
bearings would last. Linear bearing wear with lime is
assumed in ihis estmate of bearing life. Thus. if a bit Example 5.2. Describe the dull bit shown in Fig. 5,26.
was pulled after 10 hours of operation and the drilling The use of a ring gauge indicated that the bit diameter
engineer feit the bearings should have lasted an addi- has wom 1 in, from its initial valu. The roller bearings
tional 10 hours, the bearing wear will be reported as a have fallen out of the bit, and all the cones are very
B-4. A bearing grading chart such as the one shown in loose,
balling can be reduced by applying less weight or by n- have been wasted on unnecessary trip time. However, if
creasing ihe jet hydraulic cleaning action. A bit with a the time intcrval of bit use is increased too much, the bit
central nozzle often reduces the lendency forbii balling. may break apart leavingjMn: in the hole. This will re-
The type of weai shown in Fig. 5.28 occurs when the quire an additional trip lo fish the junk from ihe hole or
nose areas of the cones are wom away or lost. This frc- may reduce greatly the efficiency of the next bit if an at-
quently occurs because of excessive loads being applied tempt is made to drill past the junk. Thus, a knowledge
to the cene tips. The cene tips break, allowing a "core" of the instantaneous rate of bit wear is necded to deter
of rock to be cut in the center of the bottomhole paitem. mine how much the time interval of bit use can be in
The rock core causes subsequent abrading of inner cone creased .safely. Since driiling practices are not always the
metal, When this condition is detected, care muM be same for the new and od bit runs, a knowledge of how
taken on ihe next bit run lo eliminate the formation core the various driiling parameters affect the instantaneous
on bottom without breaking the cone tips of ihe new bit. rate of bit wear also is needed. The rate of tooth wear
This can be accomplished by breaking in the new bit us- depends primarily on (1) fomiation abrasiveness, (2)
ing low bit weights and high rotary speeds. tooth geometry, (3) bii weight, (4) rotary speed, and (5)
The type of wear shown in Fig. 5.29 occurs when (1) the cleaning and cooling action of the driiling fluid.
the driiling fluid contains a high conceniration of
abrasive solids or (2) the circulation rate is exlrcmcly 5.4.1 Effecl of Tooth Height
high. This problem is worse for regular bits than for jet on Rate of Tooth Wear
bits since the fluid strkes directly on the cones of a Campbell and Mitchell*' showed experimcntally that the
regular bit. This problem usually can be eliminaled rate at which the height of a steel tooth can be abraded
ihrough the operation of the driiling fluid desanders. away by a grinding wheel is directly proportional to the
Off-center bit wear occurs (Fig. 5.30) when the bit area of the tooth in contad with the grinding wheel. The
dees not rotate about the true center of the holc. This
shape of steel bit teeth is generally triangular in cross
causes an oversized hole to be cut and circular ridges to section when viewed from either a front or side view.
develop on the bonom of ihe holc. These circular rings Thus, almost all milled lotilh bits havc teeth thal can be
of rock wear away the cone shell area between the tecth described using the geometry shown in Fig. 5.31. The
as wel! as the front and back faces of ihe bit teeth. This bit tooth initially has a contad area givcn by
problem u.sually indicates the need for a higher pcnetra-
tion rate, which could be achieved by using a bit with a
*\i-
longer tooth or perhaps by increasing the bit weight,
Also, the bottomhole assembly could be altered to ensure After removal of tooth heighi, L, of the original tooth
that the bit is properly stabilized and centered in the
height, L, the bit tooth has a contact area given by
borehole.
5.4 Factors Affecting Tooth Wear /I = ., vvj. = + ( M' ,2 - w, I)
One purpose forevaluating the condition of the dull bit is [iv, I
to providc insighl about Ihe selcction of a more suitablc
time intcrval of bit use. If the dull bit evaluation in
dicates thal the bit was pulled green (.e,. with con +
":vi
siderable bit lite remaining), expensive rig time may
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 215
Couflesy o( Sdcunty Bit and Drill Tools Courtesy ol Hughea Tool Co.
FIg. 5.28Example of "cored" bit weaf. Fig. 5.29Example of "eroded teeth" bit wear.
The raiio L/L-, is defined as the fractional tooth wear h: If we define the geometry constants C) and G2 by
,h=L,/L (5.4)
G I == [w, ! {w,2 -H'ti) + (w,.2 - H > , 1 ) ] i
dh 1
- OC - ,
di A j (\+G \ h +G2
Fig. 5.30Example "off-center" bit wear Fig. 5.31Typical shape ol a mided-tooth as a funclion of frac
tional tooth wear. h.
216 APPLIED ORILNG ENGINEERING
d>i /d/N 1
(5.5a)
d/
di (I + G ] /i + G2h )
d,
y = r,.
(eos I").
ROTARY DRILNG BITS 217
Thcn Noie ihal dh/dt becomes infiniie for W/d,, = 10. Thus,
this equation predicts ihe leeth would fail instantaneous-
1-cos- ly if 10,000 Ibf/in. of bit diameter were applied. Later
V eos-)
authors" ' used a simpler relation between the weight
di r, and toolh wear rate. Perhaps ihe most commonly used
relation is given by
Solving ihis expression for the subtended angle, /J,
yields dh
dt (5.7a)
--
0 =
12/i (5.5c) (-)
cosy
where (W/di,) is the mximum bit weight per ineh of
Since ihe coniact arca is direcily pmportional to the bit diameter at which the bit leeth would fail instan-
chord length subtended by the angle /5, then taneously and W/df, < (W/di,),. Expressing this rela
........(5.7b) tion in terms of a standard wear rale at 4,tX)0 Ibf/in. of
bit diameter yields
A oc 2
I
"
dh
/dh.
and the wear rate (d/i/d/) is inversely proportiona! to this ot ()
di di
contad area.
d/i dh ,n dh
h / d/i 1
(5.5d) Shown in Table 5.7 is a comparison of the relative wear
t d/ .sin(/3/2) rates predicted by Eqs. 5.6b and 5.7b assuming a mx
imum bit weight of 10,000 Ibf/in. Since somewhat
The wear rale (d/i/dz) decreases with increasing frjc- similar results are obtaincd over the range of conditions
tional totuh wear. h, between O and 0.5. Above ihi.s usually encountered in the Tield. the simpler i>;lation
range, the wear rate inercases with increasing h. given by Eq. 5,7b is more widely u.scd. However,
For nonzero rake angics. the total contad arca of btiih neither Eq. 5.6b or Eq. 5.7b has been verified by
ihc PCD layer and the lungsten carbide subsirate published experimental data.
oc
bccomes (
more complex. Howcvcr, the above analysi.s
remains representalivc of the geonietry of the thin PCD 5.4.3 Effect of Rofary Speed
layer, which is believed to be the predominani contribu- on Rate of Tooth VN'ear
tion to the wear rcsislance of the PCD blank. The first published relation between the instantaneous
rale of tooth wear and the rolary speed aiso was
5.4.2 Effect of Bit Weight n Rate of Toolh Wea r "
presented by Galle and Woods for millcd-tooth bits.
Galle and Wood s " pubhshed one of the first equations The Galle and Wtxxls rclaiion is given by
for prcdicting the effect of bit wcight on the instan-
oc N+434X10-N .(5.8)
taneous rate of tooth wear. The relation assumed by
Galle and Woods is given by d/
However, several more rcccnt authors" " have shown
dh I that essentially the same results can be obtained using the
. . . (5.6a) simpler relation:
di
'Mx) d/i H
oc {N) (5.9a)
dt
where
where //1 is a constant. Also, H [ was IViund to vary with
IV = bit weight in l,(XK)-lbni units.
the bit type used. The Galle and Woods relation applied
di, = bit diameter in inches. and
oniy to milled-tooth bit types designed for use in soft for-
W/d,, < 10.0. mations. Expressing the tooth wear rate in tenns of a
standard wear rate that would occur at 60 rpm yields
The wear rate at various bit wc-ights can be cx|)re.s.scd in
dh / d/i \ "i N
temis of a standard wear rale that would occur for a bit .(5.9b)
weight of 4,000 Ibf/in. Thus, the wear rale relative to di M r 160 / I
ihis standard wear rate is given by
5.4.4 Effect of Hydraulics on Rale of Toolh Wear
The effect of the cix)ling and clcaning action of the drill-
dh 0.3979( )
ing fluid on the cutter wear rale (d/(/dM is much moa-
(5 fth>
di . W . imp<inanl for diamond and PCD drag bits ihan for
rolling-cutlcr bits. Each diamond cuttcr niust receive suf-
ficient flow lo prevenl the buildup of cxccssive cuttcr
218 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
temperaturas. The flow velocities mu>t also be maiiitain- The loolh wear rate formula given by Eq. 5.10 has
ed high enough to prevent clogging of fluid passages been normalized so that the abrasiveness constant t /i is
with rock cuttings. The design of (he fluid distribution numerically equal to the time in hours required to com-
passages in a dianiond or PCD drag bit is cxtremely im- pletely dull the bit leeth o f the given bit type when
f)orlant and varios considerably among the various bit.s operated at a constant bit weight of 4,000 Ibf/in. and a
availabk. Howcver, the manufacturer will generaily constant rotary speed of 60 rpm. The average formation
specify the total flow area (TFA) of the fluid distribution abrasiveness encountered during a bil run can be
system foreach bit, Inaddition, ihe bit manufacturer will evaluated using Eq. 5.10 and the final tooth wear Itj
specify a rccommended drilling-fluid flow rate or observed after pulling the bit. If we define a looth wear
prcssure drop across the bit face. parameterJ2 using
Mathematical models for estimating the effect of
hydraulic.s on the m e of cutter wear have not yet bcen
employed. The development of such models would be
extremely difficuli because of the wide variety of bit J-y =
() '(i),
designs available. It is generally assumed that as long as M+W-./2'' ...(5.12
j'"df=J2+//2h)h...........
ihe flow is present to clean and to cool the cutters. the ef- () -4
feci of hydraulics on cutter wear rale can be ignored.
I'-4
d/i 1 /-Vn"' Integraiion of this equation yields
dt
() -O
Tff 60
//, "J; 7/ / (/ l y+ //!/ly/2) (5,12b)
"b m h
Solving for ihe abrasiveness constant Tu gives
/ 1+//2/2v
(5.10) (5.13)
\ 1 a. O- /. /
\+H-,h
where
h == fracttonal toolh heighl that has been wom
Although Eqs, 5.10 thaiugh 5.15 were developed for
away.
t = time, hours use in HKxleling the lo.ss of tooth heighl o f a milled tooth
bit. They have also been applied wilh some dcgree of suc-
= constani.s, cess to describe the loss of insen teeth by breakage. In
ser bits are generally operated at lower rotary speeds
W = bit weight. 1,000-ibf units,
than milied-tooth bits to reduce impact loading on ihe
N - rotary spccd, rpm. and britlle lungslen carbide nserts. In hard formations.
Tu formalion abrasivene.ss constant, hours. mtary .speeds above about 50 rpm may quickiy shatter
The rock bil classitlcalion schcme shown in Tahic 5.3 the inser.
can be used lo characterize the many bil lypes available
from the four major oil manufucturing companies.
Recommcnded vales of H\ . W i. and are
shown in Table 5.8 for the various rolling-cutter rock bil Kuimpti- 5,3. An 8.5-in Class 1-3-1 bit drilled roni a
classes. deplh of 8.179 lo 8,404 fi in 10.5 hours. The average bit
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 219
wcighl and roiary speed used for (he bit run was 45.000 TABLE 5.9RECOMMENDED BEARING WEAR
Ibf and 90 rpm, rcspectively. When the bii was pulled, ii EXPONENT FOR ROLLING-CUTTER BITS
was graded T-5, B-4, G-1. Compute the average forma-
tion abrasiveness for this depth interval. Also estmate Bearing Drilling Fluid
Type Type s.
the time required to dull the tceth completely using ihc
Nonsealed barite mud 1.0 1.0
same bit weight and rotary speed. sulfide mud 1.0 10
water 1.0 1.2
Soluiion. Using Table 5.8 we obtain = 1.84, //2 = ctay/water mud 1.0 1.5
6. and (W/di,), = 8.0. Using Eq. 5.11 we obtain oil-base mud 1.0 20
Solving for the bcaring constant Tg gives life can be established oniy after enough wells are drilled
in the area to define the lithologic variations. For exam-
ple, it is sometimes desirable to drill an abrasive fomia-
tion with an alrcady dull bil and then place a sharp bit in
the next shale section. Altematively. it may be best to
termnate a bit run in order lo place a hard formation bit
The bearing constant for an intcmicdiatc-size in an extremely hard abrasive section where severe
scaled roller-bcaring-type bit is usually ab<iut 45 hours. gauge problems are likely to develop.
An iniermediate-size joumal-type bit usually has a bcar
ing constant of about 100 hours. However. bearing per
formance has a quite large statistical variation. This
"statistical variation"" is probably a function of acciden Example 5.5. Detemiinc the optimum bit life tbr the bit
tal damage to the bearing seis (1) when the bit is run in r\in described in the table below. The lithology is known
the hele, (2) when the bit is placed on bottom and the to be essentially uniform in this arta. The tooth wear
new bottomhole pattem is established, or (3) when the parameter has a valu of 0.4, the constant /Yi has a
bit is not Miabilized properly. Also, the numerical valu valu of 6.0, and the bearing wear parameter J- has a
of the bearing constant depcnds on the selected valu of valu of 0.55. The fomiation abiasiveness constant Tf
the bearing wear exponents B\ and Bj. has a valu of 50 hours. and the bearing constant Tg has
a valu of 30 hours. The bit cost is $800, the rig cost is
$600/hr, and the trip time is 10 hours.
ELxample 5.4. Compute the bearing constant tor a Footage Drilling Time Solutinn.
AD
7.875-in.. Class 6-1-6 (sealed joumal bearings) bit that '/.+'<
Ch
+'/ +('/,+'<)
_ r_
Cr D
Thus, if Ch/Cr+ti+(ih +tc) is plotted vs. AD, the cost
per fool will be a minimu m when the slope
A D / ( C h / C r + t , +/(, ) is a mximum.
C/, 800
+ , = - + 10 = 11.33 hours,
Cr 600
This is plotted as a negative offset m the graphicai con-
struction shown in Fig. 5.34. Next, footage drillcd is TIME, HOUflS
plotted vs. time and the mximum slopc of a line starting F ig. 5 . 3 4 G r a p h i c a l d e t e r m i n a t o n of oplima l bit lile in unifor m
at -11.33 hours is noted. Th e plot in Fig. 5.34 indicates
lit hology.
a mximum slope aftcr about 12 hours or96 ft.
PSI
Fig. 5.36EMect ol overbalance on dnlliiig rale in Serea sandsione tor clay/water mud and 1.25-in roll
irig culler bit.
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 223
cd ihat the effective overbalance during chip removal by - DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE- PSl
a drag bit often can be greater than the difference be-
tween the static borehole and rock pore pressures. When Fig. S.37Effect of overbalance on dritling rale in Indiana
a chip is being lifted, a vacuum can be created under the limestone for claywater mud and 1.25-in. folling cui
chip unless sufficient liquid can be supplied to fill the tar bit
E Qii
Cornpressive Prmeo&iity porofiry wtqhl
tfrnglh md % *0
3,600 <0.05 05 700
4,250 1 00 na 500
i (,000 9 00 18 0 300
25 50 75 125
200
1 1 I 1
tr
X WELL D
> 160 db - 6.5 in
- 45k. Ibf
\
\
- I40rpm
u = 4.89 hp/it>?
120
COnON SONOSTONE <
N GO RPM CC.
80
O
Z
40
tr
o 1 1 1 1
-4 0 4 8 12
DIFFERENTIAL 16
1000 2000 4000 5000 (Pbh-Pf
Dlf'FERENTIAL PRESSURE ( PSI ) PRESSURE {100 PSI )
Fig. 5.40Peneiralicn rate as a funclion of pressure over- Fig. 5.41 Red measurement ol the elfect of ouerbatance on
batance for Cotton sandstone. penetration rale in shale.
=0.052(D(,-p. ). 4 -0.052(0.000666) = 35 x 10 .
-2 X J
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
OVERBALANCE- PSI
Fig. 5.42Exponential relation tjelween peneiralion rate arid overDalance for rollino cutter biis
226 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
Flg, 5.43Typical response ol penetration rate to increasng bit Fig. 5.44Typical response of penetration rate to increasng
weight. rotary speed
Eq. 5.18b can be rearranged using the definition of a of bit weight (Segment de). This type of behavior often
common logarithm in lerms of thc initial penetration rate is called hi flourulerin. The peor response of penetra
RI and mud density p \ lo give tion rale at high vales of bit weight usually is attributed
to less efficient bottomhole eleaning at higher rales of
/f, =Ro X 1003",)(sp-0|) cuttings generation or to a complete penetration of the
cutting elemeni inio the hole boitom.
Similarly, forthe final penetration race fii nd mud den A typical plot of penetration rate vs. toiary speed ob
sity pj, we obtain tained with all other drilling variables held constant is
shown in Fig. 5.44. Penetration rate usually increases
linearly with rotary speed at low vales of rotary .speed.
At higher vales of rotary speed. the iiesponse of penetra
Dividing ihc cquation for by thc cquation for tion rate to ncrea,sing rotary speed diminishes. The poor
gives response of penetration rate at high vales of rotary
speed usually is also attributed to less efficicni btit-
Al lomhole eleaning.
_1_ 2.303i4D(p I Maurer developed a theoretical cquation for rolling
t cutier bits relating penetration rate to bit weight, mtary
speed, bit size, and rock strength. The equation was
Solving for the final penetration rate Ri yields derived from the following observation made in single-
looth impact exf)eriments.
I. The crater volume is proporlional to the square of
= 7,60 ft/hr. the depth o f cutter penetration.
_2ojf3 30.H35xlO"''!2.OOHt2-l3)j 2. The depth of cutier penetration is inversely propor-
tional to thc rock strenglh,
For these conditions, ihe penetration rate R is given by
N=150 N=-100
Average Elapsed Elapsed
Weight Bi! Weight Time di R Time Al R
DOO lbf> (1,000 Ibf) (seconds) (seconds (tt/hf) (seconds (seconds) (tt/hr)
76 0 0
74 52 16,6 54 16,6
72 52 54
70 53 16.6 60 14,4
68 105 114
66 55 15,7 66 13,1
64 160 180
62 5B 14.9 73 11.8
60 218 253
58 63 13,7 81 10.7
56 281 334
54 71 12.2 90 9.6
52 352 424
50 80 10.8 101 8.6
48 432 525
46 90 9,6 116 74
44 522 641
42 104 8,3 132 65
40 626 773
38 120 7.2
36 746
y 7
y
/
r
/
/
,4
y
/ /
//
10 ZO 30 40 50 60 TO 80 tOO
W < k - Ibf ) Fig. 5.46Cutaway view of extended-nozzle bi t . "
HYDRAULIC
and
10.7 = /(100)"\
100
80 - GAL/MIN DIAMETER.in
QC 60 0 i/e 1/4
I 3-1/2 0
V, 40
- 10-1/2 a
li. 8 *
1 20
16 * X
UJ
H
< 10 0 Q
OC a 0
8
0 6 - oj
z
0
4 0 U
0
0
q:
o 2 w = lOOOLB N=75RPM
P - P, = 500PSI
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i > 1 1 lili
0 . 0 6 0.1 02 0 4 0 6 1.0 4 6 10 20 40 100 150
REYNOLDS NUMBER FUNCTION {
Fig. S.48Penetration rales as a function of bit Reynolds number
K-)
numbcr of teeth are broken cluring ihe bit run. Diamond ncw bit is zero. Thus, for the rclation givcn as Eq. 5.24.
bits aiso fail from tooth brcakagc or loss o f dianionds we have , ;
IVom the matrix.
Scvcral auihors have published matheniatical modcl.s R = Ke
for compuling Lhc cffeci of tooth wear on penetration rale
for i>lling-cuner bits. Galle and WtM)ds" published thc 20 = Ke
ollowing modcl in 1963.
"T and
i '"i''
/? oc o t'
0.928125/-+6/f+ I ) (5,23)
12 = A>-"'"'"
whcrc h is thc fractional tooth hcight Ihat has bccn wom Dividing the llrst equation by (he sccond yields
away, and 7 is an cxponent. 20
~ o.75i/,
A valu of ,5 was rccommendcd for ihe exponent tiy '
12
for sclf-sharpening wearof milicd tooth bits, thc priniary
bit typc discussed in ihe pubcation. In a more reccnt Taking the natural logarithm of both sidcs and solving
for 7 gives
work. Bourgoyne and Young suggesicd a similar but
less complex rclationship givcn by ln(20/12)
"7
= 0.68
'titli 0.75
/f OC (' (5.24)
Bourgoyne and Young suggc.stcd that thc cxponent o-j be 5.7.6 BU Hydraulics
determincd based on thc obscrved decline of penetration
rate with looth wear for previous bis run undcr similar The introduction of the Jct-lypc rolling eutter liitN m 1953
conilitions. showcd ihat significant improveniems in penetration rate
could be achieved thmugh an improved jeiting aciion al
the ha. Thc improvcd jetting action promoted better
eleaning of thc bit teeth as wcll as thc holc bottoni. Some
LiuitiiiU' An initial penetration rate of 20 ft/hr was evidence has bcen piescntcd-*' that thc jetting aciion i.s
obscrved in shale at the beginning of a bit run. The most effective whcn using exicndcd-nozzlc bits in which
previous bit was identicul to thc cunent bit and was thc discharge ends of the jets are brought clo.ser to thc
opcrated undcr the same conditions of hit weight. aUary bottoni of the hole {Fig. 5.46). A ccnterjet inu.st also be
speed. mud density, etc. However. a drilling ratc ol' 12 I uscd with extcndcd-nozzle bits to prevent bit balling iti
ft/hr was obscrved in thc saine .shale fomiation just soft fomiations.
before pulling the bit. If thc prcvii>us bit was graded T-(). As discussed previously in Chap. 4. thca' is con
eonipute (he approximate valu of 7.1 siderable unceriainty as to the bcst hydraulics paranieter
to use in chancteri/.ing lhc cffect of hydraulics on
Si)li4litm. The valu of li for the previous hit just before penetration rale. Bit hydraulic horscpower. jci mipact
lhc cnd of thc bii mn is % or. 73.,Thc valu of/ ; lorlhc forc, and no/.zlc vcl<Kiy all are uscd commonly.
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 231
: INDIANA LiMf
I = 500 pii
- N = 75 rpp
- : 1 2fl
WANCO& SHAUC
7.0TS - m SMITH flir
W 30 K-lOf
H O H ' 60 npu
< 9 P.. - P. 2000 PSt
THREE - tH JtTS
1 r 1 1 1 -1-1- & TKftCE 952 - If*
1 < i d 1 1 11 D TKtee kO/2 - m JCTS
I 10 100 THREC (1/32 - kM JCTS
REYNOLDS NUMBER FUNCTION, ' ' I i i L 1
_L_ (* Pv \ 7 BSO i5 0 25 30 40 50 60 60 kOO
1976 '
REYNOLDS NUMBER FUNCTtON
,;eiT :;./OtflMQND
-------------- R Lpi,n ifN, (5.26)
= 0.67
Li. Lf, ...... (5.27a)
A fomiation property called thc formalion resistance, r j, taken is to assume that the effects of bit weight, rotary
is used to compute the bit weighi required to obtain thc specd, tooth wear. etc., on penetration rate are all in-
design penetration Lp. The formation resistance is the dependent of one another and thai the composite effed
pressure needed to overcome the fonnation strength. can be computed using an equation of the form
allowing thc stonc to pentrate the rock.
/?=(/i) ( / j ) (Si) (/4) -- (/ ) {5.28a)
.(5.27c)
where/i./z./s,/, etc., represent the functional rela-
tions between penetration rate and various drilling
where is the effective weight applied to the bit after variables. The functional rclations chosen usually are
the hydraulic pumpoff forces have becn takcn into ac- based on titnds observed in either laboratory or field
count, and Aj, is the total diamond area in contad with studies. Some authors have chosen to define thc func
the formation. The formation resistance can be computed tional relation graphically, while others have used cune
from ari observed penetration rate after a bit is operated fitting techniques to obtain empirical mathcmatical ex-
in the formation of interest. pressions. Some relatively simple mathcmatical equa
For a sphercal stone as shown in Fig. 5.51b. the con tions have been used that model only two or thrce of the
tad area is given by drilling variables. An cxample is thc Bingham model
defined by Eq. 5.20.
iu---
Perhaps the most complete mathcmatical drilling
(-) -p)- model that has been used for rolling cutter bits is the
' (5.27d)
4 ,/ model proposed by Bourgoyne and Young. They pro-
posed using eight functions to model the effect of most
of the drilling variables discussed in the previous sec-
Exampie 5.9. An 8.625-in. diamond bit containing 270 tion. The Bourgoyne-Young drilling model can be de
0.23-in.-diameter stones of 1.00 carat is designed to fined by Eq, 5.28a with the following functional
oprate at a depth of penetration of 0.01 in. Estmate the relations.
penetration rate ihat could be obtained with this bit if thc
fonnation characteristics are such that an acccptable bit =K..... (5.28b)
weight and torquc for this penetration could be inain- 00. ,. -O,
tained at a rotary specd of 200 rpm. (5.28c)
=
1.92(4.621)(8.625)x>/o.23<0.01)-(0.01)-
= 3,59.
,(5.28i)
1.000
The effcctivc penetration is given by Eq. 5.27a-
The co ns la nis thmugh ti ca n be c o mp u ic il us ing T he function/g m o d c l s ihe e ffect of bil hyd ra ul ics o n
pnor drilling diita obiainctl in the arcu w hc n de ia i lcd penetration ratc. Jei impact forc w as c h o s e n as the
drilling d a ta are a va ila b le . T he drilling mo dc l c a n be hydra ulic p a ra mc t c r of intc rcst, with a no r ma l iz c d va l e
uscd both for drilling o p t imiz a t io n calculalionN a nd Ibr o f 1.0 fo r / B at 1,00 0 Ibf.
the dc icc iio n of c h a n g c s in o n n a l io n porc prcsNurc. H o w e v e r, as s h o w n in Fi g. 5.50, the c ho ic c of i mpact
T he c o ns ta n is a | thro u g h o g ca n be c o mp u t c d us i ng forc is a rb it rary. S i mi l a r results c o u ld be o b ta ine d w it h
prior drilling dala o b ta ine d in the arca w hc n de ia iled bit hydra ulic h o r s e p o w e r or nozz le R e y n o l d s n u m b c r as
drilling d a ta are a va ila b le, The drilling mt)del c a n be the hyd ra ulic p a r a me t e r a ffe c t ing p c netra lio n rale.
usc d bo th for drilling o p t imiz a t io n c a lc u la iio ns a nd for Typ ica l va le s for a ra nge fro m 0 . 3 lo 0 . 6 .
ihc de tcc tio n of c ha n g e s in fo n na t io n porc p ress ure. In p ract ice. it i.s p r ud e nt to sclect the besi a ve ra ge
T he f u n c t io n / 1 p rima rily represe nts the e ffe cts of for- vales of t hro ug h o o fo r the fo r mat io n t ypes in the
matio n strenglh a nd bil type o n p e ne tra t io n ratc, dep t h interval of inters !. H o w e v e r. ihe vale of /j
H o w e v e r, it a lso ine ludcs the e ffcct of drilling va ria b les varics wiih the st re n gt h of t he fo n n a t i o n bcing d rilled.
such as mud type. so lids c o nte nt. e tc ., whic h are not in- The t e r m / 1 is expre.ssed in ihe sanie units as pe netrat io n
c lud e d in t he drilling mo d c l. T h e e xp o nc ntia l e x p r e s s io n rale and c o m m o n l y is ca l lcd the drillabilit y of the forma
for/i is useful whcn a p p iy in g a mltip le re grc ss io n lec h- tion. T h e drillability is n u me r ic a l l y eq ua l lo the pe nc ira-
nique p rcs c nie d b y Bo u rg o y n c a nd Young' for c o m - lion rale t ha l w o u ld be o b s c r ve d in the g ive n fo r ma t io n
p utin g the va le s of </) thro ug h x froni p rio r d rilling type ( u nd c r no r ma l c o m p a c t i o n ) w he n o pe ra li ng w it h a
dala ob ta ine d in the arca. T h e coc ffic ic nt '"2.303" new bit at zero o v e r b a la n c e , a bit w e i g h l of 4,000
allo ws the c o ns ta nt a | to be de fine d casily in te r ms of the Ibf/in., a rotary .speed o f 6 0 rp m, a n d a de pt h of 10,00 0
common lo ga riih m of an o b s c rve d pe netratio n rite. T h e fi. The d nila b i li iy of the vario us for ma t io ns can be c o m-
ulility of this will be d c mo ns tra te d in C ha p . 6. w hic h in- puled using drilling d a t a o b t a i n e d fro m p re vio us we l ls in
c lude s a d is c uss io n of ihe de le rmina tio n of fo mi a t io n the anea.
po n; press ure fro m d n l li n g data,
T he func lio ns /i a n d mo d c l the e ffcct of compac-
tion on pe netratio n rate. T h e function/i a c c o u n is Ibr t he
rock sire ngth inc rease d ue to the no n n a l c o mp a c t io n wit h Ev a m p l e 5 . 1 0 . A 9 . 8 7 5 - i n . mi lled tooth bit o pc ra ted al
d e p th, and ihe functio n J- nuxle ls the effcci o f undc r- 40,000 Ibf/in. a nd SO rp m is d rilli ng in a shalc fo mi a l io n
c o mp a c t io n e x p e r ie n c e d in a b n o mia lly p re s s ure d for ma - at a depth of 1 2,0 00 ft at a pe ne trat io n rale o f 15 ft/hr.
tions. No te thai the (/i/i) prixluct is eq ua l lo 1.0 fo r a T he fo rmat io n p ore p ress ure grad i cnt is eq uiva le n ! to a
pore pressure grad ie ni e q uiva le n ! to 9 . 0 Ib m/ga l a nd a 12.0 Ib m/ ga l m u d . a nd ilie e q u i v a le n t mud den.sity o n
dep th of 1 0,000 ft. botto m is 12,5 Ib m/ ga l. The c o m p u t c d jet impact forc
T h e functio n mo<.1els the e ffect o f o v e r b a la nc e o n beneath the bit is 1 . 2 0 0 Ibf, a nd ihe c o mp u l e d fractional
penetratio n rate. T h is functio n has a valu u f 1,0 forzcro tooth w c a r is 0 . 3 . Compute t h e a p p a re nt for mat io n
o v e r b a la n c e i . e . . w h c n the fo miatio n pore p ress ure is drillability J\ us i ng a t h rc s ho ld bit we ig hl of ze ro a nd ihc
cq ua l to the bottomhok p ressure in ihe wcll. fo llow ing va le s ofoi t h ro u g h ((.
T h e functionsand /(, modc l the effect of bil w e i g ht
i i '4 "s "tt
a nd rotary speed o n pe ne tra tio n rale. Note thal /s has a
valu o f 1,0 w hc n ( W/iii,) has a va iuc o f 4,000 Ibf/in. of 0.00007 0.00(KX)5 0.00003 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5
bit d ia me te r a nd has a va lu of 1.0 for a rotary sp e ed
of 6 0 rp m. T h is w as c h us e n so Ihal the fJ\, p ro d uc t Solulioii. T he func iio na l rclations/t through/ are gi vc n
w o u ld ha ve a va lu n e a r 1,0 fo r c o m mo n d rilling c o nd i- by Eqs. 5 . 2 8 a t hro u g h 5 . 2 8 h. T h e m u I l i p l i e r/ 3 a c c o u nt s
tions., The thres ho ld bit we ight is o fle n q u ite s ma ll a nd for the n o n n a l d e c re a s e in p e net rat io n rale w ith dep t h
can be nc glec ic d in reas such as the U . S. g u lf coast f m m a re fe rc nce dc p lh of k3.0X) fl.
w hc re the fo mnations are relatively soft. In mo re compc-
tcnt fo mia t io ns , ihe thres ho ld bit w e ig ht c a n be h =f
estima tcd fro m d r illo ff tests te rmina tcd at very low bit
2 3()3(0 XXX)7)( i:.(KKl
weights. T h e functio n of has an u p p c r limit = (' =0.724.
c o r r e s p t md mg to the bit llo u nd c r po int. w h ic h mus be
eslabli.shcd fro m d r illo ff tests, T h e con.stants t/s a nd T h e multiplieraccounts for the incrca.sc in pe ne t ra t io n
also ca n be d e tc r mine d fro m d rillo ff tests as in E x a mp l e rale d ue 10 u n d c rc o mp a c t i n n.
5.7. k c p o r t e d va le s of range fro m 0 . 5 to 2 . 0 , and
reported va les of a,, range fro m O 4 lo 1,0.
T h e function fi niodc is the c ifec t o f tooih w c a r on
penetratio n rate. T h e va le oftJs can be c s iima te d fro m 2 o.vo (kkxxism iz - y
=1.023-
penetratio n rate meas uiie me nts la ke n in s imila r fo m i a -
lions at s imila r bit of)crating c o nd itio ns al the b c g in n i n g
a nd c nd of a bit run as s h o w n prc vio us ly in E x a mp le 5 . 8 . The nuiliiplier/"4 a c c o u nt s for the c h a n g c m p e ne trat io n
T h e lcnn/7 has a va lu of 1.0 for zcro tooth w c a r When rale with o ve rb a l a n c e a s s u m i n g a rc fe rc nc c o ve rb a la nc e
tu n gs te n c arb idc inser bits are uscd a nd o p c ra t e d al o I zcro.
mo d c ra te hit w e ig h ts a nd rotary speed. to o ih w c a r is
o ftc n ins ignifica nt a nd this t c n n ca n be nc gic ct cd. 74 i'
Typ ic a l va les of 7 for mille d looth bits range fro m 0 3 : -WlO IKMWI.ji 13 o I- 3l
to 1.5. = (' =0. 6 6 fK i.
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 235
The multiplier/s accounts lor ihe changc in pcnctration Citunl. I f we define a compiiNitc drilling variableyi using
wilh bit wcighl assuming a refcrencc bit wcight of 4.(X)0
'
ibf/in. J\ =/. h hh h h h.......(5.29)
/ / V \."h /80vU.5
A = ( ) =( ) =1.155. Substituting this expression inte Eq. 5.30, we obtain
D - {\+H2h)h........ (5.31a)
The multiplier Ji accounts for thc changc in penetral ion
Finally, integration of this equation leads lo ihe follow-
ratc wilh looth duiiness using zero tooth wcar as a
rcference. ing expression of bit footage in terms of thc final tooth
wear observed.
r 1 e
]l=e =t ' =0.861. AD=J I -
/-
Thc inultiplier/s accounts for the changc in pcnctration '",h, a-ili -117/1
7"l
ratc with jet impact forc using an impact forc of 1 ,(XX)
.(5.31b)
Ibf as a rcference. -].
15 / H tJ iT II \
/i = = 27.8 f l/ hr
0.540 (~y' )/' "fj
U = e
-
g2.303(0.00003l(8.292)(9.0-9.3) _o 75]
KfT fi
\
4-()
FIg. 5. 5 2 N ee d for bit stabilizers.
average jei impact forc was 1,000 Ibf, the formation /45 >. 1.0
()-o
V s/ = 1.32.
drlled was shale with a normal formation pressure gra-
dienl (equivalent to a 9.0 Ibm/gal fluid), and the 4-0
cquivalent circulating density was 9.5 Ibm/gal. Also, use
the threshold bit weight and constants a 2 through ag
/
/V V "6 /90 \ 0.5
given in Example 5.10. /6 = ( ) =() =1-225.
rntatcd iCihe drill collars above ihe bil are not held in a TABLES.11EXAMPLE COST-PER-FOOT TABLE"
conccntric position in Ihe boreholc (Fig. 5.52). This can
cause (I) sevetc shock loading on teeth. bcarings. and Rolary
Bil Weigtit per Inch o Bit Diameter (1.000 Ibf/tn.)
Speed
grease seis of rollng cuiter biis, (2) shock loading on 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 6.0 7.0
(rpm) per fo
diamond or PCD cutters and uncven fluid distribulion 20 $167.83 $103.51 $73.67 $56.88 $46 67 $42.82
bcncaih diamond bits, (3) a bclow-gaugc borehole 40 114.94 71.45 51.48 40.61 34 92 38.55
ot for
diameter, and (4) a crooked borehole. 60 95. 13 59.84 43,84 35.56 32,36 42,66 the bi
The use of stabilizers having a diameter near the hole 80 85.77 54.61 40.77 34 00 32.80 49.76
100 81.15 52 37 39 85 34.30 34. 70 58.52 l run i
sizc can reduce the severily of these problems greatly, 37,48
120 79.25 51 83 40.17 35.51 68.36
Special shock absorbing deviccs callcd slwck subs aiso 140 79.07 52.38 41 29 37.37 40 86 79.01 n que
can be used above the bit to dampen the shock loads fur- 160 80 08 53.68 42 96 39 69 44.68 90 29
81.97 55 54 45.06 42.37 48.85 102 11
stion
ther. The additional cost of shock subs isjustificd more 180
200 84.52 57.83 47.48 45.32 53.29 114 39 and o
easily for the more expensive joumal bearing bits, which
have the potential of exirumcly long bit runs if the grease n subsequent bit
scals and bearing surfaces are not damaged. runs, (2) the effect of the .selccted operating conditions
on crooked hole problems, (3) the mximum desired
5.8.2 Prevention of Accidental Bil Uamage penetration rate for the fluid circulating rales and mud
Accidental bil damage before placing the hit in service al processing rates available and for efricient kick detec-
lion, and (4) equipnient limitations on the available bit
the bottom of the hole can reduce the Ufe of ihe bil great
weight and rotary speed.
ly. The bil should be tightened in the drillstring to the In many instances, a widc range of bit wcights and
recommended lorque using a special hrcaker pate
rotary speeds can be selected without creaiing crooked
designed for the bit type in use. Care also should be hole problems or exceeding equipment limitations. Also,
taken to see thai the jet nozzles are instalied properly us-
penetration rales ihal can be achieved are usually less
mg a shroud to minimize Huid erosion of (he nozzlc than the mximum desirable penetration rale in the
passages
The bil is especially susceptible to damage during (he deeper portions of the well. Under these conditions. the
drilling engineer is free to seleci Ihe bit weight and rotary
Iripping operations. The prcsencc of tighi sp<Ms observcd
when pulling the previous bit out of ihc hole should be speed thai will result in the minimum cos per fool.
Scveral published melhods forcomputing the opiimum
noted in writing so ihat slowci pipe vclocitie.s can be
used al thcsc poinis when running the new bit to bottom. bit-weight/rotary-speed combinations for achieving
minimum drilling cosls are available." ' All of thc.se
Tight spots may be especially noticeable when mnning a melhods require the use of mathemaiical models lo
fully tabilizcd bottomhole assembly afler a bit ihut was define ihe effccl of bit weight and rotary spced on
obscrved to have signiHcanl gauge wcar. When reaming
is necessary, low bil wcights should be used. The bil penetration rate and bit wear. Melhods are available for
eomputing both the besl mriahie bit-weight/rotary-speed
bcarings are noi designed for the inward ihrusl prescnl schedule and the bcst consumt bit weight and rotary
during reaming operalions, It is also possible lo calch a
bit cone on an irregular ledge in ihe borehole wall while speed for the entire bit run. Galle and Wood s " have
reported that the simpler constant weight/speed melhods
running back lo bottom. Plstic bil guidcs can be in- result in only slighlly higher costs per fool than the
slalled beneath the bit lo minimize the risk of this type ol
methods allowing the bit weighis and rotary speeds to
damage.
vary as ihe bil dulls or encouniers different fonnation
Once the new bil reaches boiiom, it should he "broken
in" properly using a low bii weight and rotary spced for characieristics. Reed''' indicated a diffcience of le.ss
than 3% in cos per ftH>t belween the variable and con
the firsl fool or lwo drilled. This allows any microscopic
stan! weighl/.spced schedules for ihe cases studied.
irregularitics in the bearing suriaccs to be smtwthed and One straighlforward icchnique that can be used to
allows the bottomhole patlem of Ihe new cuiiers to be
determine the besl constant weight/speed schedule is lo
eslablished in the rock. The bit weight and rotar)' speed
then can be increased slowly to the desired valen. Also. gcncraie a cost-per-tVxH lable. The cost per font for
various assumed bit weighis and rolary speeds can be
ii always is imponant to establish drilling Huid circula
tion before re.suniing drilling operations. Heat buildup compuled using the penetration rale and bil wear models
and the results labulaled as shown in Table 5.11. The
can i.|uickly damage the bit when Huid circulation stops
besl combinaiion of bii weight and rotary speed, ihe bcsi
during drilling operations. bit weight for a giveu rolary spced, or the besl rolary
speed for a given desired bil weight ihen can be read
5.8..1 .Sek'clion of Bit Weight and Kolary Speed from the lablc. The use of ihe bcst bit weight for a given
As discussed in the previous sections, the weight applied rotary speed may be desirable when ihe rotary speed
10 the bit and the rotational spced of the drillstring have a seleclion is limited by ihe rolary powcr transmisin
major effect on both the pcnetration rate and the life of syslem. The be.sl rotar)' spced for a given bil wcighi may
the bit. In addition, thcsc paratneters can be varied easi he desirable when ihe bil weighl is limited becau.se of
ly. Thus. ihc detemiination of the besi bit weight and hole dcvialion piobicms.
rolary spced for a given bil mn is one of the rouline prob- Various algoriihms can be used lo evalate the cos
icms faced by che drilling engineer In selecting the bil pcr-fwt lable. When desired. a ooi-by-foot analysis o
weight and rotar>' spced to be used in drilling a given for- the bil run can be madc laking inio accouni fonnaiion of
mation, consideralion nuist he given to ihese iteins: (11
the eflcci of the seleeied opcraiing condilions on the cos
238 APPLIED DRILLING ENGINEERING
Exmtple 5.12. A Class 1-3 bit will be u.sed to drill a l'or- \ wN '
mation al 7,000 ft having a drillability of 20 ft/hr. The
abrasivencNN constant 7/y has a valu of 15.7 hours, ihc For (W/d/f) = 4 and N = 60, the time required to com-
bearing constant Tg has a vaiue of 22 hours. and the pletely wear ihe bearings predicted by this equation is 22
bearing exponents 6| and B-> are cqual to I.O. The for- hours. Evaluation of the multipliers/i to/4 and/g yields
mation pore pressurc gradicnt is cquivaicnl to a the following.
9.0-lbm/gal Huid, and the mud density is 10.0 Ibni/gal.
The bit costs $400, the operating cost ol ihc drilling /i=20,0.
operaiion is $500/hr. the time required to trip for a rtew
bit is 6.5 hours, and 3 minutes are required to niake a 2.303((,(l,tK>-D|
connection. Using a threshold (Whli,), of 0.5 and the
vales of i through g as given, compute the cost per -
J.3O3(O,(XXX)f(7>(IO.(XK>-7.0tlO)
fmrt that would be observed for (W/dj,) = 4.0, W = 60
rpm. and a jet impacl forc of 900 Ibf. = 1.83,
"y
0.000087 0.000005 0.000017 1.2 0.6 0.9 0.4
= 1.0 for
gp 9.0.
Sotuikm. Using Table 5.8 for a Class 1-3 bit, we obtain 1 301ijD(f,',,-p, )
_
Wi = 1 4, //. = 6. and = 8,0 The \aliie of ./4 -
as a function of bit weight and n)tary speed is given - 2 03(0.(KKX))7M7.n(KM('} - lOl
by Eq. 5.11.
=0.76.
!!L] _: , F, , 900 v"''
<//i di,
J. =
/ s = () =(-) =0.959.
KOOO'' 1,000''
(-)- Substitution o f thesc vales imo Eq. 5.29 gives
=
/ 60 V I W y 1 (20KI.83)(I.0)(0.76)/5 /h(0.959>
V / \ I -(-6/2
=
26.7/, /,.
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 239
a-ihr =$47.69/fi.
y Note that this cost per foot is slightiy giater (han the
cost per foot corresponding to the mximum possible bit
Since the bit tceth will fail first, the final tooth dullness life.
hf is known to be 1.0. When the bearings Tail firsi, il s
necessary to compute hf for the known valu of I), using
Eq. 5,32. Solving the above equation for AD, we obtain
Relatively simple analytical expressions for the best
iD=(26.7)(0.250)(15,7) conslant bit weight and rotary speed were derived by
Bourgoyne and Young' for the case in which tooth
1-f-o'
r \-e 6(l-'*'"-0.9'-"'')-| wear limiis bit life. Eq. 1.16, the cost-per-foot equation,
- can be rearrangcd to give
O, (0.9)-
Cr C
=246 ft.
AD
This footage comesponds to approximately 8 joints of
drillpipe at 3 minutc.s per conneciion. The total connec- Substituting Eq, 5.12a for If, and Eq, 5.31a for AD in
ton time is this cost-per-foot formula yields
=
777(7 ""O-
,. = (8) = 0.4 hours.
60 C,
The COSI per foot for the bit run is given by Eq. L16. Cr
C,=
f .h _
r"/ -o,ft JH
e (\+H2h)dh
Ch +C'r(/, j
Cf- G
AD
"i{T3r I
--=0.974.
-J'
'6' 6
6(0.25)(I5.7)
The footage drilled for this valu of h/ would be Taking {dCf)l(dN) = O and solving yields
AZ>-(26.7)(Q.25)(15.7)
(--t-,+/,\fl-- +V2'
ti t (1 + W1 /t)d/
'
-0.y( V74) C,.
1
+
0.9 [6(i-.-''ww, =0 (5.33b)
240 AP P LI E D DRILLING E N G I N E E R I N G
Solving thcse two equations siniultaneously tbr {W/tl/,) Assuming a total trip time and conncction time o f about
gives the following expression for optimuni hit weighi. 7 hours, we obtain
Thc optimum rotary specd /V, is obtained using the ri5.7 8-6.41 "8 -'
known valu o f //, in Eq, 5.12b and solving fori, yVp, =60--=36 rpm.
1. i6,1 8-4 J
then can be obtained fmm Jt using Eq, 5.11. This leads
10 the following exprcs.sion for A',,p,.
Since the computed op timu m wcighi is below thc
flounder point,.the use o f 1.2 for 05 is juslified. If the
l/rt| computed optimum bit weight is above thc flounder
'" point. the weight at which floundering occurs should be
<11, max dj, Aipl used for the optimum bit weight.
/p,=60
>U
(X)
Significant cost savings ha ve bccn reported froni ihe
(Icld use of mathematical methods for obtaining the op
(5.36) timum bil weight and rotary speed. Howevcr, these tech-
niques should not be applied without enginccring super
Unfortunately, Ibr the case where bit life is limited by visin on K>cation. In many instances, the assumptions
bearing wear or pcnetration rate. such simple expres- niade in thc bearing wcar. tooth wear, and pcnetration
sions lor the opti mum condilions have not been found rate equations yieid inaccuratc results and thc computed
and ihe construction o f a cost-per-foot table is thc bcst optimums are not valid. Whcn enginccring supervisin is
appaiach. This typc of calculation is most casily ac- prcsent in the lleld. thc progresa o each hit run can be
complished using a digital computer. monilored to ensure that ihe deviation belween the con v
puted and ob.served results is acceptable. Thc bit
manufacturcrs constantly are evaluating the pertbnnance
of their bits in the various areas o f drilling activity and
Example 5.13. Comput e thc optimum bit weight and can fumish guidelines for thc driller when engineering
rotary speed for thc bit run described in Examplc 5.12. supervisin is not available. For examplc, the normal
Bit tloundering was observed to occur for bit weights range of bit weights and rotary speeds recommendcd by
above 6,700 Ibfyin. at 60 rpm. one bit manufacturer for joumal-bearing, insen-toolh,
rolling-cuiter bits is shown in Table 5.12, Using thcsc
Solution. Thc opt imu m bit weight is computed using Eq.
guidelines, the driller can cxperiment using his own
5.34. judgment and dull bit cvaluation.
/ '\ Exercises
(-) = r t a _ Uf ,
5//) +jf,
t 5.1 Lisi the two main typcs of bits in use loday. AIso,
list two subclassifications of cach basie bit typc and
di.scuss thc condilions considcrcd ideal (or thc ap-
plicatioii of each subclassitlcaiion givcn.
5.2 Discuss how conc offset, (ooth height. and numbcr
l.2(1 .84 )(8 .0 ) + 0.6(0.5) o f tceth differ between .soft- and hard-fomiation
=6.4.
l.2(1.84)+0.6 rolling cuttcr bits.
5.3 List fivc basic mechanisms of rock rcmoval that aic
Thus, the optimum bit weight is 6,40t) Ibf/in o f bit cniployed in thc dcsign of bits,
diamcter. The optimum bit life is computed using Eq. 5.4 Discuss thc primary mechanism of rock a'moval
5..15. used in the tiesign of drag bits,
5.5 Discuss ihc primar' mcchanism of r w k rcmoval
' ' u.scd in thc dcsign o f hard-foniiaiion rolling cuitcr
C, Uf, bits
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 241
Medium-Hard
Limestone, Dotomite, Medium-Hard Sandy
Class 637 and Brittie Shale Lime and Dolomite
6 to 64 3,200/4,500 35/60 3,000/4,300 35/50
7'/b 4,500/6,300 35/60 4,500/6,000 35/50
S'/j to 8% 4,500/6,300 35/60 4,500/6,000 35/50
9V2 4,400/6,300 35/60 4,300/6,000 35/50
12V4 4,000/6,200 35/60 4,000/5,700 35/50
5.6 A rock sample is placed in a strenglh-icsting rotary speed of 100 rpm. Answer: 13.5 hours.
machine at atmospheric pressurc and compressed c. Compute the bearing constant for this depth
axially co failure. A forc of 12,000 Ibf was re- interval. Answer: 24.3 hours.
quired for rock railurc, and the cross-seconal area d. Estimate the time required to completely dull
of the sample was 2.0 sq in. The sample failed the bearings using a bit weight of 45,000 Ibf and a
along a plae that makes a 35 angle with the direc- roiary speed of 100 rpm, Answer: 12.8 hours.
lion of the compressional loading. 5.13 Compute the bearing constant, tb, for the bit of
a. Construct Mohr's circle using the two prin Examplc 5.3 if the drilling fluid were a weighted
cipal stresses prcsent. clay-water mud (barite mud). Use vales of B | and
b. Compute the shear stress present along the recommended in Table 5.9. Answer: 41.7
plae of failure. Answer: 2,819 psig. hours.
c. Compute the normal stress lo the plae of 5.14 Field data obtained on 7,875-in., Series 6, roller-
failure. Answer: 1.973 psig. bearing bits at a mtary speed of 60 rpm show an
d. Compute the angle of nterval friction. average bearing life of 32 hours for a bit weight of
Answer 20. 5,700 Ibf/in. and 45 hours for 3,800 Ibf/in. Com
e. Compute the cohesive resistance of the pute the apparent bearing weight exponent, B2*
material. Answer: 2,100 psig. bearing constant, tb. for this bit type. Answer:
f. Label the parameters coniputed in the previous 0.84 and 43.1 hours.
four steps on the Mohr's circle constniction. Using 5.15 Field data observed on 7.875-in., Series 6, sealed
the Mohr critcrion. compute the compressional joumal-bearing bits at a rotary speed of 60 rpm
forc required for rock failure if the sample is shows an average bearing life of 67 hours at 5.700
placed under a 5,000-psi confining pressure. Ibf/in. and 100 hours al 3,800 Ibf/in. Compute the
Answr: 16.200 psig. apparent bearing weight exponent, B2, and bearing
5 7 Discuss how the mode of failure benealh the tooth constant. t, for this bit type. Answer: 0.99 and 95
of a rolling cutter bit changes as overbalance hours.
increases. 5.16 Field data observed on 7.875-in., Series 6, sealed
5.8 List seven rules of thumb of bit selection. What is joumal-bearing bits operaied with 4,000 to 5,000
the best basis of comparison when trying to choose Ibf of bil weight per inch of bit diameter showed a
betwccn two diffcrent bit types? mdium bit life of 95 hours at a rotary speed of 60
5.9 The bit type currently used to drill a given fomia- rpm and 185 hours at 40 rpm. Using an assumcd
tion consistently yiclds a drilling cost of about valu of 1.0 for Bt. compute the apparent vales
$50/fl. You are sending a new experimental bit for B and tb from these observations. Answer:
type to the fieid for evaluation in this fomiation. 1.64 and 107 hours.
The new bit is expected to have a bit life of about 5.17 Field data obiained using 7.875-in., Series 6,
150 hours as compared with the usual bit life of 15 sealed roller-bearing inser bits operated at 4,000
hours. The new bit costs $10.000, and the Ibf per inch of bit diameter indicated an average bil
operating cost of the drilling operation is $750/hr. life of 42 hours at a miary speed of 60 rpm and 55
Trip time is approximately 10 hours for the depth of hours at 40 qim. Compute the apparent vales of
intenest. Prepare a graph that shows the break-even By and tb- Answer: 0.67 and 42 hours.
costs of $50/ft as a function of penetration nite and 5.18 Recommend vales of 62 ""d '''B 7.875-in.,
hit life to assist in the field evaluation of the new nonsealed, roller-bearing bits operated in oil muds,
bit. Label the regin of the graph that shows com- weighted clay-water muds (barite muds), and a
binations of penetration rate and bit life which are clay-watcr mud containing H2S (sulfide mud). The
not acccptable. If the initial penetration late of the recommendation should be based on the laboratory
new bit during the first hour is 4 ft/hr, what would
you recommend? /l/iirt'T: Pul bit.
5.10 Grade the bit shown in the photograph below.
Answer: T-8, B-8, GO.
5.11 Describe the dilfercnce bctwccn sclf-sharpcning
and abrasive tooth wear. Discuss what is done by
the bit manufacturers to promote sclf-sharpening
bit wcar on milled-tooth. rolling-cuttcr bits.
5.12 A 9.875-in. Class 1-11 bit drilled from a dcpth of
12,000 to 12.200 ft in 12 liuurs. The aveiagc bil
weight and rotary speed used for the bit run was
40,000 Ibf and 90 rpm, respectively. When the bit
was pulled. it was graded T-6. B-6. The drilling
fluid was a barite-weighted clay/water mud having
a density of 12 Ibm/gal.
a. Compute the averagc fomiation abrasiveness
constan! for this depth interval. 43.7
hours.
b, Estimate the lime rcquin;d to complctely dull Couflesy of Hugh Tool Co
the bit tceth using a bit weight of 45.0()0 Ibf and a Fig. 5. 53 Du l l bil fof E xer c is e 5. 10 .
ROTARY DRILLING BITS 243
fractional tooth wear is 0.4. Compule the apparent 10 Hoovcr. E.T und Middicton. J.N "l.aHorauiry Evaliialiiin ot
PCD Drill Bits Under High Spccd and High Wear Cundilions."
formation drillability /1 for this bit type at 9.000 ft
papcr SPE 10,126 prcscnicd m the IRI SPE Annual TL-chntcal
using a thrcshold bil wcight of zem and thc f'ollow- Confcrcncc and Exhibilinn. San Antonio. Otl 47.
ing vales o( a j through g. II, Galle, E.M. and Woods. A.B.: '"Bcsl ConsiunI Weighl and
oy Rolaiy Spccd for Rotary Ri>ck Bits," Drill, tinti Prinl Pnn.. API
(I flg as Qg (196.1) 48-7.1
0.00009 0.000004 0.00002 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.4 12 Edwards. J H.; "Enginccring Dcsign of Drilling Opcr.ilinns "
Drill, aiul PuhI. Priii'.* API I9M) 38-55. "
Answer. f = 26.1 ft/hr. 13, Young, F.S. Jr.; "Compulcrizcd Drilling Conirol. J. Pci, Teth
5.29 A 9.875-in.-diamelerCtass 1-1-1 bit will he usecl to (April 1969) 4H.1-96: Tnins.. AIME. 246.
drill a formation at 9,000 ft that has a drillability of 14. Recd. R.L : "A Monte Curio Appmach to Opitnul Drilling.'*
Pe. Eiin. J. <Ocl. 1972) 42.1-4,18; Ttoii.! . AIME. 253.
40 ft/hr. The abrasiveness constant t// has a valu 15. Bourgoync. A.T. and Young. F.S. Jr.. "A Mltiple Rcgrcs.sjon
of 38 hours, and the bearing constant has a valu Appmach loOptimal Orilling and Abnomul Prcssurc Dcteclion."
of 22 hours. The formation pore pressure gradient &. Pf!. Eiif. J. (Aug. 1974) 371-384. Traii.\.. AIME. 257.
is equivalent to a 9,0 Ibm/gal fluid gradient, and 16. E.stes. J.C.: 'Guidelincs for Seicciing Rotary ln.st.rt Rotk Bits."
the wcighted clay/water drilling fluid barite mud Pe. Eii;. (Scpl. 1974).
17, Lummus, J.L.: "Analysis of Mud Hyraulies Inleractmns,' P<'i.
has a density of 9.7 Ibm/gal. The bit co.st i $600,
EiiK- (Feb. 1974).
the operating cost of the dtilling operation is 18. Bingham, M.G.: "A Nl*w Appmath lo InlL-npaling Kock
$800/hr. the time required to trip for a new bil is 7 Drillabilily." rcpnnied Inim OH witl GasJ. .series hy Petroleum
hours, and 4 minutes are required to makc a con- Publishing Co. (April 1965).
19. Cunningham. R A and Ecnink. J.G.. "tjboraiory Sludy of Ef
nection per 30-ft joini of drllpipe. Using a fect of Ovcrburden. Fonnution. and Mud Colunin Pressures on
threshold bit wcight per inch of 0.5 and ihe con- Dnlling Rale of Pcrmeahle Formutions." Truns.. AIME (1959)
stants a2 through og given in Excrcise 5.28, com 216. 9-17.
pute the cost per foot that would be observcd for 20, Gamler, A.J. arvd van Lingcn, N.H.: "Ptienomena Aflcclinp
( W/dh) = 4,5, A' = 90 rpni, and a jet impact forc Dniling Rales al Dcplh,- Trtms.. AIME (|9.59l 116, 2,12-2.19
21. Black. A.D and recri. S.J.; ''Uiboralory Siniulalion of Deep
of 1,100 Ibf. /J/iiM-r 29.73 S/tt. Well Dniling. " Pn. Ena. (Maixli 1978).
5.30 Write a fortran program for determining a co.st- 22- Vldnne. D,J. and Senil, E.].: "Ficld Ventication o( the ElTeci of
per-foot table. A.ssume a constant bit weight and Differenlial Prcvsurc nn Dniling Rale." J. Pt i. Tt'
that rotary speed will be maintained throughout the 23 Murray, A.S. and Cunningham, R A.; "Etfecl of Mud Coluoin
bit run and that the formation drillability constant is Pressure on Drilling Rales," Jrtin.\ . AIME (1955) 204. l9(>,2tM
a constant. Use the program to determine the op- 24 Eckel, J R.: "Effect of Pres.suic on Rock Dnllahilily. * Iniii.y .
AIME (1957) 213. 16.
timum bit wcight and rotarv specd for Exercise 25. Maurer, W.C.: "The "Perfect-Cleaning'Thcory of Rotary Drill
5,29. ing," J. Pfl. Tech. (Nov. 1962) 1270-74; Trtm.s,. AIME. 2 2 5
5.31 Compute the optimum bil weight and rotary speed 26. Viddcr. A.; "Chevron Dnll-Off Test (DOT)," Chevnm Oil Co..
for the bit dcscribed in Exerci.se 5.29, assuming bil New Orieans.
life is limited by tooth wear. Ignore the effect of 27 Prjtl. C.A,; "lncrea.scd Peneirjtion Rale Achieved Wilh New Ex
tended Noz/.lc Bit."" J Pi'i. Ti'fh. (Aug 1978) 1192-9K
connection time. The flounder bit weight is known 28. Bckcl, ] R. "Miciobit SludtC-s of ihe Effet'l of Fluid Propcrtles
to be 60,000 Ibf/in. Answer'. 5,650 Ibf/in. and 60 and Hydraulics on Drilling Rate. II.'" papcr SPE 2244. SPE,
rpm. Ualla.s (1968).
5,32 Use the program developcd in Exercise 5,30 to 29 Tibbill,s. G.A. f i al. "ETects of Bil Hydraulics on Full Scale
determine the optimum bit wcight and rotary speed Ljiboratory Dnlled Shule." J. Pfl. Tech. (July 1981) 1180 88
.10. Pcterion, J.L.: "Diamond Drilling Model Vcrilled in Fjeid and
for Exercise 5.29 i\ rg has a valu of 95 instcad of Laborainiy Tests." J. Pct. Tcch. (Feb. 1976) 215-222; rriH.v.,
22 hours. AIME, 261.
Nomenclatlire
Referenccs = exponents in the penetration rale equation
A = arta
I Ccrkovnik. J.: "Dcsign, Applicalion. anil Fuiurc of
Polycrysiallinc Diamond Cotnpact Cuticrs iit ihc RiKk> Miiun Al, = arca of bit
tains," piiptr SPt prt."iOt)ti'd ul lito IW! SP1-. Rm-ky Mnuii total diamond arca in coniitCt with thc
luin Rcgiimul Muiiiiiji. lllin. MI . May iy-21 Aj,
2 Bil Hiiiuthiiiik. Hughes Twt Ct>,, Houstim fomiation
A Durrcll. E.; " R vvk Bil Iilciitirifulion Sinipliricil h> lAW Ac hf = fmal bearing wear at end of bit run
linn." Oit unU Giis J (May 22. 1972) 7, = bearing wear exponents
4. Esles, J C.: ""Selft-liin; Ihc Pnipcr Ri)lar> R<Kk Bil.' J Pf l Bx-Ri
Tf-h. (Nov, l<}7h l.1.Sy-67 r = cohesivc resistance of matenal
S Hughirs, K V. "Urag Btis Rali New m Lighl of -S)H--ci1 cost per interval tirillcd
Dnlling." Woriit OH (March ly.-il 'M, Cf
6. Gray. K.E.. Anuslrotig, T,, and Gadin. C : "Two-IJiinL'iiMiiiial C,. = concentration of dianiond cutters,
Sludy ol KiKk Brcakugi' in Drag-Bii fliilling al Atniospheric carats/sq in.
Prcjisiiiv." J Pf!. Tcfh. (Jan (yft2)9-98, Triiii\ . AIME. 225 = fixed operating cost of rig per unil lime
7 Mailiet. W C ; "Bil-Toolh Pi.-iiL*(rjlii>n Uniicr .Siniuliiloil Biirchole Cr
y, P't. Tt''h (IX't." 143 A 42, Tnttn , AIMH, d - diameter
2.M = diameter -f hit
K Murray. A S aml MacKay, S 1' ; "Walcr Slitl Poso Titiiyli Pmh f//,
leiit iti Diilliiii! willi Air," Oil iiml Gii\ J (June III l't.STi MIS /, = diamclcr of cuiicr
y Catuphcll, ,1 M atuJ MiuIil'IL fi J : 'lfli.vt ul Tot'lti D = dcplh
oti T<i(li W ear Rak' iif Kt)lary Rin.k UiIn." papt'i provcntiM at API
Mid-Coiiiini'tit llisi Spring Mivlini!. Marth A = depth intcnal drillcd during bit r\in
ROTARY DRILUNG BITS 245
The ohjcctve of this chapter ix ro fiimiUarize the sludent depends only on (be fluid density. Wilb greaicr burial
wth coimnonly useJ meihoth of esiimatmg the naturaHy depth as deposition eonlinues, the previously deposited
occurrin pressure of suhsurface formation fluUis anel roek grains are subjecied to incrcased load ihrougb the
the inttxiimi! weltbnrc pressure ifiat a given formuion grain-to-grain contad poinls, This causes realignment of
can withsiantl wiihoui frofturc- the grains to a closer spacing, resulling in a more eom-
pacted. lower-porosity scdiment.
Wiih lite liriIMng of mos! deep welis, formaiions are As compaetion oeeurs, water is expelled continually
peneirdtcO that will flow naiuraliy d\ a Jiignitlcant rate. In from the decreasing pore space, However, as long as
driling these wells, safcty diciates that Ihc wellbore tbere is a relatively penneable tlow path to the surface,
pressure (ai any dupth) be mantaincd belwccn the the upward fiow potential gradient that is required to
naturally occurring pressure of the fomiation lluids and relase the coinpaction water will be negligible and
ihe mximum wcllbure pressure that the formation can bydrtistatic equilibrium will be Ti a int ai ne d. Thus, the
withstand without fracture. In Chap, 4, we focuscd on fonnation porc pressure can be eomputed by use of Eq,
the dctermination of wellbore pressures during various 4.2b in Chap. 4,
lypcs of driling operations. In this thapier, the deter- When formation pore pressure is approximately equal
mination of formation Huid pressure and Fracture to theoretical hydrostatie pressure for the given vertical
pressure is discusscd. Knowledge of how these two depth, formation pressure is said to be normal. Normal
parameters vary with deptri is extremely itnportant in piire pressure for a given arca usually is expressed in
planninc and driling adecp well. lerms of the hydrostatie gradient. Table 6.1 lists ibe nor
mal pressure gradient for several areas that havc con
6.1 Formation Pore Pressure siderable driling activity.
To understand the forces responsible forsubsurface Huid
pressure in a given area, previous gcologic proccsses
mus be considercd, One of ihe simple.st and niosl com- Ktaniplc 6. l. Compute the normal fonnation pressure
mun subsurfacc pressure dislribotions occurs in ihc expected at a depth of .OtX) ft ir> the Louisiana gulf eoast
sbaltow sediments (bal wcrc laid down slowly in a area.
deltaie depositional environnient (Fig. 6.1)
While detritus maieriai, whieh iscarried by river to the Siflmion. The normal pressure gradient for ihe U.S. gulf
sea. is rcleased from suspensin and depisitcd. the euasi area is listed in Table 6.1 as 0.465 psi/ft fbs, the
sediments fomied are initiaily unconsolidated and un- normal fonnation pore pressure expceted at 6,0(X) ft is;
compactcd and, (bus, have a relatively high porosity and
penncabiliiy. The seawatcr mixed witb these sediments = 0,465
/> psl/ft (6,(K)0ft) =2,790 psi.
remains in (luid communieailon with the sea and is at
hydrostatie pressure.
On a ' depisilion has occuiTcd, the weight of the s<i)id
6.1.1 Ahmtrmal Formation Presswrc
part' 'les is supported at grain-to-grain contad poinls and
the seitled solids havc no intluencc on the bydrostatie |[) niatiy instances, formation pressure is encounlered
tluid pressure beiow. Tbus, hydrostatie pressure of the ibat is greater than tbc nomial pressure for that depth,
Huid coniained within ihe pore spaces of the sediments The tenn ahnorfwil forotaiion prcxsttrr is used to
FORMATtON PORE PRESSUR AND FRACTURE RESISTANCE 247
FLUID RIVER
dcscribe fomwtiun prcs. surcs thut a r e grcutcr than nor bccome re.strL-ted ( r e p r e s e n l e d by c l o s i n g th e v a l v e in
ma !. Abnomially l o w f o r m a t i o n p r c s s i i r c s a i s o are cn - the model), The p i s t o n s a r e l o a d c d by Ihc wcighi o l ihc
L'iiuriicreO, iind i hc tenn xuhiioniiit Jhntuirioii pri'ssurc s ovcrburden, or ge o s l a t i u l o a d , cr,j, al Ihe given dcplb of
useci 10 describo t h c s c p re ss un es. burial. Resi. sting ih is l o a d ar e (1) (he s u p p o r t provided by
A b f i o r m a l ronnation pressurcN a r e Coutitl in at least a the vertical grain-to-grain, or mu i r i x , .stress, o-, and (2)
pon ion of mosi o!' i hc scdimernaty basiris of ih e world. the po re flu id pressure, p. Thus. wo havc
Whik" llic o r i g i n of ahnoniiat f o n n u l i o t i prewurc is no t
undorsiood t : o mp ) c t c l y. sc ve ral mc fli an iN ii is i h a l tend lo
c a u s o ahnormal f o n n a l i o n prcssutr havc bccn i d c n t i r i e d
in o di mc nt ar y basins, T l i c s c mcclianisms can bo As long a s p o r e water can e s c a p o a s n u i c k l y as re-
classidcd gcncrally as; (I) conipaciion cffccts. (2) q u i r c d by t he iialural compaction rato, t h e hip; p r e s s u r e
diagcnctif cftccK, (3) d i f t c r e n t i a l d c n s i i y o f f c c t s , and f4) will remain at hydrosiaiic p r e s s u r e . Tho malri> s t r e s s
Huid n i i j i r j t i o n cCtcctv. will coniinuc l o i n c r e a s e a s th e p i s t o n s n x i v c c l o s o r
t o ge l h e r until th e overburdcn s t res s is balancod,
6.1.2 Compaction E f Te c ts . Pore water expands with in-
Pre ss ur e Equvalenl
Gradienl Water Density
(psi/ft) (kg/m) SfttliG
West Te xa s 0.433 1 000
6u1f of Mxico coastIinG 0,465 1.074
Nonn Se a 0.452 1.044
Malaysia 0,442 1.021
Mackenzie Pelta 0,442 1.021
West Africa 0442 1.021
Aadarko Basin 0.433 1.000
Rocky Moontains 0.436 1 007
California 0 439 1.0U Fig- 6.2 One-dimens+onaJ sedirnent compaction model.
248 APPLIED DRILUNG ENGINEERING
O
X UPPER LtMITS
*
OF ALL DATA POINTS
2000
V
4000 fe
6000 No.
o
O
\
LOW E R LIMIT '
OF A LL DATA POtNTsN \\
2j- 10000
eooo
o
\
Y \
12000 \ \ >
\ , \
5 14000 \ \ \
UJ
<n
\
\ \ \
16000 \
\
\ \
\ \ \
18000
\ \
l
20000 V \ \
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 aos 01 o.z 0.3 o.ft 1.0
BULK DENSITY, Pjg/cm) PORCStTY
FIg. 6.3Composite bulk density curve (rom density log dala Fig. 6.4Computed average porosity trend for U.S. gulf
for the U.S. gulf coast.' coast area.
TABLE 6.2AVERAGE SEDIMENT POROSITY However, if the water flow path is blocked ur scverely
COMPUTATION FOR U.S. GULF COAST AREA restricted, the increasing overburden stress will cause
pre.ssurization of the porx; water abovc hydrostatic
(1) (2) (3)
Sediment Bulk Average
pressure. The pone volume also will remain greater than
Thickness normal for the given burial depth. The natural loss of
Density Porosity
D, fit, permeabiliiy through compaction of fine-grained
m (g/cm3) (frac.) sediments. such as shale or evaporites, may create a seal
0 1.95 0.43 that wouid permit abnormal pressures to develop.
1,000 2.02 0.38 The vertical overburden stress resulting from geostatic
2.000 2.06 0.35
load at a sediment depth, for sediments having an
3.000 2.11 0.32
4,000 2.16 0.29 average bulk density, p/,. is given by
5,000 2.19 0.27
6,000 2.24 0.24
2.27 = (6.2)
7,000 0.22 | Pbl D,
8,000 2.29 0.20
9,000 2.33 0.18
10,000 2.35 0 16
where g is ihe gravitational constan!.
11,000 2.37 0.15
12,000 2.38 0.14 The bulk density at a given depth is related to the grain
13,000 2.40 0.13 density, the pore fluid density, pfi, and the porosity,
14,000 2.41 0,12
0, as follows.
15,000 2.43 0.11
16,000 2.44 0.10
17,000 2.45 0.098 .(6.3a)
18.000 2.46 0.092
19,000 2.47 0.085 In an area of significant drilling activity, the change in
20,000 2.40 0.079
bulk density with depth usually is determined by conven-
tional well logging methods. The effect of depth on
average bulk density for sediments in the Texas and
Louisiana guif coast areas is shown in Fig. 6.3.'
The change in bulk density with burial depth is related
priniarily to the change in sediment porosity with com
paction, Grain densitics of the common mincral.s found
FORMATION PORE PRESSURE AND FRACTURE RESISTANCE 249
in scdimentary depoits do not vary greatly and usually conveniem expression for the change in average sedi-
can be assumcd constani al a representative avetagc ment porosity with depth is obtained. Substitution of Eq.
valu. This is also true for pone fluid density. 6.3a into Eq. 6.2 gives
In tnany areas, t is conveniem to use ihc exponential
relationship relating change in average sedimcnt porosity
to depth of bural when calculating ihe overtiutxlen (6.5)
stress, c,, resulting from geostatic load at a given
depth. To use this approach, the average bulk density
data are expressed first in terms of average porosity. In offshore areas, Eq. 6.5 must be integrated in two
Solving Eq. 6.3a forporasity yields parts. From the surface to the ocean bottom. the
seawater density, p., is equal to 8.5 Ibm/gal and the
<t>= .(6.3b) porosity is 1. From the mudline to the depth of imercst.
the fluid density is assumcd equal to the normal forma-
Pk-pji
tion fluid density for the arca and the porosity can be
This equation allows average bulk density data read computed using Eq. 6.4. Thus, Eq. 6.5 beeomes
from well logs to be expressed easily in terms of average
porosity forany as.sumed grain density and fluid density.
If the.sc average porosity vales are plotted vs, depth on
n
semilog paper, a good straight-line trend usually is ob-
tained. The equation of this line is given by
-KD,
.(6.4) o,
where <i>, is the surface porosity, K is the porosity Integral ion of this equation and substitution of
decline constani, and Og is the depth below the surface (D-Du ), the depth bclow Ihe surface of the sediments,
vields
of the sediments. The constants <)> and K can be deter-
mined graphically orby the least-squarc method.
o<=P>wgD.+p gD,-
K
Exampte 6.2. Deiermine vales for surface porosity, <t),
and porosity decline constant, K, for the U.S. gulf coast .(6.6)
area. Use the average bulk density data shown in Fig.
6.3. an average grain density of 2.60 g/cm, and an
average pore fluid dcnsily of 1.074 g/cm-'. Example 6.3. Compute the vertical overburden stress
Soluiion. The porosity calculations are summarized in resulting from geostatic load near the Gulf of Mxico
coastline at a depth of 10,000 ft. Use the porosity rela
Table 6.2. The bulk density given in Col. 2 was read
from Fig. 6.3 at the depth given in Col. I. The porosity tionship determined in Example 6.2.
vales given in Col. 3 were computed using an average Solufion. The vertical overburden stress resulting from
grain density of 2.60 and a fluid density of 1.074 g/cnv
in Eq. 6.3b. geostatic load can be calculated using Eq. 6.6 with a
water depth of zero. The grain density, surface porosity,
2 . 6 0 -p i , and porosity decline constant determined in Example 6,2
~_2.60-pfc were 2.60 g/cm', 0.41, and 0.000085 ft, respectve-
2 . 6 0 -1 . 0 7 4 1.526
ly. As shown in Table . 1, the normal porc fluid density
for the gulf coast arca is 1.074 g/cm. Converting the
The computed porosities are plotted in Fig. 6,4. A sur- density units to Ibm/gal, using the conversin constant
face porosity, <j>, of0.4l is indicated on ihe trcnd line at 0.052 to convert pg to psi/fi, and inserting these vales
zero depth. A porosity of 0.075 is read from the trend in Eq. 6.6, yields
line at a depth of 20,000 ft. Thits, the porosity decline
constant is a=0.052(2.60)(8.33)(10,000)
RSrSn
FORMATION
WITH SIGNIFICAN!
;ToQ STRESS f i SHEAR STRENGTH OR
OT OVERBURDEN INTERNAL FRICTION i
W E IG H T
dcnsily for the cntirc sediment section. This simpfying the last water interlaycrs and becomes illite.
assumption can Icad lo significani errors in the computa- The water of hydraiion in ihe la.st interlaycrs has con-
tion o f overburden stress, especially for shallow siderably greater density than free water, and, thus,
sediments, Such an assumption should be made only undergocs a volume increase as it desorbs and becomes
when the change in bulk density with respect lo depth is free water. When the permeability o f the overiying
not known. Note that in Example 6.3, an averagc over- sediments is sufficiently low, rclease of the last water in-
bunJen stress gradient of 0 .9 44 psi/ft was indicated. terlayercan result in development o f abnormal pres.sure
The calculation of vertical overburden stress resulting The last interlaycr wat ert o be released would be relative-
from geoslatic load does not always adequately describe ly free of dissolved sals, This is thought to explain the
the total stress state o f the rock at the depth of interest. fresh water that sometimes is found at depth in abnor-
Compressive stresscs resulting from geologic processes mally pressured formations.
olher tlian scdimentalion may be present; these aiso lend The chcmical afllnity for fresh water demonstraied by
to cause sediment compaction. For example, the upward a clay such as tnontmonlloniie is thought to cause shale
movemem of low-density sait or plstic shale domes is formations to act in a manner somewhat analogous lo a
commoti in the U.S. gulf coast arca. In the U.S. wesl scmipcmieable membrane or a partial ion sieve. As
coast arca, continental drill is causing a collision of ihc discussed in Chap. 2. ihere are similarilies between ihe
North American and Pacific plates, which rcsults in osmotic pressure developed by a semipermeable mem
large lateral compressive strcsses- If therc are overiying brane and ihe adsorptive pressure developed by a clay or
roeks with significanl shear resislance, the vertical stress shale. Waier movement through shale may be conlrollcd
state at depth may exceed the geostatic load. This is il- by a difference in chcmical poiential resulting from a
lustrated in Fig. 6.5. However, rocks generally fail salinity gradient as well as by a difference in darcy tlow
rcadily when subjectcd to shear stress and faulting will potential resulting from a pre.ssure gradienl.
occur, which lends to relieve the buildup of stre.sscs For abnormal pressures to exist. an overiying pressure
above the geostatic load. ,veal must be present. In some cases, a relatively thin sec
tion of dense caprock appears to fonn such a seal. A
''
6.1.3 Diajenelk Effects hypothesized mcchanism,*' by which a shale formation
acls as a partial ion sieve lo fonii such a caprock, is il-
Diagcncsis is a tem that refers to the chcmical alicration lustnited in Fig 6.7.
o f mck mincrals by geological processes. Shales and car In the absence ot pressure, shales will absorli water
bonates are ihought lo undergo changes in crystallinc only tf the chcmical potential or tictiviiy of the water is
structure, which contributes to ihc cause of abn on ral greater than ihat of ihc shale. However. shales will
pressure. An often ciled example is the ptissible conver dehydrate or release water if the activity of the water is
sin of montmorillonite clays to illites, chlontcs, and Icss than that of the shale. Since salinc water has a lowcr
kaolinite clays during compaction in the presence of activity than fresh water, therc is Icss tcndency for water
potassium ions.' nioleculcs lo Icave a salinc solution and cnter the shale.
Water is present in clay deposits both as frec pore However. if the salinc water is abnormally pre.ssured. the
water and as water of hydraiion, which is held mure shale can be forccd to accept water from a solution of
tighlly wtihia the shale oulerlayer structurc (see Fig. lowcr activity. The higher rhe pressure, the greater the
6.6). Pore water is lost first during compaction ot mont activity ratio thai can be overcome. This rcvcrsal of the
morillonite clays; water bondcd within tie shale in- normal direciion of water transfcr sometimes is leferrcd
terlayer slrucuire tcnds tt> Ix' retained longer Aficr lo as reverse osmosis, lons that cannoi enier the shale in-
ncaching a burial depth al which a tcmperaturc ol 2(X) lo teriayers rcadily are left behmd and beconic more con-
300F is present, dehydratcd montmorillonite relcascs cenlraied, eveniu ally formmg precipitalc.s. The