ALGEBRAIC CURVES = 0 + 1 1 + + 1 +

and (n0)
Straight line- curves of degree one
Conics- curves of degree two = 0 + 1 1 + + 1 +
Asymptote- when the tracing point recedes
And (m1)
farther and farther, the curve approaches some
fixed straight line, and the tangent to the curve
Ex. = ()()
approaches that line as a limiting position.

THEOREM: An asymptote to a curve of nth

degree may intersect the curve in, at most, n-2
points.

*vertical asymptote y=a

*horizontal asymptotex=b

Summary for graphing Algebraic curves:

1. Test the curve for symmetry.

2. Find the intersections with the axes.
3. Determine the behavior of y for large values of
x. Test for horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
4. Determine as narrowly as possible those
regions of the plane in which the curve lies.
5. Look for any further general information that
may be obtainable; and if necessary, plot a few
points.
POLYNOMIALS
() = 0 + 1 1 + + 1 +
(n2)
If n=0 or 1, the curve is a a straight line; if n=2,
the curve is a parabola
Ex. = ( 1)2 ( 2 4)
TWO-VALUED FUNCTIONS
If to each value of x there corresponds
one and only one value of y, then y is
said to be a one-valued function.
If to each value of x correspond two
values of y, the function is two-valued.
IMPORTANT CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS OF THIS TYPE:
I. Replace y by y2 for a given polynomial
() 2 = 0 + 1 1 + + 1
+
Where (n1)
II. Replace y by y2 for rational fractions
() 2 =
Where N and D are polynomials in x

Ex. Trace the curve 2 = ( 2)( 2 1)

RATIONAL FRACTIONS-i.e., the quotient of two

polynomials;

() =

Where
 TESTS FOR SYMMETRY OF POLAR EQUATIONS PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

In both pure and applied mathematics, a curve often

arises most naturally as the locus of points whose
coordinates are determined by two equations

(1) = (), = ()

Giving x and y in terms of a third variable t. The variable

t is then called a parameter; the equations (1) are
parametric equations of the curve.

A. STRAIGHT LINE:

() = 1 + , = 1 +

B. CIRCLE:

BENDING OF BEAMS () ( )2 + ( )2 = 2
Deflection-the distance by which any point of
2 2
sags below a given line under a load. () ( ) +( ) =1


() = cos , = sin

() = + cos , = + sin

C. CONICS:
ELLIPSE
The deflection at distance x from the fixed end
( )2 ( )2
is given by the formula: () + =1
2 2

= (3 2 2 5 3 + 2 4 )
48 3 () = + cos , = + sin
Where k is a constant depending on the
magnitude of the load and on physical HYPERBOLA
characteristics of the beam.
( )2 ( )2
() + =1
2 2
GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION
1 2 () = + sec , = + tan
()
2
1 2 = PARABOLA

= 2 () ( )2 = 4( )

() = + 2 , = + 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Given a spring of natural length L
By Hookes Law, the subsequent motion of the
bob is due to a force (exerted by the spring)
always directed tward the point of equilibrium
O. The distance OP at time t is given by:
() = + (+), The angles , , of the line OP are called the direction
() + (+) angles of OP, and the cosines of these angles are called
SUMS OF SINES AND COSINES
Use method of composition of ordinates:
Given two functions of x:
() = (), = (),
() = () + ()
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
CARTESIAN COORDINATES
One method of locating a point in space is in terms of its
perpendicular distances from three mutually
perpendicular planes. These planes are called
coordinate planes, and the three perpendicular
distances are called the coordinates of the point.
The distance OP of the point P from the origin O is
= + = + +
= + +
Hence if = , then = + +
DIRECTION OF ANGLES AND DIRECT COSINES
Let the angles between OP and OX, OY, OZ be
respectively , , . Then,
= cos , = cos , = cos
We have also the relations,
cos = , cos = , cos =
the direction cosines of OP.
DIRECTION NUMBERS

Any three numbers a, b, and c proportional to the ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
direction cosines of a line are called direction numbers
of the line. To find for the direction cosines of a line
whose direction numbers a, b, and c are known, divide
the numbers by a2 + b 2 + c 2 . Use the sign in front
of the radical which will cause the resulting direction
cosines to have the proper sign.

The angle between two lines that do not meet is

defined as the angle between two intersecting lines,
each of which is parallel to one of the given lines.

Let OP1 and OP2 be two lines through the origin parallel
to the two given lines, and let be the angle between
the lines. By the cosine law,

+
=

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
Now
The distance between any two points P1(x1,y1,z1) and
= + + , = + + ,
P2(x2,y2,z2) is =
( ) + ( ) + ( ) And

DIRECTION OF A LINE = ( ) + ( ) + ( )

The direction cosines of P1P2 are Substituting and simplifying,

+ +
=

POINT OF DIVISION

If the point P(x, y, z) divides the line from P1(x1, y1, z1) to
1
P2(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio = , then
2 1