MODULE-2

BIODIEVERSITY

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 Topic to be discussed in this unit
Importance, types, mega-biodiversity; terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity

Species interaction

Extinct, endemic, endangered and rare species, hot-spots

GM crops advantages and disadvantages

Threats to biodiversity - natural and anthropogenic activities

Conservation of biodiversity
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 BIODIVERSITY
diversity in living
organism

50 million species!!!
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BIODIVERSITY = variety + variability in living organisms in earth

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 colorful different size and shape

Different colors, size and shape makes the world bright and beautiful!

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 Importance of biodiversity

Associated with function and stability of ecosystems

It provides basic materials for food, clothing, medicines, housing and

ecotourism.

Play vital role in pollination of fruits and cereal crops

It makes the world more beautiful and exciting place to live.

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Importance of biodiversity

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IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

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 Importance of biodiversity

Consumptive uses

Productive uses

Social value

Ethical value

Aesthetic value

Option value

Ecosystem value
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Consumptive uses-food

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 Productive use values
Genetically modified crops - for desirable Fur Tusk
properties
Leather
Animal products: Tusks, musk, silk, wool, fur, lac
(resin) from lac insects, horns, live specimen etc.
Wool

Industrial uses: Timber, silk worms, fiber, leather,

pearl etc. Silk worm

Domestic animals are source of hormones and

enzymes. Musk

Developing countries (Asia, Africa etc) smuggle Pearl

and market the banned products to Western
countries.
Eg. China exports: cat and snake skins. 11
 Social value
Associated with psycho-spiritual, customs and religious
aspects of people.
Eg : Tulsi, Mango, Peepal, Lotus, Bael are considered
sacred in our country.

Leaves, fruits and flowers are used in worship.

Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl etc.,

have a significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena
and hold special social importance.

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 Ethical value
Live and let live. All life must be preserved.
Human race want to survive? then protect biodiversity

We may or may not use a species, mere existence give

us pleasure is called ethical value.
Eg. Nothing derived from Kangaroo, zebra or giraffe!

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 Aesthetic value

Great aesthetic value attached to biodiversity.

Eco-tourism: spending time and money to visit wilderness areas and zoos

Willingness to pay give an estimate of $12 billion annually for eco-tourism!!!.

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 Value of biodiversity

A male lion can earn

$ 515,000 via eco-tourism
$ 1000 if killed for skin!!!

Kenyan elephant can earn worth $ 1 million as tourist revenue.

Mountain gorillas in Rwanda earn $ 4 million annually through eco-tourism
Whale watching on Hervey Bay Queenslands coast earns $ 12 million annually.
Tourism to Great Barrier Reef in Australia earns $ 2 billion each year.
A typical tree provides O2, clean air, fertile soil, erosion control, water recycling,
wildlife habitat, toxic gas moderation worth of $ 19,62,150!!!. It worth only $ 590 if
sold in market for timber!!!

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 Optional values
Biodiversity is our valuable gift
Unexplored value of biodiversity is known as
optional value.

Only 1.7 million out of 10-50 million species

have been explored!!!. So

Potential of biodiversity is not explored and may

not be completely explored!!!

Potential drug for cancer or AIDS may exists

within marine ecosystem or tropical rain forest!!!

Biodiversity is our valuable gift and we must

preserve it.
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 Ecosystem service value

Service provided by ecosystems

climatic change
nutrients cycling
food web
hydrological cycle
pollutant absorption
Photosynthesis and reduction of global warming
prevention of soil erosion
maintenance of soil fertility etc.

Thus loss of biodiversity would lead to huge economic, ecological and socio-
cultural losses.

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 Types of Biodiversity

nanometer square kilometer!!!

Genes biota biomes
Tropical grassland-Savanna

Tropical rain forest

Variability within the species Variability among the species Variability among similar ecosystems
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 Types of Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Genetic Species Ecological

Genetic diversity: Measure of different version of same genes.

Species diversity: Number of different kinds of organisms within

ecosystem.

Ecosystem diversity: Diversity of ecological complexity

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 Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity in rice
Genes Basic units of a species, it is store house of
heredity information.

Number of genes present in species varies eg. E.coli

4000; rice 32,000-50,000; man 35,000-45,000.

Genetic diversity: Diversity in genetic make up of a

species. Which lead to different shape, size, quality,
resistance to insects, pests and diseases and ability to Genetic diversity in corn
withstand adverse conditions of environment.

Diversity in make up of genes

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GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISMS

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 What is DNA?
DNA is molecule of life.

It contains all of instructions (genes) required to make an

organism.

DNA a biopolymers. Double stranded mostly and has

double helix structure.

Where is DNA?

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 Gene?

Some stretches of DNA and

RNA that code for a polypeptide
or for an RNA chain that has a
function in the organism.

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 Genetic engineering and GM crops
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms
in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that
does not occur naturally. The technology is often called modern
biotechnology or gene technology, sometimes also recombinant
DNA technology or genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering is a set of techniques for isolating, modifying, and

recombining genes from different organisms.

These techniques enables genes of different species, which do not

naturally combine, can be combined.

Crops produced through Genetic Engineering are called as GM Crops.

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 Advantages of GM crops/organisims

For mutual benefits of producer and consumer of these GMOs.

Product with a lower price, greater benefit (durability and nutritional

value).

Developed crops resistant against plant diseases caused by insects,

viruses or herbs.

Insect resistance achieved by incorporating into the food plant the gene
for toxin production from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT).
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 Genetically modified foods

+ = A strawberry resistant to frost

Arctic fish DNA strawberry

Strawberries are sensitive to cold. Each year, at least 20 per cent of the annual
strawberry crop in countries such as Norway is lost due to frost (deposits of ice).

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 How does a genetic scientist work???

1. Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA segments from one

genome.
2. DNA ligases are used to paste them into another genome (set of
chromosomes of an organism).

Foreign
DNA

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 How are animals targeted?

The microinjection method uses a fine

needle to inject a solution of modified
DNA into a developing embryo (Seed).

Agrobacterium that normally infects

plants with disease is used to impart
plant with gene of interests.

A particle gun is used to shoot small bits

of metal coated with the gene into the
plant cells.
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How are plants targeted?

Gene Gun
 Examples of GMOs

Golden rice rice that contains beta-carotene (Vitamin A), which is

not found in regular rice.

Bt corn corn that contains a chemical normally found in a bacterium

(Bacillus thuringiensis) that is toxic to insects but not to humans.

Bt - Bacillus Thuringiensis a Produces proteins (crystal proteins, Cry)

common soilborne bacterium that selectively kill certain groups of insects 30
 January 26, 2017 01:14 IST
GM mosquito trials to control dengue, chikungunya launched
GM mosquitoes to suppress wild female mosquito
populations that transmit dengue, chikungunya and
Zika were launched on January 23, 2017 in
Dawalwadi, Badnapur, in Maharashtras. GM
mosquitoes carries Dominant Lethal Genes (RIDL).
When male GM mosquitoes mate with wild female
mosquitoes the lethal gene is passed on to offspring.
The lethal gene in the offspring kills the larvae before
they reach adulthood.
Male mosquitoes do not bite humans, the release of
GM males will not increase the risk of dengue,
chikungunya and Zika.

large number of mosquitoes needed for vector

control 100-150 [GM] mosquitoes are needed per
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person for months together,
 Why GM crops? What are its advantages?

To produce pesticides within the plants to develop resistance to pests.

That means increased food production

To fight against diseases in humans ex. GM tomatoes can prevent

cancer, bananas and potatoes can become vaccines.

They can be used to produce drugs, vaccines, antibodies, hormones,

industrial chemicalsBIOPHARMACY.

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 Potential benefits

Humanitarian:

Pest resistance Cheaper Reducing

Herbicide Improved food
resistance world
farming
Cold tolerance More hunger
Drought food and
tolerance
improving
Increased nutrition
world
Edible vaccines health

Environmental: reduced use of herbicides and chemicals in farming.

 Disadvantages of GM crops/organisms

It is a trial-and-error method - Success is only 1%

What to do with the unwanted GM products?

Reduced effectiveness of pesticides as insects become resistant to

engineered toxins.

Harm to other organisms

Pollen from Bt corn was shown to cause high mortality rates in
monarch butterfly larvae = Loss of biodiversity

Bt - Bacillus Thuringiensis
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 Disadvantages of GM crops/organisms
Allergens

GM crops could introduce or create allergens.

For example, inserting genes from a nut into another plant could be dangerous for
people who are allergic to nuts.

Elimination of competition

GM seeds are patented

Suicide seeds

Plants with sterile seeds that are infertile are created

Farmers are forced to buy seeds every year

Unknown health risks

Biological processes involve a lot of INTERACTIONS

It is often difficult to identify every possible interaction.
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 Updated: May 25, 2017 00:08 IST
There are formidable social, economic and environmental reasons why
Say no to GM mustard it should not be cultivated
The alluring promises of higher yield and lower pesticide usage induced
many, in 1990s, to welcome Bt cotton have now been belied. Despite
increased fertilizers and irrigation, enhanced cotton yield not been realized.
Most countries have higher cotton yield than India do not grow GM cotton.
If GM mustard is introduced, who will lose? Every Indian who consumes
mustard in any form, as s/he will also consume the herbicide residues on it;
the millions of poor women who depend on weeding to support their family
who will be displaced; the bee keepers whose honey will be contaminated;
farmers whose yields will fall eventually as bees die out; and the Indian
nation, which will find that it has lost its seed diversity and the international
competitive advantage of its non-GM mustard and honey.
Gaps in evaluation
There have been numerous severe deficiencies in the evaluation process of
GM mustard. The risks to health, environment and agriculture have not
been evaluated even through those inadequate tests which were
conducted at the time of Bt brinjal examination. Glyphosate has been
declared to be a probable human carcinogen by WHO. The glufosinate-
based herbicide to which the proposed GM mustard is tolerant will also
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have adverse impacts on health.
BT Brinjal
 GM Brinjal also called BT brinjal

It is a Genetically modified brinjal that has a foreign gene

A gene from a bacterium, BACILLUS THURINGENESIS.

U.S want to introduce them in India

 Potential dangers

The genes used give toxic crystal proteins

No proper testing in humans

Did not test for allergic reactions

No long term testing.

Infants are at high risk

Ecological imbalance toxins from this bacteria are proved to destroy

butterflies, moths etc.

Farmers have to buy seeds every time

Increased cost of brinjal, loss of variety for consumers

 Species diversity
Species diversity

Species diversity: Number and kind of species

present in an area

Species diversity simply represents species

richness - It is number of species per unit area.

About 10-50 million! species is estimated to present Forest ecosystem rich in species diversity
in the biosphere out of which 1.7 million is identified.

Desert ecosystem

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 Ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem diversity: Diversity in ecosystem.

Eg. tropical rainforest, tropical deciduous forest, temperate deciduous forest, coniferous
forest varies with respect to temperature, altitude, rainfall and also with respect to
trophic structure, food web, nutrient cycle etc.

Tropical rain forest Tropical deciduous forest Coniferous forest

High rain fall and Rains only in monsoon and Winters are long, cold and dry.
warm temperature warm climate year round Summer is short 41
GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY

Terrestrial biodiversity

Aquatic biodiversity

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 Global-terrestrial biodiversity
Tropical forests, only 2% of world land area but
accounts for 50-80% global biodiversity, many of
them are endemic.

>1/4th Worlds drug in the market are extracted

from plants grown in tropical forests.
Ex. extract from one of the creeping vines in the
rainforests at Cameroon has proved effective in the
inhibition of replication of AIDS virus.

Neem tree popular in tropical India for its medicinal

properties - antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial,
antiviral, contraceptive(prevent pregnancy), sedative
and pesticide. Customary treatment for chicken pox.
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 September 10, 2009 13:46 IST
http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/In-search-of-the-Sanjeevani-plant-of-Ramayana/article16880681.ece

In search of the Sanjeevani plant of Ramayana

When Lakshmana fell unconscious, near death, hit by an arrow
from Ravanas son Meghnad, Hanuman approached the Lankan
Royal Physician Sushena for advice.

Sushena asked Hanuman to rush to Dronagiri Hills and fetch four

plants: Mruthasanjeevani (restorer of life), Vishalyakarani
(remover of arrows), Sandhanakarani (restorer of the skin) and
Savarnyakarani (restorer of skin colour) (Srimad Valmiki
Ramayana, 74th chapter, Yuddakanda, Slokas 29-34).

Hanuman, not able to pick the four from the multitude, brought
back the entire hill. And Lakshmana was revived from near death
back to life, and to victory.

Cressa cretica, Selaginella bryopteris and Desmotrichum

fimbriatum (or Rudanthi, Sanjeevani Bhooti and Jeevaka,
respectively)
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 Global biodiversity
Jelly fish
Out of 1,70,000 flowering plants in earth, 1,25,000 is
in tropical rain forest!!!.

Only tropical rain forest occur in India - Silent valley in

Kerala. Hydroelectricity project in Silent valley was
abandoned to protect it.
Star fish

Temperate forest - much less biodiversity than tropical

rain forest but better documented

3/4th of earth is ocean, obviously its diversity is much

higher than terrestrial biodiversity but, it is unexplored!
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 India a mega biodiversity nation
Some countries which are wholly or partly within the tropics contain high percentage of
worlds living organisms. These countries are called as mega-biodiversity countries.
India is one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.

The vast variety of landform and climate ranging from tropical to temperate and from
alpine to desert lead to complete rainbow spectrum of biodiversity.

India occupies 2.4% worlds land area and contributes to 8% of the worlds diversity!

The Ministry of Environment and Forest of India (2000) records

47,000 species of plants
81,000 species of animals
Which is about 7 and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.

About 18% of the plants found in India are endemic (Endemic: Restricted to only to a
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particular area)
 Hotspots of biodiversity

Hot-spots of biodiversity areas with high species richness and endemism.

Hot-spots - should have at least 0.5% endemism.

India has 2 hotspots among 25 hotspots identified in global level. They are not only
rich in floral wealth and endemic species of plants but also reptiles, amphibians,
mammals etc.
Eastern Himalayas
Western Ghats

25 hotspots covering <2% or world land area but has 50% terrestrial biodiversity

40% of terrestrial plants and 25% vertebrates species are endemic in 25 hotspots.

Hotspots found in all the continents, except in Antarctica.

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48
 Eastern Himalayas hotspot
Eastern Himalayas - remarkable for their alpine flora.
Deep valleys of Sikkim is cradle for species diversity and
endemism (60%).

About 5000 flowering plants occur in this region, of

which 800 species are endemic.

It is rich in avian diversity. It is home to more than 60% of

Indian birds.
Sapria Himalayana
Rich in banana, citrus fruits, rice, ginger, chilli, jute etc.

Sapria Himalayana a parasitic angiosperm was sighted

only twice in this region in last 70 years.

Only 1/3rd of Eastern Himalaya is existing now!!!. 49

 Tropical rain forest - Rafflesia Arnoldii
Rafflesia arnoldii A flower with
worlds largest bloom, 3 feet across
and weighs 7 kg!!!.

Rafflesia arnoldii - parasitic plant, with

no roots, leaves and stem

Found in Indonesia rain forest &

endemic
One of the 3 national flower of Indonesia

Smell like rotten meat. Attract flies and

beetles pollination.
 Western Ghats hotspot
Extended into four states, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala over 17,000 km2.
South Western Ghats Malabar coast.

Major centers of diversity are

Agastyamalai hills
Silent Valley
Ternstroemia japonica
40% plant species, 50% lizards and 60% amphibians
are endemic to Western Ghats.

Only 6.8% of the original forest is existing today!!!

Species common to both hotspots are, flora:

Ternstroemia japonica etc. Fauna: laughing thrush, fairy
blue bird etc. 51
Laughing thrush
 SPECIES INTERACTIONS
Species interacts with each other in five different ways

Competition species interact to gain access to the same limited

resources such as food, water, light and space.
Predation one species (predator) feeds directly on another species
(prey)
Parasitism - one organism (parasite) feeds on another organism (host),
usually by living on or in the host.
Mutualism interaction that benefits both species by providing each with
food, shelter, or some other resource.
Commensalism - interaction that benefits one species but has little or no
effect on the other.
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 INTERACTIONS via COMPETITION

Over long time species develop

adaptation reduce or avoid competition
with other species by resource partitioning Sharing the wealth

Resource partitioning sharing parts of

resource, using them at different times, or
using them in different ways.
Figure illustrates
resource partitioning
among five species of
Eg. Insect-eating bird - reduce competition insect-eating
by feeding in different portions of certain warblers in the spruce
forests of the U.S. state
spruce trees and by feeding on different of Maine. Each species
minimizes competition
insect species. with the others for
food by spending at
least half 53 its feeding
time in a distinct portion
Beautiful nests of birds-Engineering from which institute!

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 INTERACTIONS via PREDATION
Predation - member of one species
(predator) feeds directly on all or part of a
living organism(prey) as part of food web.

Ex. Brown bear feeding on salmon fish.

Ex. Crocodile feed on wild beast

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 INTERACTIONS via PARASITISM

Parasitism - one species (parasite)

feeds on another organism (host),
usually by living on or inside the host.
Blood-sucking parasitic sea lamprey has attached itself
to an adult lake trout

Parasite - usually much smaller than

its host and rarely kills it. Parasites
remain closely associated with their
hosts, draw nourishment and gradually
weaken them over time
Healthy tree on the left and an unhealthy one on the
right, which is infested with parasitic mistletoe. 56
 INTERACTIONS via MUTUALISM

Mutualism - two species behave in ways that

benefit both by providing each with food,
shelter, or some other resource.

Ex. pollination of a flower by species such as

honeybees, hummingbirds

Birds ride on buffalo, rhinoceroses and eat

parasites and pests (such as ticks and flies)
from the animals body and often make noises
warning the larger animals when predators are
approaching
Healthy tree on the left and an unhealthy one on the
right, which is infested with parasitic mistletoe. 57
 INTERACTIONS via COMMENSALISM

Commensalism - interaction that benefits one

species but has little, if any, beneficial or
harmful effect on the other.

Ex. Epiphytes attach themselves to the trunks

or branches of large trees benefit by having a
solid base on which to grow. Live in elevated
spot gives them better access to sunlight,
water from the humid air and rain, and
nutrients falling from the trees upper leaves
and limbs. Their presence doesnt harm tree.
Healthy tree on the left and an unhealthy one on the
right, which is infested with parasitic mistletoe. 58
 Endangered species of India
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) publishes Red Data Book (lists endangered, extinct, rare,
vulnerable species of plants and animals).

Endangered species - When number has reduced to a critical level and

if such a species is not protected it become extinct.
Spotted owl The great Indian Bustard Red panda Black Rhinoceros

Snow Leopard
Peacock

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Tiger
 Extinct species of India
Extinct species: When a species not seen in wild for 50 years at a stretch.
Eg., Dodo, passenger pigeon (extinct due to severe hunting), mountain
quail.
Passenger pigeon Mountain quail
Dodo

Rare species: Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present

but they are at risk. Rare species are mostly endemic. 60
 Threats to biodiversity

Extinction is well known process in nature

Nature is slow and steady..

In nature rate of extinction is much slower than regeneration..

But after human civilization.

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 Threats to biodiversity

In the early stage of human evolution extinction rate is 1 in 4 years. In

early 20th century it was 1/year and now it is 1/day and in future it is
estimated to be 100/day!

Factors responsible for loss of biodiversity:

Exponential growth of population and pollution
Over exploitation of natural resources

It is estimated that 2/3rd of our current biodiversity will be lost by 2050.

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 Extinction of species

Passenger pigeon
The first animal species to get extinct are the big, the
slow, live in flocks, the tasty, and those with valuable
parts such as tusks and skins.

The passenger pigeon and the Carolina parakeet,

both extinct. They nested in large flocks that made
them easy to catch and kill. Carolina parakeet

These birds were good to eat, their feathers made

good pillows, and their bones were widely used for
fertilizer.
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 WASHINGTON, July 26, 2014
Biodiversity loss pushing earth towards sixth mass extinction

Being driven primarily by climate disruption

Persistent loss and decline of biodiversity leading to planets sixth mass

biological extinction 64
 WASHINGTON, July 26, 2014

Since the year 1500, more than 320 terrestrial vertebrates have become extinct.

Previous extinctions driven by natural planetary transformations or catastrophic asteroid

strikes, the current die-off can be associated with human activity.

Large animals - elephants, rhinoceroses, polar bears and countless other species
worldwide face the highest rate of decline. Consequently, the number of rodents and
disease-causing parasites doubled.

Loss of larger animals driven by loss of habitat and global climate disruption.

We tend to think extinction as loss of a species from the face of Earth but there is a loss
of critical ecosystem functioning in which animals play a central role. 65
 January 21, 2017
http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/On-the-brink/article17067626.ece

On the brink
If poaching continues at present rates, in less than 20
years, the African elephant could well go the way of the
mammoth hunted out of existence

We live in an era of mass extinction. And this

time, it happens to be largely caused by
humans.
As climate change, pollution, loss of wild areas and
poaching threaten our wildlife, the plight of mega-
herbivores such as elephants and rhinos has
become particularly poignant and tragic. If in India
habitat loss and fragmentation has threatened their
survival, in African countries militarised poaching and
criminal trade are driving them to extermination.
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 Threats to ecosystem & biodiversity Natural activities

Drifting of earths tectonic plates

Earth quake, volcano eruption & forest fire

Collision between earth and large asteroids

Climate changes (rain, cyclone, flood,

tsunami, heat, glacier etc)

Landslide
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 Threats to biodiversity-Natural activities
Flow of molten rocks (over
years) split earth surface as
gigantic solid plates-tectonic
plates.

Tectonic plates slowly drifts

on planets mantle
continental area split.

Drifting of tectonic plates -

leads to extinction of species
and also evolution of new
species
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 Threats to biodiversity-Natural activities

Earthquake separate and

isolate population of species.

Over long period, new species

evolved as isolated species
genetically in response to new
environmental conditions.

Volcanic eruptions affect

biological evolution by destroying
habitats and reducing or wiping
out populations of species
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 Threats to biodiversity-Natural activities

Long-term climate changes have major effect on biological evolution,

ex type of plant and animal survive and thrive particular ecosystems,
desert, grassland, forest etc.

Some species extinct, some adapt to environment through genetic

changes, some new species evolve etc.

Collision between large asteroids to earth

is other natural disaster responsible for
mass extinction, natural selection, drift
in location of ecosystem, new species
evolution etc.
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Threats to ecosystem & biodiversity Anthropogenic activities

Loss of Habitat (deforestation, trawler fishing boats, etc)

Poaching

Pollution

Global environmental change (global warming, ozone depletion etc.)

71
 Loss of habitat
Destruction of natural habitat
(deforestation) is major cause
of loss of biodiversity.
Thousand of species died due
to loss of their natural habitat.

Wetlands, estuaries and

mangroves a unique
ecosystem rich in biodiversity
is under series threat due to
draining, filling and pollution.

Populations of 40% of the

worlds water birds are in
decline because of the global
loss of wetlands. 72
 Threats to biodiversity

Huge numbers of migrating birds are

killed each year - collide with electrical
transmission and communications
towers and skyscrapers - erected in
the middle of their migration routes.
coral reefs

Destruction of breeding and feeding

grounds of ocean i.e coral reef put fish
and other species under series threat.

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 Poaching
Tusk

Illegal trade of endangered wildlife products by killing, hunting,

and smuggling is termed as poaching. Ex. fur, hides, tusks, Leopard fur
horns, musk, live specimens and herbal products is serious
threat to biodiversity.

Rich biodiversity - but poor countries (Africa, Latin America

and Asia) involved in smuggling of the wildlife products to rich
countries (but less biodiversity).

Poaching is highly profitable no investment!!! Hides

Fur
Elephant tusk - $100/kg
Leopard fur coat - $100,000
Hyacinth macaw (beautiful coloured bird) - $10,000
74
 GENEVA, July 30, 2014
Only 3,200 tigers left in the wild: WWF report

Of the 100,000 tigers that once roamed in the wild a century ago, only 3,200 are left behind, according to
WWF report. The WWF warned that the largest of all the Asian big cats could go extinct in the wild primarily
due to poaching and habitat loss.

Poaching is the most immediate threat to wild tigers since their parts are used for traditional medicine,
folk remedies, and as a status symbol. Between Jan 2000 and Apr 2014, parts of at least 1,590 tigers across
Asia was seized. 75
 Poaching-Case study

Over hunting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species eg.

American passenger pigeon, counted 5 billion in 1830, but due market hunting
and habitat loss cause entire population crashed in 20 years!!!

About 2.5 million great whales once inhabited the worlds oceans. Their blubber
(under the skin) was highly priced as source of oil. With introduction of
steamships and explosive harpoons (spear-like instrument) it has been driven to
near extinction.

Atlantic cod fishery once seemed inexhaustible. But, more than 300,000
tonnes/annum fishes harvested in 1980s. In 1992 Canada banned Atlantic cod
fishing.
76
 Poaching

How you can contribute to eradicate poaching?

Fond of birds, plants, fish etc. then please dont go for endangered or wild-caught
species!!!

Do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag made of crocodile or python skin.

By doing so you are certainly help in preserving the biodiversity.

77
What is the consequence of loss of habitat?

78
 Man-wildlife conflicts
Wildlife, causes damage and danger to humans and
properties crops/houses.

In Sambalpur (Orissa) 195 humans were killed in last 5

years by elephants. Humans responded by killing 98
elephants and injuring 30 elephants.

Massive damage of cotton and sugarcane crops by

elephants, in Chamarajanagar, Mysore, agonized the
farmers. Electrical fencing, explosives were some of
the methods adopted by villages to kill wild animals.

In Nepal, 17 peoples were killed in the Royal Chitwan

National Park by a man-eating tiger.
79
 THINK.

animal encroached or humans?

80
 Causes of conflicts

Human encroachment into forest areas

Animals suffering from illness, weak and injured take humans

Lack of alternate cultivation practices (paddy, sugarcane) by forest department for

animals like elephants when bamboo leaves are not available.

Electric fencing causes injury to animals, which in return turn violent

Wildlife corridors area through which wild animals migrate from one area to
another. Human occupation in these area made them to attack the occupants.

Poor cash compensation by govt. to farmers for crop damages, turn farmer to take
revenge on wild animals
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 Remedial measures to curb the conflict

Adequate crop, cattle and human loss compensation scheme.

Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof
trenches to prevent animals from straying into fields.

Wildlife corridors should be provide for mass migration of big animals during
unfavorable periods. About 300 km2 area is required for elephant corridors for their
seasonal migration.

Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder,
fruit and water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.

Conservation of biodiversity.
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 Conservation of Biodiversity

In order to maintain and conserve biodiversity, the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Govt. of India has taken several steps to
protect wild life, the objectives of which are:
Protection of natural habitats
Maintenance of viable number of species in protected areas
Establish and improve biosphere reserve, sanctuaries and national parks
Strict restriction of export of rare plants and animals.
Educate the public on these through Government agencies and NGOs.

Conservation of biodiversity can be carried out in two ways

In-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation
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Conservation of.
Terrestrial biodiversity

Aquatic biodiversity

84
 Conservation of
Terrestrial Biodiversity

85
 Conservation of Terrestrial Biodiversity

In-situ conservation (within habitat ) : Protection of wild flora and fauna

in nature itself. Eg. Biosphere reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries,
Reserve forests etc.

Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats) : Done by establishment of

gene banks, seed banks, Zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections.

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 In-situ Conservation

13 major biosphere reserves, 80

national parks, 420 wild-life
sanctuaries, 120 Botanical gardens
in our country covering 4% of
geographic area.

Biosphere serves: Conserve some

representative ecosystems as a
whole for long-term in-situ
conservation.

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 In-situ Conservation

Within the biosphere reserves, 1 or more National parks. For ex: Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve has 2 National parks viz. Bandipur, Nagarhole.

National Park: Area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with
its environment. Ecotourism without any damage to environment.

Killing, hunting, shooting, capturing of wildlife, grazing of domestic

animals, all private rights, forestry activities are prohibited within
National Park.

Each national park aims at conserving one particular species of wildlife

along with others. Eg. Kaziranga one-horned rhino, Sariska-tiger etc.
88
 In-situ Conservation

Wildlife Sanctuaries: Killing, hunting, shooting and capturing of wildlife

is prohibited except under the control of highest authority. Eg.
Vedanthangal bird sanctuary, Mudamalai wildlife sanctuary.

Plant Sanctuaries: Gene sanctuary for citrus and for pitcher plant in
North east India.

Specific projects to conserve certain animals : Project Tiger, Gir Lion

Project, Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Elephant, Snow Leopard
Project.

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 Ex-situ conservation

Mainly for conservation of crop varieties. Conserving total genetic

variability of crop species for future crop improvement or for afforestation.

Important Gene bank/Seed bank facilities (National Bureau of Plant

Genetic Resources (NBPGR) located in New Delhi): Genes, seeds and
pollens etc., of agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives
are preserved by cryo-preservation technique i.e by using liquid N2 at a
temp as low as -196 C.

Varieties of rice, pearl millet, brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion,

carrot, chilli, tobacco, poppy etc., preserved under liquid N2 for several
years without losing seed viability.
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 Ex-situ conservation

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) - located at

Karnal, Haryana. Preserves semen of domesticated bovine animals.

National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR):

Conservation of variety of crop plants/trees by tissue culture.

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 Conservation of
Aquatic Biodiversity

92
 Aquatic Biodiversity
Aquatic biodiversity includes
Marine (Ocean and Sea) Ocean and Sea
Rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands

Rivers

Lakes
Wetlands

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 Marine Biodiversity
coral reef
Marine biodiversity includes
Biodiversity at deep ocean, coral
reefs, estuaries and mangroves.

Biodiversity near coasts (as greater mangroves

variety of producer and habitat in
coastal area) ocean

Biodiversity at bottom region of the

ocean as greater variety of habitats river
and food sources on the ocean bottom

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Threats to aquatic biodiversity remembered with HIPPCO
water hyacinths (invasive species)
Habitat loss

Invasive species

Population growth (Human population growth)

Nile perch Lionfish
(invasive species) (invasive species)
Pollution

Climate change

Over exploitation Common carp (fish) &

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Purple loosestrife (invasive species)
 Activities causing threats to aquatic biodiversity
Habitat (coral reefs, coastal sea-grass beds, mangrove forests, coastal
wetlands, marshes, rivers etc.) loss (2-10 times faster than tropical
forest) due to human activity Sea bottom
Hawaiian monk seal slowly starving to Before & after
trawler fishing boats death before a discarded piece of traveler fishing
plastic was removed from its snout
dredging operations
construction of harbors and
shipping paths
acidification of ocean (increase in CO2 conc.)
sea-grass beds
fish farming Commercial fishing methods - over
exploitation

global warming (rise sea level, 18-59 cm)

pollution (dumping all kinds of wastes)
dam construction, excessive withdrawal of water 96
 Conservation of
Aquatic Biodiversity

For effective and economical conservation - mapping aquatic

biodiversity, identifying, locating, labelling, estimating and
monitoring is necessary

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 Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
Laws and treaties to protect marine
species, International Whaling
Commission (IWC), U.S. Marine Mammal
Protection Act of 1972, Whale
Conservation and Protection Act of 1976.
Several international agreements to
protect marine species, seals, sea lions, Red sea star restaurant Israel
sea turtle etc. Constructed under the sea to protect coral
reefs through eco-tourism

Economic incentives & eco-tourism

Establishing marine sanctuaries (marine protected areas (MPAs))

Setting up global network of fully protected marine reserves

Establishing of integrated coastal management 98

Law and Eco-tourism - Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity

Eco-tourism to conserve threatened aquatic

species - economic incentives ex. according to
2004 World Wildlife Fund study, sea turtles are
worth more to local communities alive than
dead.

The report estimates that sea turtle tourism

brings 3 times more money than sale of turtle
products, meat, leather, and eggs. Educating
citizens about this could inspire communities to
protect turtles
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 Marine Sanctuaries - Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity

Some countries protect marine biodiversity and sustain fisheries by

establishing marine sanctuaries.

Since 1986, IUCN helps to establish marine protected areas (MPAs)

areas of ocean partially protected from human activities.

Fishing is banned or strictly limited in MPAs.

There are more than 4000 MPAs worldwide

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 Marine Reserve - Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
Established to protect, manage and sustain marine biodiversity and
important ecological and economic service provided by seas.

It is based on ecosystem approach rather than protecting individual

species

This global network includes small and large reserves

Marine reserves are closed to activities - commercial fishing, dredging,
and mining, as well as to waste disposal.

Only less-harmful activities such as recreational boating, shipping, and

certain levels of small-scale, nondestructive fishing.
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 Marine Reserve - Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
Most reserves contain core zones where no human activity would be
allowed.

Outside the reserves, commercial fisheries would be managed more

sustainably by use of an ecosystem approach

Scientific studies show that within fully protected marine reserves - fish
populations double, fish size grows by almost a third, fish reproduction
triples, and species diversity increases by almost one-fourth.

It also benefit nearby fisheries, because fish move into and out of the
reserves, and currents carry fish larvae produced inside reserves to
adjacent fishing grounds thus bolstering the populations there. 102
 Case study-Integrate coastal management
Integrated coastal management (ICM) - a
community based effort to develop and use
coastal resources more sustainably. Ex.
Australia manages its huge Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park by ICM. More than 100 ICM
programs being developed throughout world.

ICM - fishers, business owners, developers,

scientists, citizens, and politicians to identify
shared problems and goals in their use of
marine resources.

Idea is to develop workable, cost-effective, and

adaptable solutions that will help to preserve
biodiversity and environmental quality, while
also meeting economic and social goals.
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 Case study-Integrate coastal mangement
U.S implemented integrated coastal management to protect
Chesapeake Bay Program in 1983. In this citizens groups, communities,
state legislatures, and the federal government worked together to reduce
pollution inputs into the bay.
Strategies of ICM - land-use
regulations to reduce agricultural
and urban runoff in 6 states in bay,
banning phosphate detergents,
upgrading sewage treatment
plants, monitoring industrial
discharges more closely, and
replant large areas of bay with sea
grasses to filter excessive
nutrients and other pollutants. 104
Conservation aquatic biodiversity

105
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