NOTES

3.1 Laser classes

Depending on the potential endangerment through the accessible radiation laser units are divided
into classes: 1, 2, 3A, 3B and 4 (1, 1M, 2, 2M, 3R, 3B and 4).

Class 1

Class I laser products produce no accessible laser emissions. For example, a CD player or DVD
player/recorder contains an internal laser to read or write data, but does not actually emit any
laser light. Products of this type are Class I laser systems. Class I lasers products present no
hazard at all unless they are disassembled to gain access to the internal components.

Class 2

Class II laser products can emit up to 1 milliwatt (1/1000th watt) of accessible laser emissions.
Low powered laser pointers, data and telecommunications gear, and some scientific systems use
lasers of this output classification. Class II laser products are not capable of causing permanent
eye injuries, but can still be quite hazardous due to glare and temporary flash blindness.

Class 3A

Class III B laser products can emit up to 5 milliwatts (5/1000th watt) of accessible laser
emissions. The most common laser pointers, and all inexpensive laser display systems fall into
this output classification. Class IIIa lasers pose an eye hazard with prolonged exposure, and
should not be directed towards the eyes or face, and should never directed into or out of a
moving vehicle.

Class 3B

Class III B laser products can emit up to 500 milliwatts ( watt) of accessible laser emissions.
Some scientific and medical systems, and low powered laser display systems may be classified
into this category. Class IIIb lasers are capable of causing a permanent eye injury with brief
exposure, can cause minor skin burns, and can ignite many materials with sustained or focused
exposure.

Class 4

Class IV laser products emit any amount of power greater than 500 milliwatts (1/2 watt).
Industrial laser systems, research, scientific, and medical lasers, and the largest laser display
systems are Class IV laser products. Class IV lasers can cause permanent eye injury before you
can react, can cause serious skin burns, and can quickly ignite flammable materials at a
considerable distance.
IC pin numbers

IC pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows
the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all sizes.

Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of a
Wire
circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires joined Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary to
draw wires crossing even though they are not
connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol shown on
Wires not joined
the right because the simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join where you have
forgotten to add a 'blob'!

Power Supplies
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Supplies electrical energy.
Cell The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is
two or more cells joined together.

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than

Battery one cell.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
 Supplies electrical energy.
DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the
Fuse current flowing through it exceeds a specified
value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase) and
step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is
Transformer
transferred between the coils by the magnetic
field in the core. There is no electrical connection
between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic
circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power
Earth
supply, but for mains electricity and some radio
(Ground)
circuits it really means the earth. It is also known
as ground.

Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light. This symbol is used for a lamp providing
Lamp (lighting)
illumination, for example a car headlamp or
torch bulb.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light. This symbol is used for a lamp which is an
Lamp (indicator)
indicator, for example a warning light on a car
dashboard.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to
Heater
heat.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Motor
kinetic energy (motion).

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Bell
sound.
 A transducer which converts electrical energy to
Buzzer
sound.

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field

when current passes through it. It may have an
Inductor
iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a
(Coil, Solenoid)
transducer converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy by pulling on something.

Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A push switch allows current to flow only
Push Switch
when the button is pressed. This is the switch
(push-to-make)
used to operate a doorbell.
This type of push switch is normally closed
Push-to-Break
(on), it is open (off) only when the button is
Switch
pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
On-Off Switch
An on-off switch allows current to flow only
(SPST)
when it is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow
2-way Switch of current to one of two routes according to
(SPDT) its position. Some SPDT switches have a
central off position and are described as 'on-
off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
Dual On-Off
A dual on-off switch which is often used to
Switch
switch mains electricity because it can isolate
(DPST)
both the live and neutral connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

Reversing
This switch can be wired up as a reversing
Switch
switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches
(DPDT)
have a central off position.
 An electrically operated switch, for example
a 9V battery circuit connected to the coil can
Relay switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common,
NC = Normally Closed.

Resistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through an
Resistor LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor symbol:

This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a

rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Variable Resistor Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
(Rheostat) adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually used to control
Variable Resistor
voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer
(Potentiometer)
converting position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
Variable Resistor
made and then left without further adjustment.
(Preset)
Presets are cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.

Capacitors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor
is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It
Capacitor
can also be used as a filter, to block DC
signals but pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type
Capacitor,
must be connected the correct way round. A
polarised
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
 circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block
DC signals but pass AC signals.

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is

Trimmer operated with a small screwdriver or similar
Capacitor tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further adjustment.

Diodes
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A device which only allows current to flow in
Diode
one direction.

LED A transducer which converts electrical energy

Light Emitting Diode to light.

A special diode which is used to maintain a

Zener Diode
fixed voltage across its terminals.

Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

Transistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor NPN
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor PNP
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

Audio and Radio Devices
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transducer which converts sound to electrical

Microphone
energy.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Earphone
sound.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Loudspeaker
sound.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to

Piezo Transducer
sound.

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block

Amplifier diagram symbol because it represents a circuit rather
(general symbol)
than just one component.

Aerial A device which is designed to receive or transmit

(Antenna) radio signals. It is also known as an antenna.

Meters and Oscilloscope

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
Voltmeter The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say voltage!

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is

Galvanometer used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or
less.
 An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most
Ohmmeter
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of

Oscilloscope electrical signals and it can be used to measure
their voltage and time period.

Sensors (input devices)

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transducer which converts brightness (light) to

LDR resistance (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor

A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to

Thermistor
resistance (an electrical property).

Logic Gates

Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off).
For more information please see the Logic Gates page.
There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).
Gate Traditional
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
Type Symbol
A NOT gate can only have one input. The
'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of
a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
NOT
input, so the output is true when the input
is false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.

An AND gate can have two or more

AND inputs. The output of an AND gate is true
when all its inputs are true.

A NAND gate can have two or more

inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not'
NAND showing that it is a Not AND gate. The
output of a NAND gate is true unless all
its inputs are true.
 An OR gate can have two or more inputs.
OR The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.

The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
NOR that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a
NOR gate is true when none of its inputs
are true.
An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.
The output of an EX-OR gate is true when
EX-OR
its inputs are different (one true, one
false).

EX-
NOR