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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY
Secured Zone 3 Protection During Stressed Condition
Paresh Kumar Nayak, Ashok Kumar Pradhan, Senior Member, IEEE, and Prabodh Bajpai, Member, IEEE
AbstractMaloperation of the zone 3 element of distance relays
during stressed system conditions, such as power swing, load
encroachment, or voltage stressed condition is one of the main
reasons for large disturbances in power systems. The improved
protection technique for zone 3 can help to prevent such malop-
eration and, thus, more reliable power systems can be envisaged.
This paper proposes an algorithm that utilizes two new criteria: 1)
the maximum value of the transient monitoring function obtained
from three-phase currents and 2) the phase angle of the posi-
tive-sequence impedance to support zone 3 of the distance relay.
The technique is tested for various power system events, such as
the three-phase fault during the power swing, load encroachment,
voltage stressed conditions, and current-transformer satura-
tion during the three-phase fault using data simulated through
EMTDC/PSCAD in the IEEE 39-bus New England system. The
simulation results show that the zone 3 protection scheme using
the proposed technique can correctly discriminate the three-phase
fault from stressed system conditions.
Index TermsDistance protection, load encroachment, power
swing, voltage stressed condition, zone 3.
I. INTRODUCTION
Z ONE 3 of a stepped-distance relay scheme is used to
provide remote backup protection to adjacent sections
of transmission lines in a power system. The large reach of
the zone 3 element increases the risk of maloperation under
stressed system conditions. Investigations on different black-
outs show that zone 3 maloperation is one of the important
contributing reasons for cascade tripping in power systems
worldwide [1]. The presence of negative- and/or zero-sequence
current components during an unbalanced fault makes it easy to
discriminate from stressed system conditions. However, since
three-phase fault and stressed system conditions are balanced
phenomena, the zone 3 element of a distance relay finds diffi-
culty to distinguish them. To solve this problem, many schemes
have been proposed in recent years [2][12].
Power swing is a phenomenon that causes variations in power
flow between two areas of a power system and is observed
followed by faults, line switching, generator disconnection,
switching on/off large loads, or other system disturbances.
During power swings, the load impedance may enter into
the distance relays operating characteristics which can cause
Manuscript received November 06, 2013; revised March 15, 2014, May 10,
2014, and July 13, 2014; accepted August 11, 2014. Paper no. TPWRD-01260-
2013.
P. K. Nayak is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian School
of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, India (e-mail: pareshkumar.nayak@gmail.com).
A. K. Pradhan and P. Bajpai are with the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
(e-mail: akpradhan@ee.iitkgp.ernet.in; pbajpai@ee.iitkgp.ernet.in).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2014.2348992
0885-8977 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1
undesired tripping of transmission lines. Several techniques
are available to discriminate the three-phase fault from power
swings. The rate of change of apparent impedance, the rate
of change of swing center voltage, and the blinder and R-dot
schemes are conventional swing detection techniques and their
relative merits and demerits are well documented in [2]. The
superimposed component of current is used to differentiate the
three-phase fault from the power swing [3]. A symmetrical
fault detector is proposed based on the relative presence of
decaying dc in the current waveforms during the power swing
[4]. Using fundamental frequency components of instantaneous
three-phase active power, a symmetrical fault detection tech-
nique during the power swing is proposed in [5]. Performances
of the aforementioned techniques are not tested during other
stressed system conditions, such as load encroachment and
voltage-stressed conditions.
The encroachment of load impedance into the zone 3 ele-
ment is another reason for distance relay maloperation [6]. The
careful setting of the zone 3 element can help avoid load en-
croachment under normal operating conditions. However, it is
difficult to prevent load encroachment under extreme conditions
since it is not included in the regular setting process, and it is
very difficult to decide the setting of a distance relay under con-
tingency conditions if normal apparent load impedance is very
close to the protective zone. In [7], an adaptive load encroach-
ment prevention scheme based on steady-state security analysis
and an adaptive anti-encroachment zone is proposed. A tech-
nique based on the value of fault resistance, calculated from syn-
chrophasor data, is proposed to distinguish the three-phase fault
from load encroachment [8]. The reliability of both proposed
techniques mainly depends on the communication channel.
During the voltage-stressed condition, with reduced voltage
magnitude, the positive-sequence impedance seen by the dis-
tance relay becomes small and the trajectory may enter into
zone 3 characteristic. This situation can cause the relay to trip
the line unnecessarily. In [9], an adaptive algorithm based on
the rate of change of voltage is used as a criterion to prevent
zone 3 maloperation due to voltage instability. In addition, an
additional feature, called the voltage stability index, is used in
[10] to distinguish the three-phase fault from voltage instability.
However, the threshold settings of both features for a system
are still a challenge. In [11], to distinguish the three-phase fault
from load encroachment and voltage instability for the zone 3
protection scheme, a combination of steady-state and transient
components of current using a state diagram is proposed. The
real-time power-flow estimation approach is proposed in [12] to
distinguish the three-phase fault from load encroachment. How-
ever, the estimation of the value of power flow of the line is not
always guaranteed to be correct due to the loop flow. In [13], ap-
parent impedance computed from the synchronized voltage and
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY

current phasors is used to assist zone 3 protection for discrimi- where is the peak of the fundamental component, is
nating a fault from stressed system conditions. Performance of the fundamental frequency, is the sampling interval, is
the method depends mainly on the strategic location of phasor the phase angle of the fundamental frequency component,
measurement units and on the communication medium. is the magnitude of the dc component at , and is the
In this paper, enhanced zone 3 protection for the distance time constant of the decaying dc component.
relay is proposed where the three-phase fault is distinguished To estimate the fundamental component, (1) can be formu-
from the stressed condition by utilizing only the local informa- lated as below by varying from 1 to N. N is the number of
tion, that is, the voltage and current signal. There is no need for samples per cycle
synchrophasor data and the communication medium, such as
[13]. The method uses two new criteria, namely, the maximum (2)
value of the transient monitoring function obtained from three-
phase currents and the phase angle of the positive-sequence where
impedance to accomplish the task. The technique using the two
criteria is tested for various cases for the IEEE 39-bus New-Eng-
land system simulated with EMTDC/PSCAD. The results show
that zone 3 of a distance relay using the proposed method is
more secure during stressed system conditions, and the method
detects the three-phase fault correctly.
The state vector
II. PROPOSED SCHEME
The three-phase fault and stressed condition are balanced
phenomena, and zone 3 protection finds it difficult to distinguish
them. Negative- and zero-sequence components present in the and the measurement vector
signals during the unbalanced fault are good indicators of this
purpose. To support the zone 3 decision process by differenti-
ating the three-phase fault from other conditions, the proposed
method employs two new criteria: 1) the maximum value of the With the least square approach, the unknown vector can be es-
transient monitoring function obtained from three-phase cur- timated by using
rents and 2) the phase angle of positive-sequence impedance.
The first criterion filters transient events, and the second one (3)
identifies the three-phase fault from there.
The current signal can be reconstructed using the least square
A. Criterion-1 Using the Transient Monitoring Function estimates for the fundamental components [15]. Let the vector
The least square method is one of the important techniques represent the reconstructed samples from the estimate
to estimate the fundamental component in a digital relaying and can be expressed as
scheme. A reconstructed signal from the estimated fundamental
component matches the actual signal during normal conditions. (4)
In case of a three-phase fault, a significant difference exists
between the actual and the reconstructed samples of current. The difference between the reconstructed sample from the esti-
The presence of decaying dc component in the fault current mate and the actual sample of the current signal can
is the main reason for this difference [4], [14]. Signal modu- be computed as
lation during the power swing also contributes to some nonfun-
damental component, but the difference will not be significant. (5)
For discrimination of the three-phase fault from other con-
ditions, the absolute sum of the differences between the actual where . Defining the transient moni-
and the reconstructed samples of the current signal over a cycle toring function as a sum of the absolute values of over one
is computed, which is defined as the transient monitoring func- cycle, that is
tion. This function is used in [14] to validate the correctness of
a phasor estimation process whereas, in this paper, the function (6)
is applied to support zone 3 protection directly. The detail com-
putation steps for the function using the least-square approach
are provided as follows. At the inception of a three-phase fault, a significant decaying
The fault current signal is modeled including the decaying dc component is observed at least in one of the three phases of
dc component where the sample value at an instant can be ex- current signals [4]. To have a purposeful index, the largest value
pressed as of TMF is obtained out of the three phases as

(1) (7)
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NAYAK et al.: SECURED ZONE 3 PROTECTION DURING STRESSED CONDITION 3

where , , and refer to different phases. The proposed method

ensures a three-phase fault if

(8)

where th in criterion-1 is the threshold selected for a system,

and its selection is detailed in Section V. The index provides
information on maximum nonfundamental components present
in the current signals at the inception of a three-phase fault
which helps in the identification. However, the value of may
be higher for nonfault transients, such as the sudden increase of
large load or line outage. To distinguish such events from the
three-phase fault, an angle-based criterion is added to the pro-
posed scheme.

B. Criterion-2 Using the Phase Angle of the Positive-Sequence

Impedance
In a transmission system, during steady state, the line current
lags voltage by 45 for the theoretical maximum loading con-
dition (power angle across the line) and this corresponds
to the positive-sequence impedance angle to be within 45
[16] at the relay. Note that in case of load change or parallel line
outage, it is also limited to 45 . This is because both events re-
sult in change from one loading pattern to another as observed
by the relay. For a three-phase fault in a line, lies between
65 and 85 [16]. Thus, can be suitably used to discriminate
the three-phase fault from load change or a similar event. Thus,
for conformity of a three-phase fault, should satisfy
Fig. 1. Flow diagram for discriminating the three-phase fault from the stressed
(9) condition.

where th in criterion-2 is the threshold, and its selection is

provided in Section V.
C. Flow Diagram for the Method
The flow diagram for the proposed method is shown in Fig. 1.
First, the positive-sequence impedance at the relay location is
computed using three-phase voltages and currents. If the calcu-
lated impedance falls within zone 3 of the relay under study, then
additional criteria are applied to verify whether a three-phase
fault is the reason for it or it is due to stressed system condi-
tions. Criterion-1 is checked by using (8), which identifies the
transient event. In such a case, criterion-2 in (9) is applied which
confirms a three-phase fault.
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The proposed enhanced zone 3 protection is tested in
the IEEE 39-bus New England system as shown in Fig. 2.
Using EMTDC/PSCAD, simulations are carried out for various
power system events, such as the three-phase fault during power
swing, load encroachment, and voltage-stressed conditions to
test the performance of the proposed scheme. The performance
of the proposed scheme is also tested for a three-phase fault
producing CT saturation. The nonlinear model of the CT is
considered for performance evaluation. The least-square tech-
nique is applied to estimate the fundamental component of
current. The data sampling rate is maintained at 1 kHz. The
MATLAB R2008a software tool has been used for computation
purposes. The reach of zone 3 (phase-to-phase) is set such
that it is able to protect full length of an adjacent line. In this
paper, the thresholds th and th are set at 8.0 p.u. and 50 ,
respectively, for correctly discriminating the three-phase fault
from other stressed power system operating conditions (refer
to Section V).
A. Performance for the Three-Phase Fault During the Stable
Power Swing
Operation of transmission-line protection systems during the
stable power swing may not be directly responsible for system
blackouts. However, unintended line tripping during the stable
power swing may exacerbate the power swing to the extent that
a stable swing becomes unstable. An unstable swing can cause
loss of synchronism between groups of generators or between
neighboring utility systems. To avoid maloperation during
stable power swings, the power-swing blocking (PSB) function
is integrated with a distance relay. However, if a fault occurs
during the swing, the relay must detect the fault and operate
quickly. Power swing and the three-phase fault are balanced
phenomena. Conventional PSB schemes, such as dZ/dt and
blinder methods, find difficulty in distinguishing them [2].
Therefore, the correct discrimination of the three-phase fault
from the power swing is an important issue. With this paper
focusing on secured zone 3 protection, three-phase faults are
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY
Fig. 2. Single-line diagram of the IEEE 39-bus New England system.
Fig. 3. Trajectory of the positive-sequence impedance seen at relay R1 for the
three-phase fault during the power swing (time interval between adjacent points
is 0.02 s).
simulated within zone 3 reaching the relay during the power
swing. The result for a test case is provided as follows.
A three-phase fault is created at the middle of line 29-26
(point F1 of Fig. 2) at 0.7 s, and the fault is cleared at 1.0 s
by opening breaker B1 and B2. The intentional delay in fault
clearance time introduces the power-swing condition for relay
R1 at bus-29 protecting lines 29-28. The positive-sequence
impedance seen at relay R1 is plotted in an R-X plane during
the power swing and is shown in Fig. 3. From the figure, it is
observed that the positive-sequence impedance enters the zone
3 characteristic of relay R1 during the swing and lies more than
the operating time of zone 3 protection. This may lead relay
maloperation.
To test the performance of the proposed scheme for faults
during the power swing, a three-phase fault (with a fault resis-
tance of 1 ) is created at 3.6 s in the zone 3 region of relay R1
(at the middle of line 28-26) during the swing. Corresponding
results are provided in Fig. 4. From the figure, it is observed
that during the power swing, the index [Fig. 4(b)] remains well
Fig. 4. Different quantities at relay R1 for the three-phase fault during the
power swing: (a) phase-a current, (b) magnitude of , and (c) the value of .
below confirming the situation as a nonfault event. However,
and surpass their respective threshold values within 10 ms
after the initiation of a three-phase fault which confirms the oc-
currence of a fault. From the results, it can be concluded that the
proposed scheme is immune to the power swing and it has the
capability to correctly discriminate a three-phase fault from the
power swing.
B. Performance During Load Encroachment
The change in transmission network structure or shifting the
power flow from one line to another under steady-state oper-
ating conditions may cause the positive-sequence impedance to
enter the zone 3 characteristic of a distance relay. This phe-
nomenon is referred to as load encroachment [7]. The unde-
sired line trip may occur in such a situation. Load encroachment
and three-phase fault both are balanced phenomena. Zone 3 of
the conventional distance relay finds difficulty in distinguishing
them. Thus, correct discrimination of the three-phase fault from
load encroachment is important.
To create the load encroachment condition for zone 3 of relay
R2 at bus-26, the load at bus-27 is increased gradually to twice
its steady-state value in 30 steps during 2 to 4.6 s such that the
NERC extreme emergency loading condition is maintained.
This event causes a positive-sequence impedance trajectory en-
tering the zone 3 characteristic of relay R2 and stays beyond its
operating time as is evident from Fig. 5. This situation could be
misinterpreted as three-phase fault by zone 3 of the conventional
distance relay. However, the proposed technique determines this
event as a no-fault situation as and are below their respec-
tive threshold values as evident from Fig. 6(b) and (c).
To test the performance of the proposed algorithm for dis-
criminating the three-phase fault from load encroachment, a
three-phase fault is created at 6.0 s in the zone 3 region of relay
R2, that is, on line 27-17. Observations of Fig. 6(b) and (c)
show that and , calculated at relay R2, cross their respec-
tive threshold in 10 ms after the initiation of the fault even if the
change in current magnitude [Fig. 6(a)] is not significant. This
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NAYAK et al.: SECURED ZONE 3 PROTECTION DURING STRESSED CONDITION 5

Fig. 5. Positive-sequence impedance trajectory at relay R1 for the three-phase

fault during load encroachment (the time interval between adjacent points is
0.02 s).
Fig. 6. Different quantities at relay R2 for a three-phase fault during load en-
croachment: (a) phase-a current, (b) magnitude of , and (c) the value of .

confirms that the proposed method has the capacity to discrim-

inate the three-phase fault from load encroachment.

C. Performance During the Voltage-Stressed Condition

During the voltage-stressed condition, the voltage at various
buses in the system reduces rapidly [13]. Due to the reduction
of voltage levels at different buses, the load impedances at dif-
ferent buses may enter the zone 3 characteristic of some re-
lays, causing them to maloperate. To test the performance of
the proposed scheme during the voltage-stressed condition, re-
active loads at buses 27, 18, and 16 (Fig. 2) increase from time
2.0 to 4.0 s at the 1.0-s interval, respectively. During this sit-
uation, positive-sequence voltage and current magnitudes ad-
jacent to the load buses are plotted in Fig. 7. From the figure
[Fig. 7(a)], it is observed that the reactive load increase at buses
27, 18, and 16 causes a significant reduction in bus voltage mag-
nitudes. From Fig. 7(b) it is seen that there is a significant in-
crease in load current on line 26727. Positive-sequence imped- Fig. 7. Voltage and current magnitudes during the voltage-stressed condition:
(a) positive-sequence bus voltage magnitudes and (b) positive-sequence line
ances are computed at buses 26, 27, and 29, and it is found that current magnitudes.
the impedance locus at bus-26 of relay R2 of line 2627 enters
its zone 3 characteristics and stays permanently inside it (Fig. 8).
In this situation, the relay may maloperate. The performance of
the proposed scheme is shown in Fig. 9. From the figure, it is ob-
served that at the instant of increasing the first load, the apparent
impedance locus lies beyond the zone 3 characteristic. In this
situation, the proposed scheme will not activate. A further in-
crease of reactive loads in subsequent buses causes the apparent
impedance to enter the zone 3 characteristic. However, in this
such situation with the proposed scheme, both indices and
lie below their respective threshold, indicating such a situation
to be a nonfault event. Thus, during the voltage-stressed condi-
tion, if the apparent impedance enters the zone 3 characteristic
of any relay, the proposed scheme will treat such situation as a
nonfault event.

D. Performance of the Three-Phase Fault with CT Saturation Fig. 8. Positive-sequence impedance trajectory at relay R2 (bus-26) during the
voltage-stressed condition. (The time interval between adjacent points is 0.02
Depending on the severity of the fault and burden setting of s.)
the CT, CT saturation may occur at the inception of a three-
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6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY
Fig. 9. Different quantities at relay R2 (bus-26) during the voltage-stressed
condition. (a) Magnitude of and (b) the value of .
Fig. 10. Comparison of the primary phase currents with the CT secondary
phase currents referred to the primary side for a three-phase fault during the
power swing.
phase fault. To test the performance of proposed scheme during
CT saturation, a three-phase fault is created in the zone 3 re-
gion of relay R1 at bus-29 of line 29-28 (Fig. 2) at 3.6 s during
the power swing. The burden of phase-b CT at bus-29 is set
such that its secondary current is referred to the primary-side
mismatches with the actual primary current, which is observed
in Fig. 10(b). This shows that the phase-b CT gets saturated.
The performance of the proposed scheme for CT saturation for
a three-phase fault during the power swing is shown in Fig. 11.
From the figure, it is observed that despite CT saturation, the
proposed scheme is able to distinguish the three-phase fault
from the power swing as the indices and exceed their re-
spective thresholds. Thus, CT saturation does not affect the per-
formance of the proposed scheme.
IV. COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
Among the conventional methods, the rate of change of ap-
parent impedance (dZ/dt) is widely used to distinguish the fault
from the power swing. Such a scheme blocks the relay elements
prone to operate during the stable and unstable swing. To block
Fig. 11. Performance of a three-phase fault during the power swing with CT
saturation.
Fig. 12. Positive-sequence impedance trajectory during the out-of-step condi-
tion. (The time interval between adjacent dots in the trajectory is 0.02 s.)
during the stable power swing is called PSB and to block during
the unstable power swing is called out-of-step blocking (OSB).
Out-of-step tripping (OST) functions are available with modern
distance relays at preselected network locations for discrimi-
nating stable swings from unstable swings. In the case of an un-
stable swing, the OST trips the relay. During an unstable power
swing, as the impedance locus enters the distance relay char-
acteristics, the very fast method based on dZ/dt has limitations
during OSB.
For comparative assessment of the proposed scheme with the
dZ/dt method, a three-phase fault is created at 2.0 s at the middle
of line 29-26 (Fig. 2), and the fault is cleared at 2.35 s by opening
breakers B1 and B2. The removal of line 2926 leads to an un-
stable power swing condition for relay R1 of line 2928. The
impedance trajectory during the swing is plotted in the R-X
plane and is shown in Fig. 12. From the figure, it is observed that
in the second swing cycle, the trajectory of apparent impedance
takes around 80 ms to cross the path between the outer zone
and zone 3 characteristic which is slow, and the PSB scheme
based on dZ/dt will block the relay from operation. However, in
the subsequent swing cycle, the trajectories of the positive-se-
quence impedance move faster and take less time for crossing
the path between the outer zone and zone 3 characteristic. The
OSB scheme based on dZ/dt may treat such a fast swing as a
three-phase fault and can trip lines unnecessarily.
To test the performance of the proposed scheme for a three-
phase fault during an unstable power swing, a three-phase fault
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NAYAK et al.: SECURED ZONE 3 PROTECTION DURING STRESSED CONDITION 7

the issues and simulation results for the three-phase faults with
significant fault resistance [21], th is set as 50 .

VI. CONCLUSION
Zone 3 of a distance relay has limitations to distinguish a
three-phase fault from a stressed power system condition. Zone
3 maloperation during such situations is the main reason for
many cascade trippings worldwide. This paper has proposed
a technique which uses the transient function derived from
three-phase currents and the positive-sequence impedance
phase angle to enhance zone 3 protection during the stressed
condition. The technique using the combined criteria is tested
for various power system events, and the results clearly show
that a distance relay, supported by such a technique, can cor-
rectly discriminate the three-phase fault from other stressed
Fig. 13. Different quantities at relay R1 during the out-of-step condition: (a)
phase-a current, (b) magnitude of , and (c) the value of .
conditions. A comparative assessment of the proposed scheme
with a conventional method also demonstrates its strength.

is created at the middle of line 28-26 (falls under zone 3 region
of relay R1 at bus-29) at 3.75 s. The result for the fault case
is provided in Fig. 13. From Fig. 13(a), it is clear that slip fre-
quency increases in subsequent swing cycles. From Fig. 13(b),
it is observed that even during an unstable swing, remains
well below its threshold, confirming the situation as a nonfault
event. Though the value of [Fig. 13(c)] exceeds its threshold
for a few swing cycles, the criterion ensures stable and un-
stable power swing conditions as a nonfault event. As soon
as the three-phase fault is initiated, the indices and ex-
ceed their respective threshold within 10 ms. Thus, the proposed
scheme can distinguish the three-phase fault even from an un-
stable power swing.
V. THRESHOLD SELECTION
In this paper, the magnitude of the transient monitoring
function and the phase angle of the positive-sequence
impedance are utilized along with zone 3 of the distance
relay to achieve enhanced performance during the stressed
power system condition. To maintain a balance between the
security and dependability of the relay decision during the
stressed system condition, the selection of thresholds for the
indices are important.
The index is observed only during the transient period of an
event, for example, at the inception of a three-phase fault, and
its magnitude mainly depends on the severity of the event and
switching instant. However, during the power swing, a small
value of is observed due to signal modulation which depends
on the swing cycle frequency. The value of increases with
swing frequency. In this paper, it is set at 8.0 p.u., considering a
maximum swing frequency of 5 Hz for the system [2], [20]. This
setting helps the algorithm to correctly distinguish the three-
phase fault from both stable and unstable power swings.
For most transmission systems, typically ranging from
to during normal conditions and, in the case of a three-
phase fault, it lies within 65 to 85 [16]. However, may be
affected for the three-phase fault occurring at the remote end
of the adjacent line with significant infeed from the other lines
or a heavy load present on an adjacent bus. Considering all of
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Paresh Kumar Nayak received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India, in 2014.
Currently, he is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India. His current research interest
is power system relaying.
Ashok Kumar Pradhan (M94SM10) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from Sambalpur University, Sambalpur, India, in 2001.
He has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India, since 2002, where he is a Professor.
His research interests include power system relaying and monitoring.
Dr. Pradhan is a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering
(INAE), India.
Prabodh Bajpai (M07) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical En-
gineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur. His research
interests include power system restructuring, renewable energy systems, and
solar photovoltaic applications, and power system optimization.