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T uberculosis is caused by the respiratory pathogen Myco- over, these vaccines should aim to protect where BCG fails,
bacterium tuberculosis and kills 2 million people each namely, against adult pulmonary tuberculosis.
year, predominantly in the developing world (http://ww- The development of a new vaccine against tuberculosis has been
w.who.int/gtb/publications/globrep01/index.html). The only li- aided by increased understanding of the immune responses in-
censed vaccine against M. tuberculosis, bacille Calmette-Guerin duced following M. tuberculosis infection. Approximately 90% of
(BCG)3 (1), is an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which people infected with this pathogen do not develop active disease,
in developing countries is typically administered intradermally as indicating that the host protective response can normally control
a single dose to newborn infants. Review of many studies suggests bacterial growth. Protection from tuberculosis is associated with
that BCG vaccination is protective against childhood meningeal the maintenance of a strong cell-mediated response to infection
tuberculosis and systemic forms of the disease. However, protec- involving both CD4 and CD8 T cells and the ability to respond
tive efficacy is variable (ranging from 0 80%) (2) against adult with Th1-type cytokines, particularly IFN- (5, 6). BCG vaccina-
pulmonary disease, the major global cause of tuberculosis mortal- tion induces IFN--secreting T cells, predominately of the CD4
ity, and wanes with time (3). The basis of the variability is uncer- T cell phenotype, and many that cross-react with M. tuberculosis
tain. Recent evidence suggests that exposure to high levels of en- proteins (7). Recent studies suggest that BCG delivered parenter-
vironmental mycobacteria may diminish the protective effects of ally may fail to induce T cell immune responses in the lung mu-
BCG (4). Even so, 80% of infants throughout the world receive cosa, which may be critical for protection against pulmonary dis-
BCG each year (http://www.who.int/inf-fs/en/fact104.html). This ease (8, 9). These studies show that long-lived T cell populations
implies that trials of future tuberculosis vaccine candidates will in the mucosa are best achieved by mucosal delivery of vaccines.
probably be performed in BCG-vaccinated communities. More- They support M. tuberculosis challenge studies in macaques and
guinea pigs that have shown aerosol administration of BCG to be
more protective than parenteral (p.) vaccination (10, 11). BCG has
Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, John Radcliffe Hospi- also been given as an aerosol to healthy adults and children and
tal, Oxford, United Kingdom repeatedly to patients with metastatic lung disease (1214). Re-
Received for publication October 31, 2002. Accepted for publication May 2003. spiratory function tests and postmortem examination of cancer pa-
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page tients administered BCG by aerosol indicated no significant pul-
charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance monary dysfunction or disseminated BCG infection (13, 14).
with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
More recent strategies to induce enhanced T cell responses in
1
This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust. A.V.S.H is a Wellcome Trust tuberculosis vaccine research have harnessed recombinant DNA
Principal Fellow.
2
technology, using plasmid, bacterial, or viral vectors and recom-
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Nilu P. Goonetilleke, Nuffield De-
partment of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, John Radcliffe Hospital, Heading- binant protein to express M. tuberculosis Ags. Much attention has
ton, U.K. OX3 9DU. E-mail address: nilu.goonetilleke@ndm.ox.ac.uk focused on the highly immunogenic Ag 85 complex. This is a
3
Abbreviations used in this paper: BCG, bacille Calmette-Guerin; MVA, modified family of proteins comprising Ags 85A, 85B, and 85C secreted by
vaccinia virus Ankara; CSP, circumsporozoite protein; FLN, facial lymph nodes; i.n., M. tuberculosis, BCG, and many other species of mycobacteria
intranasal(ly); LLN, lung lymph nodes; p., parenteral(ly); PPD, purified protein de-
rivative; P11, peptide 11; P15, peptide 15; SFC, spot-forming cells; TCH, thiophene- (15). Parenteral vaccination with either 85A or B as a protein with
2-carboxylic acid hydrazide. adjuvant or expressed by a plasmid or a viral vector has not
achieved levels of protection greater than a single BCG immuni- lenge, bacterial loads in the lungs and spleens were calculated by plating
zation in animal models (16, 17). 10-fold serial dilutions of organ homogenates on both Middlebrook 7H11
We have previously shown that DNA85A vaccination boosted agar and thiophene-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide (TCH; 5 g/ml)-supple-
mented Middlebrook plates. TCH (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, U.K.) at this con-
with a modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) expressing Ag 85A centration prevents BCG growth (24). Protection results are expressed as
(Ag85A) induced high frequencies of Ag85A-specific, IFN--se- log10(mean CFU) SEM (n 9 12).
creting T cells and afforded protection equivalent to BCG follow-
ing M. tuberculosis challenge (18). Horwitz et al. (19) have re- Statistical analysis
cently developed a recombinant vaccine that elicited greater The SPSS statistics package (SPSS, Chicago, IL) was used for all analysis.
protection than low dose BCG in a guinea pig model. This vaccine Students t tests were used to compare the bacterial loads of different vac-
is a recombinant BCG that overexpresses Ag 85B, suggesting that cinated groups following challenge. Linear regression analysis or Students
t tests were performed to compare T cell responses between groups in
the inclusion of BCG may facilitate the design of future and more ELISPOT and chromium release assays.
efficacious vaccines against tuberculosis.
In this study we investigate whether in a mouse M. tuberculosis Results
aerosol challenge model, BCG-induced protection can be im- Ag 85A is immunodominant following BCG vaccination
proved by mucosal lung delivery and/or boosting with a second
The magnitude of PPD- and 85A-specific T cell responses induced
dose of BCG or M.85A.
by p. BCG vaccination was compared over the course of 1 year
(Fig. 1). The level of response to 85A protein ranged between
Materials and Methods 20 60% of the overall PPD response. PPD and 85A protein T cell
Animals and immunizations
responses were abrogated by CD4 T cell depletion, but were not
immunization 4 wk before aerosol challenge yielded highly sig- i.n. BCG also showed significantly greater protection in the lung
nificant protection in both spleen and lungs (data not shown), in- than immunization with 2 p. BCG ( p 0.001).
dicating that the protective effect of BCG in spleen diminishes with
time (26). When mice were immunized with a second dose of M.85A boosting of BCG provides comparable protection to two
BCG, protection in both lungs and spleens was highly significant BCG immunizations and 2.5 log protection over naive group
compared with that in naive controls (lung, p 0.001; spleen, p Boosting i.n. BCG, either i.n. or p. with M.85A, produced signif-
0.001) and that in the 1 p. BCG group (lung, p 0.022; spleen, icantly higher levels of protection against challenge compared with
p 0.001; Fig. 5, A and B). the 1 i.n. BCG group (Fig. 5). Protection in the i.n. M.85A-
boosted group was striking, showing the same levels of protection
Intranasal BCG offers greater protection than intradermal BCG as the 2 i.n. BCG group (lung, 2.5 logs; spleen, 1.5 logs). Com-
in BALB/c mice pared with the i.n. BCG group, the mice boosted parenterally with
A single i.n. BCG immunization (0.5 log CFU lower than the M.85A did not show increased protection in the lung ( p 0.494;
parenteral dose) resulted in significant protection in the lung com- Fig. 5A). However, the level of protection in the spleen was sig-
pared with the naive control group ( p 0.001), but this was not nificantly more than that in the 1 i.n. BCG group ( p 0.05) and
significantly different from the 1 p. BCG group ( p 0.065) was comparable to that in the 2 i.n. BCG and i.n. BCG/i.n.
(Fig. 5A). Numbers of bacilli in the spleen were similar in the i.n. M.85A groups (Fig. 5B).
BCG, p. BCG, and naive control groups (all comparisons, p 0.5;
Fig. 5B). When a second i.n. BCG immunization was given, pro- Protection in the lung correlates with detection of T cell
tection in both lung and spleen was significantly improved com- responses in the LLN
pared with the naive, 1 i.n. BCG, and 1 p. BCG groups (all On the day of challenge (4 wk after second immunization), four
comparisons: lung, p 0.001; spleen, p 0.001). Two doses of mice from each group were sacrificed for immunogenicity studies.
1606 VACCINATION AGAINST M. tuberculosis
reported by Palendira et al. (46). These results conflict with earlier in HIV-positive individuals than subsequent vaccinations with live
studies in other animal models in which aerosolized BCG afforded BCG (53). We show here that following a BCG immunization
better protection than parenterally delivered BCG (10, 11). In these M.85A expands the low level, Ag85A-specific CD8 T cell re-
early studies the time between vaccination and challenge was rel- sponse as well as CD4 T cell responses. We are investigating
atively short, and as described above, any ongoing inflammatory vaccination regimens in mice and macaques to further augment the
reaction in the lung may have contributed to increased levels of induction of 85A-specific CD8 T cells following vaccination at
protection. In our study and that by Palendira et al. (46), BCG was lower BCG doses. The ability to boost CD8 T cell responses with
eliminated from the lung by resting the animals after BCG vacci- recombinant viruses should provide an advantage, particularly for
nation (22 wk) or by antibiotic treatment. Palendira et al. (46) also long term protection, over multiple BCG immunizations and pos-
showed that regardless of the route of BCG vaccination, the re- sibly over other subunit vaccination regimens that induce T cell
cruitment of IFN--secreting CD4 T cells to the lung following responses that are predominately CD4 restricted. We have now
aerogenic M. tuberculosis challenge was similar. This suggests, in begun clinical studies to investigate the potential of a BCG/M.85A
this model at least, that following a single immunization of BCG, prime-boost immunization to improve protection against pulmo-
protection is independent of route of vaccination. Studies in viral nary tuberculosis.
systems have similarly shown that following a single i.n. immu-
nization, T cell responses first develop in the LLN and then ex- Acknowledgments
travasate stochastically from the blood to organs such as spleens We thank Ernie Gould (NERC, Oxford, U.K.) for the category III facilities
and lungs (9, 36, 47). When the animals were challenged i.n., the used. We acknowledge the kind gifts of the vaccine BCG 1173P2 from
presence of Ag drew T cells back to the lung (9, 36, 46, 48). Micheline Lagranderie (Laboratoire du BCG, Institut Pasteur, Paris,
against tuberculosis than conventional BCG vaccines in a highly susceptible an- 37. Chackerian, A. A., T. V. Perera, and S. M. Behar. 2001. interferon-producing
imal model. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:13853. CD4 T lymphocytes in the lung correlate with resistance to infection with My-
20. Schneider, J., S. C. Gilbert, T. J. Blanchard, T. Hanke, K. J. Robson, cobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 69:2666.
C. M. Hannan, M. Becker, R. Sinden, G. L. Smith, and A. V. Hill. 1998. En- 38. Serbina, N. V., and J. L. Flynn. 1999. Early emergence of CD8 T cells primed
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