Capacity and Level of Service

Course Code and Title : TS 806, Traffic Engineering and Management

Course Instructor: A. Gowri, NITK
 Introduction

Capacity analysis is a quantitative assessment of the

ability of a traffic facility to handle vehicles or people for
which it is designed

Level of Service is essentially a qualitative analysis

which shows the performance level of system at various
operating conditions

Useful for analysis and design of traffic facility

 Capacity
Capacity of a transport facility is defined as the maximum
number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit time
which can be accommodated under given conditions with a
reasonable expectation of occurrence

Highway Capacity Manual (2010) defines the capacity as the

maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can be
reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment
of a lane or roadway during a given time period under
prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions

Although capacity is the maximum hourly rate, in many

situations the peak 15 minute flow rate is expressed as the
capacity
 Capacity
The capacity measure depends on these operating conditions:

Three factors influences capacity: First is the traffic conditions and

the factors that influence the capacity includes vehicle composition,
turning, movements, etc.

The second factor is the roadway conditions and it includes

geometrical characteristics such as lane width, shoulder width,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment

The third factor is the control conditions such as the traffic signal
timings, round-about characteristics

It is also to be noted that the above capacity definition holds good

for a point or at a section of the road having uniform control
conditions
 Capacity
Another aspect of the above capacity definition is the
expression that the maximum flow rate which accounts for
the worst 15 minutes traffic within the peak hour traffic

Lastly the term reasonable expectancy indicates that the

capacity measure is probabilistic and not an analytically
derived deterministic value

Capacity measure is probabilistic, for it accounts for the

unexplainable variation in traffic and diverse driving
characteristics
 Level of Service (LOS)
Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality one
can derive from a local under different operation characteristics and traffic
volume.

HCM proposes LOS as a letter that designate a range of operating

conditions on a particular type of facility.

Six LOS letters are defined by HCM, namely A, B, C, D, E, and F, where A

denote the best quality of service and F denote the worst.

These definitions are based on Measures of Effectiveness(MoE) of that

facility. Typical measure of effectiveness include speed, travel-time,
density, delay etc.

There will be an associated service volume for each of the LOS levels. A
service volume or service flow rate is the maximum number of vehicles,
passengers, or the like, which can be accommodated by a given facility or
system under given conditions at a given LOS
 HCM has developed the capacities standard and LOS measure for
various facilities
Each traffic facility has its own unit for the capacity and measure of
effectiveness for each item will also vary
Traffic facilities can be divided into three:
uninterrupted facilities
interrupted facilities
others
Interrupted facilities include
freeway (basic freeway, weaving sections, and ramps)
multi-lane highways (unidirectional)
two-lane highways(bidirectional)
Freeways normally have density as the measure of effectiveness,
while multi-lane and two-lane highways have delay/speed as the
MoE
 Interrupted facilities
un-signalized intersection
signalized intersection
arterials or corridors
They have respectively control delay, total delay and average
travel speed as the measure of effectiveness.
Other facilities may include
Pedestrian pathways
bicycle tracks
bus-transit system/ rail-transit system
air-transportation system
Each of them have facility specific measure of effectiveness.
 Urban Streets

Functional based
Design based
Combination of functional and design based
 Function based
Functional classification is the process by which streets and
highways are grouped into classes, or systems, according to
the character of service they are intended to provide

Individual roads and streets do not serve travel independently

in any major way. Rather, most travel involves movement
through a network of roads
 Four functional systems
Relationship of functionally classified systems in service
1. Principal Arterial streets traffic mobility and land access
2. Minor Arterial streets
3. Collector street
4. Local roads
Functional Classification of Rural Highway Network
 Principal Arterial System
Arterial streets are basically meant to carry longer and through traffic
Function of arterial is to provide access to commercial and
residential land uses
A downtown street not only carries through traffic but also turning
traffics and it resembles arterials
Mobility of principal arterials is high but land access is very low
Major arterial serves as principal network for through traffic flow.
This should be connected with principal traffic generations,
important rural highways entering the city
It should be well coordinated with existing and proposed
expressway system for good distribution and circulation of through
traffic and continuity of routes should be maintained
 Principal Arterial System
The principal arterial system should carry the major portion of
trips entering and leaving the urban area, as well as the
majority of through movements desiring to bypass the central
city
In addition, significant intra-area travels, such as between
central business districts and outlying residential areas
between major inner city communities or between major
suburban centers should be served by this system.
Frequently the principal arterial system will carry important intra
urban as well as intercity bus routes. Finally, this system in
small urban and urbanized areas should provide continuity for
all rural arterials which intercept the urban boundary
 Minor Arterials
The minor arterial street system should interconnect with and
augment the urban principal arterial system and provide service to
trips of moderate length at a somewhat lower level of travel mobility
than principal arterials.
This system also distributes travel to geographic areas smaller than
those identified with the higher system.
The minor arterial street system includes all arterials not classified as
a principal and contains facilities that place more emphasis on land
access than the higher system, and offer a lower level of traffic
mobility.
The spacing of minor arterial streets may vary from half to one km in
the central business district to 4 to 5 km in the suburban fringes, but
should normally be not more than 2 km in fully developed areas.
 Collector Streets
This system of streets includes all distributer and collector streets.

Function of this system is serving between major arterials and local

streets to connect adjacent neighbourhood areas to accommodate
local through traffic movements

Unlike arterials their operation is not always dominated by traffic

signals.
 Local Streets
Local streets are primarily meant for direct access to
residential commercial, industrial or other abutting property

All through traffics should be discouraged on local streets

Land access is very high but mobility is very low for local
streets
 Design based classification

1. High speed
2. Suburban
3. Intermediate
4. Urban
 High speed streets

These are the streets with very low access point density

These are provided with separate right turn lanes and no parking
is permitted on street

Streets may be multilane divided or undivided or two lane facility

with shoulders

Signals are infrequent and spaced at long distances

Road side development is very low. A speed limit on these roads

is 75 to 90 kmph
 Sub-urban streets

They represent streets with a low access-point density,

separate or continuous right turn lane and some portions
where parking is permitted

These roads possess comparatively higher density of

roadside development than that on high speed streets

It has about three signals per km and speed limit on these

roads is 65 to 75 kmph
 Intermediate design streets

They represent urban streets with moderate access point density

Like sub-urban streets they also have some separate or

continuous right turn lane and some portions where parking is
permitted

These roads possess comparatively higher roadside

development than that on sub-urban streets.

It has about two to six signals per km and speed limit on these
roads is 50 to 60 kmph
 Urban streets

They represent urban streets with high access point

density

These are usually provided with road side parking.

It has highest road side development density among all

above stated four classes

Signal density is about four to eight per Km. Speed limit is

40 to 55 kmph
 Combination of functional and design based

Four classes viz. I, II, III, IV which reflects a unique

combination of street function and design, as shown in table 1
and related signal densities are shown in table 2.

Combined classification of urban streets Specifications of street classes

 Operational performance measures

Engineer has to quantify how well the system or facility is

working.

The facilities will usually assessed by specific qualitative

and quantitative index of flow characteristics termed as
Level of Service (LOS)

Engineer has to do following works:

1. Assessing the existing condition
2. Evaluating alternative improvements
3. Quantifying associated cost and benefits
4. Communicating results to both technical and non
technical people
 Arterial LOS
Urban streets LOS is mainly based on average travel speed for the
segment or for the entire street under consideration

Average travel speed is computed from the running times on the

urban street and the control delay of through movements at
signalized intersections

Control delay is the portion of the total delay for a vehicle

approaching and entering a signalized intersection

Control delay includes the delays of initial deceleration, move-up

time in the queue, stops, and re-acceleration (also known as
intersection approach delays)

LOS for urban streets is influenced both by the number of signals

per kilometer and by the intersection control delay.
 Arterial LOS
Inappropriate signal timing, poor progression, and increasing
traffic flow can degrade the LOS substantially

Streets with medium-to-high signal densities (i.e., more than one

signal per kilometer) are more susceptible to these factors, and
poor LOS might be observed even before significant problems
occur

On the other hand, longer urban street segments comprising

heavily loaded intersections can provide reasonably good LOS,
although an individual signalized intersection might be operating
at a lower level

Considering all the above aspects, HCM provides a seven step

methodology to determine the level of service of an arterial
 HCM Method of Performance Measurement

HCM method of arterial performance measurement involves

seven steps which aim to compute average travel speed of
arterial to measure the Level of Service.

These seven steps are as follows:

1. Establish arterial to be considered
2. Determine arterial class by free flow speed
3. Define arterial section
4. Compute running time
5. Compute intersection approach delay
6. Compute average travel speed
7. Estimate the LOS
Step 1: Establish arterial to be considered

Establishing the arterial is the very first step in the process of

determining the LOS

In this step, an engineer has to define arterial segment or

entire arterial whose LOS is to be determined

Arterial may be established by arterial class, its flow

characteristics and signal density

Arterial class may be defined as per its free flow speed as

explained in step 2 as follows.
Step 2: Determine arterial class by free flow speed

Free flow speed is the speed on the arterial which most of the
drivers choose if they had green indication and they are alone in the
direction of movement (are not the part of platoon) but have to be
conscious about all other prevailing conditions. (e.g. Block spacing,
contiguous land use, right of way, pedestrian activity, parking, etc.)

Free flow speed should be measured at just the time when the entire
factors are present except for the prevailing traffic levels and red
indication.

An arterial can be classified on the basis of its free flow speed as

explained under the section design based classification and
combined classification
Range and typical values of FFS for different arterial classes
Step 3: Define arterial section

After determining the arterial class it is required to be more

specific about the particular section of an arterial for which
LOS is to be determined

The arterial section may be mid block or intersection

Generally signalized intersection is taken into account to

determine intersection approach delays which are further
required to determine level of service
Step 4: Arterial running time

There are two principal components for the total time that a
vehicle spends on a segment of an urban street
Running time
Control delay at signalized intersections

To compute the running time for a segment, the analyst must

know the streets classification, its segment length, and its
free flow speed

Arterial running time can be obtained by travel time studies,

information of running times from local data and intersection
delays, etc.
Step 5: Intersection Approach Delay

Intersection approach delay is the correct delay which is to be used

in arterial evaluation

It gives consideration not only for absolute stopped delay but also
for the delay in retarding the vehicle approaching at signal for
stopping and re-accelerating on starting of green

It is longer than the stopped delay. This can be related to

intersection stopped delay and is computed by,
D = 1.3 d
Where, D = intersection approach delay (sec/veh), and d =
intersection stopped delay (sec/veh)

Delay at intersection approach is of special interest because it is a

Measure of Effectiveness (MOE) used to quantify LOS
Step 6: Average travel speed
Arterial LOS is based on the average travel speed for
segment, section or entire arterial under consideration

Arterial average travel speed is given by

vavg = 3600L/ (Tr L + D)
Where, vavg = arterial or segmental average travel speed (kmph), L
= arterial or segmental length (km), Tr = total of the running time per
kilometer on all segments in the arterial or section (seconds), D =
total of the approach delay at all intersections within the defined
arterial (seconds)

It is the actual speed in consideration with the additional effect

of control and all stop delays. It is the measure by which LOS
is defined
Step 7: Estimate the LOS
This is the last step of determination of LOS.
After calculation of average travel speed we can determine
the level of service of an arterial by using the following table
 Freeway Operations
Freeway Divided highway facility having one or more lanes in
each direction for the exclusive use of traffic with full control of
access

Freeways were intended to serve longer trips of generally regional

and interurban character

Traffic on freeways differs from that on city streets and rural roads
in that it moves at higher speeds (depending on traffic conditions,
design standards, etc.), more smoothly, and at much larger rates of
flow

Access to freeways is provided only at grade-separated

interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out access can
be used for direct connections to side roads.
 Basic Features of Freeway
Freeway provides uninterrupted traffic flow on a freeway. Traffic on
freeway is free-flowing.

All cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) is regulated to overpasses or

underpasses, so that there are no traffic conflicts on the main line of
the highway which must be regulated by traffic lights, stop signs, or
other traffic control devices.

Specific features are:

1. There are no signalized or stop-controlled at-grade intersections.
2. Direct access to and from adjacent property is not permitted.
3. Access to and from the freeway is limited to ramp locations.
4. Opposing directions of flow are continuously separated by a raised barrier, an at-
grade median, or a continuous raised median.
5. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can
almost always maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to
vehicles crossing perpendicular to mainline traffic.
 Freeway is composed of tree sub component
Basic freeway segments
Ramp junctions
Weaving areas
 Basic Freeway Segment
Basic freeway are that part of segment of freeway which are outside of the
influence area of ramps or weaving areas of freeway

A basic freeway segment is independent of the ramps and weaving areas

and the flow in such section occurs smoothly at the much larger rates.

Merging and diverging of traffic occurs where on-or-off ramps join the basic
freeway segment.

Weaving occurs when vehicles cross each others path while travelling on
freeway lanes.

The exact point at which basic freeway segment begins or ends- that is,
where the influence of weaving areas and ramp junctions has dissipated-
depends on local conditions, particularly the level of service operating at the
time.

If traffic flow is light, the influence may be negligible, whereas under

congested conditions, queues may be extensive.
Freeway Components
LAX: 405 freeway, Los Angeles
Eastern Freeway Belford, Melbourne city, Australia
 A multi-level stack interchange in Shanghai, China

The High Five in Dallas, Texas, United States

Typical cloverleaf interchange Istanbul, Turkey
Kathipara Interchange, Chennai city

Gemini Flyover, Chennai city

Set of base conditions for basic freeway segments

A set of base conditions for basic freeway segments has been established.
These conditions serve as a starting point for the:
1. Lane widths of 3.6 m
2. Clearance of 1.8 m between the edge of the travel lanes and the nearest
obstructions or objects at the roadside and in the median
3. Free-flow speed of 120 km/h for freeways
4. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream (no heavy vehicles)
5. Level terrain
6. No no-passing zones on two-lane highways
7. No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles.

Base conditions for intersection approaches include the following:

1. Lane widths of 3.6 m
2. Level grade
3. No curb parking on the approaches
4. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
5. No pedestrians
 Capacity of a Freeway Segment

Maximum sustained (15 min) rate of flow, expressed in passenger

cars per hour per lane that can be accommodated by a uniform
freeway segment under prevailing traffic and roadway conditions in
one direction of flow

Capacity analysis is based on freeway segments with uniform traffic

and roadway conditions.

If any of the prevailing conditions change significantly, the capacity

of the segment and its operating conditions change as well.

Therefore, each uniform segment should be analysed separately.

 Factors affecting Capacity

Roadway Conditions

Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In

some cases, these influence the capacity of a road; in others,
they can affect a performance measure such as speed, but
not the capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

No. of Lanes
Lane width
Shoulder width and lateral clearances
Design speed
Grades
 Number of lanes: Number of lanes decided for basic freeway is five or more
than five but if number of lanes is less than five then capacity of freeway is
reduced.

Lane width: If the lane width is less than the specified lane width for basic
freeway segment, i.e 3.6m then capacity is reduced because traffic flow tends to
be restricted.

Shoulder width and lateral clearances: shoulder width and lateral clearance
influences the capacity of freeway. When lane widths are less than 3.65 m,
drivers are forced to travel closer to one another laterally than they would
normally desire. Drivers tend to compensate for this by reducing their travel
speed. The effect of restricted lateral clearance is similar. When objects are
located too close to the edge of the median and roadside lanes, drivers in these
lanes will shy away from them, positioning themselves further from the lane
edge hence capacity is reduced.

Design speed: freeway is designed for free flow speed around 120 km per hour
,if some vehicle is moving less than the design speed then capacity of freeway.

Grades: Effect of grade depends on both the length and slope of the grade.
Traffic operations significantly affected when grades of 3% or more are longer
than one quarter miles and when grades are less than 3% and longer than mile.
The effect of heavy vehicles on such grades is much greater.
 Factors affecting Capacity
Traffic conditions

These conditions include vehicle type and lane or directional distribution.

Vehicle type: The entry of heavy vehicles - that is, vehicles other than
passenger cars (a category that includes small trucks and vans) - into the
traffic stream affects the number of vehicles that can be served.

Heavy vehicles are vehicles that have more than four tires touching the
pavement. Trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles (RVs) are the three
groups of heavy vehicles.
1. They are larger than passenger cars and occupy more roadway space;
and
2. They have poorer operating capabilities than passenger cars, particularly
with respect to acceleration, deceleration, and the ability to maintain speed
on upgrades.
 Factors affecting Capacity

Directional and Lane Distribution:

Each direction of the facility usually is designed to accommodate the peak
flow rate in the peak direction.

Typically, morning peak traffic occurs in one direction and evening peak
traffic occurs in the opposite direction.

Lane distribution also is a factor on multi lane facilities. Typically, the

shoulder lane carries less traffic than other lanes.
 Factors affecting Capacity

Control conditions

The most critical type of control is the traffic signal.

The type of control in use, signal phasing, allocation of green time, cycle length, and
the relationship with adjacent control measures affect operations.

Stop signs and yield signs also affect capacity, but in a less deterministic way.

A traffic signal designates times when each movement is permitted; however, a stop
sign at a two-way stop-controlled intersection only designates the right-of-way to the
major street.

The capacity of minor approaches depends on traffic conditions on the major street.

An all-way stop control forces drivers to stop and enter the intersection in rotation.

Capacity and operational characteristics can vary widely, depending on the traffic
demands on the various approaches.
Level of Service of a basic freeway segment

Level of service is defined as: qualitatively measures both the

operating conditions within a traffic system and how these conditions
are perceived by drivers and passengers.

These operational conditions within a traffic stream are generally

described in terms of service measures such as speed and travel
time, freedom to manoeuver, traffic interruptions, and comfort and
convenience.

The three measures of speed, density and flow are interrelated. If

values of two are known, the third can be computed.

Six LOS are defined for each type of facility, from A to F, with LOS A
representing the best operating conditions and LOS F the worst.
1. LOS A describes free-flow operations. Free-flow speeds prevail.
Vehicles are almost completely unimpeded in their ability to
maneuver within the traffic stream. The effects of incidents or point
breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.

2. LOS B represents reasonably free flow, and free-flow speeds are

maintained. The ability to maneuver within the traffic stream is only
slightly restricted, and the general level of physical and
psychological comfort provided to drivers is still high. The effects of
minor incidents and point breakdowns are still easily absorbed.

3. LOS C provides for flow with speeds at or near the FFS of the
freeway. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is
noticeably restricted, and lane changes require more care and
vigilance on the part of the driver. Minor incidents may still be
absorbed, but the local deterioration in service will be substantial.
Queues may be expected to form behind any significant blockage.
4. LOS D is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing
flows and density begins to increase somewhat more quickly. Freedom to
maneuver within the traffic stream is more noticeably limited, and the driver
experiences reduced physical and psychological comfort levels. Even minor
incidents can be expected to create queuing, because the traffic stream has
little space to absorb disruptions.

5. LOS E describes operation at capacity. Operations at this level are volatile,

because there are virtually no usable gaps in the traffic stream. Vehicles are
closely spaced leaving little room to maneuver within the traffic stream at
speeds that still exceed 80 km/h.

Any disruption of the traffic stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp
or a vehicle changing lanes, can establish a disruption wave that
propagates throughout the upstream traffic flow.

At capacity, the traffic stream has no ability to dissipate even the most
minor disruption, and any incident can be expected to produce a serious
breakdown with extensive queuing. Maneuverability within the traffic stream
is extremely limited, and the level of physical and psychological comfort
afforded the driver is poor.
6. LOS F describes breakdowns in vehicular flow. Such conditions
generally exist within queues forming behind breakdown points.
Breakdowns occur for a number of reasons:

(a) Traffic incidents can cause a temporary reduction in the capacity of a

short segment, so that the number of vehicles arriving at the point is
greater than the number of vehicles that can move through it.

(b) Points of recurring congestion, such as merge or weaving segments

and lane drops, experience very high demand in which the number of
vehicles arriving is greater than the number of vehicles discharged.

In all cases, breakdown occurs when the ratio of existing demand to actual
capacity forecast demand to estimated capacity exceeds 1.00.
 Determination of LOS

A basic freeway segment can be characterized by three

performance measures:
density in terms of passenger cars per kilometer per lane,
speed in terms of mean passenger-car speed, and
volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio

Each of these measures is an indication of how well traffic flow is

being accommodated by the freeway. The measure used to provide
an estimate of level of service is density.

Three measures of speed, density, and flow or volume are

interrelated. If values for two of these measures are known, the third
can be computed.
 Methodology

Level of service of an existing freeway is determined considering it as a

stretch of basic freeway segment. It means that we have to take all the base
conditions decided for basic freeway segment as a standard or initial input.

The following steps are followed to determine the level of service of a

freeway:
1. To collect all the input data like geometric data, measured FFS or BFFS, volume.
2. Volume adjustment: The hourly volume is converted into flow rate of passenger cars i.e
pc/hr/ln.
3. Computation of FFS: If BFFS is the input, then for getting the value of FFS ,we have to
adjust the BFFS for the lane width, number of lanes, interchange density and lateral
clearance.
4. Computation of S(average passenger car speed): S is calculated from the FFS. If FFS is
measured directly in field, then FFS can be taken as S.
5. Speed-flow curve is designed and speed is determined using this curve.
6. Density is determined from the flow rate and speed taken from the speed-flow curve.
7. Based on the density, the corresponding level of service(LOS) can be determined .
Steps involved in calculation of LOS are:
1. Calculation of flow rate (Vp)
2. Calculation of average passenger car (S)
3. Calculation of density (D) and determining LOS
 Calculating Flow rate (Vp)
Hourly flow rate must reflect the influence of heavy vehicles, the
temporal variation of traffic flow over an hour, and the characteristics of
the driver population
These effects are reflected by adjusting hourly volumes, typically
reported in vehicles per hour (veh/h), to arrive at an equivalent
passenger-car flow rate in passenger cars per hour (pc/h).
The equivalent passenger-car flow rate is calculated using the heavy-
vehicle and peak-hour adjustment factors and is reported on a per lane
basis (pc/h/ln).
The flow rate can be given as:
Vp = V/(PHF N fHV fP)
where, V = hourly volume, PHF = peak hour factor (0.80-0.95), N = no.
of lanes, fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor, fP = driver population
factor
Peak Hour factor (PHF)

Peak-hour factor (PHF) represents the variation in traffic flow within an

hour

Observations of traffic flow consistently indicate that the flow rates

found in the peak 15-min period within an hour are not sustained
throughout the entire hour.
PHF =V/(V154)

Where, V = hourly volume in veh/hr for hour of analysis, V15 = Maximum

15-min flow rate within peak hour, 4 = number of 15-min period per
hour.

On freeways, typical PHFs range from 0.80 to 0.95.

Lower PHFs are characteristic of rural freeways or off-peak conditions.

Higher factors are typical of urban and suburban peak-hour conditions

Field data should be used, if possible, to develop PHFs representative

of local conditions.
Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV )

Freeway traffic volumes that include a mix of vehicle types must be adjusted
to an equivalent flow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane.
This adjustment is made using the factor fHV

Once the values of ET and ER are found, the adjustment factor, fHV , is
determined by using equation given below:
fHV = 11 + PT (ET 1) + PR(ER 1)
where, ET , ER = passenger car equivalents for truck buses and recreational
vehicles (RVs) in traffic stream respectively, PT , PR = proportion of
truck/buses and recreational vehicles in traffic stream.

Adjustments for heavy vehicles in the traffic stream apply for three vehicle
types: trucks, buses, and RVs.

There is no evidence to indicate distinct differences in performance between

trucks and buses on freeways, and therefore trucks and buses are treated
identically.
.
Driver population factor

Under base conditions, the traffic stream is assumed to consist of regular

weekday drivers and commuters.

Such drivers have a high familiarity with the roadway and generally
maneuver and respond to the maneuvers of other drivers in a safe and
predictable fashion.

But weekend drivers or recreational drivers are a problem. Such drivers can
cause a significant reduction in roadway capacity relative to the base
condition of having only familiar drivers.

To account for the composition of the driver population, the fP adjustment

factor is used and its recommended range is 0.85 1.00.
Calculating average passenger car speed (S)

The average passenger car speed depends on the free flow speed
(FFS) and flow rate as calculated earlier and can be given as - For,
90 FFS 120 and Vp (3100 15FFS),
S = FFS

For, 90 FFS 120 and (3100 15FFS) Vp (1800 + 5FFS)

S = FFS (1/28(23FFS 1800(Vp + 15FFS 3100/20FFS 1300)) 26)

The average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the field

under low- to moderate- volume conditions can be used directly as
the FFS of the freeway segment.
Concept of free flow speed (FFS)

Free flow speed can be defined as the mean speed of passenger cars that
can be accommodated under low to moderate flow rates on a uniform
freeway segment under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured during low to moderate
flows (up to 1,300 pc/h/ln).

For a specific segment of freeway, speeds are virtually constant in this range
of flow rates.
Two methods can be used to determine the FFS of a basic freeway
segment: field measurement and estimation with guidelines provided in this
section.

The field-measurement procedure is provided for users who prefer to gather

these data directly.

If field measurement of FFS is not possible, FFS can be estimated indirectly

on the basis of the physical characteristics of the freeway segment being
studied which includes lane width, number of lanes, right-shoulder lateral
clearance, and interchange density.
Concept of free flow speed (FFS)

Equation given below is used to estimate the free-flow speed of a basic

freeway segment:
FFS = BFFS fLW fLC fN fID

Where, FFS = free flow speed (km/h), BFFS = base free flow speed (km/h),
fLW = adjustment for lane width (km/h), fLC = adjustment for right shoulder
clearance (km/h),fN = adjustment for no. of lanes (km/h), fID = adjustment for
interchange density (km/h)

Estimation of FFS for an existing or future freeway segment is

accomplished adjusting a base free-flow speed downward to reflect the
influence of four factors:
lane width
lateral clearance
number of lanes
interchange density

Thus, the analyst is required to select an appropriate BFFS as a starting

point.
Adjustment for Lane Width

The base condition for lane width is 3.6 m or greater.

When the average lane width across all lanes is less than 3.6 m, the
base free-flow speed (e.g., 120 km/h) is reduced
 Adjustment for Lateral Clearance

Base lateral clearance is 1.8 m or greater on the right side from the
edge of the paved shoulder to the nearest edge of the travelled lane.

When the right-shoulder lateral clearance is less than 1.8 m, the

BFFS is reduced.

Adjustments has to be made to reflect the effect of narrower right-

shoulder lateral clearance
Adjustment for Number of Lanes
Freeway segments with five or more lanes (in one direction) are
considered as having base conditions with respect to number of
lanes.
When fewer lanes are present, the BFFS is reduced.

Table given below provides adjustments to reflect the effect of

number of lanes on BFFS.

In determining number of lanes, only mainline lanes, both basic and

auxiliary, should be considered
Adjustment for Interchange Density
Base interchange density is 0.3 interchanges per kilometer, or 3.3-km
interchange spacing.

Base free-flow speed is reduced when interchange density becomes

greater.

Interchange density is determined over a 10-km segment of freeway (5 km

upstream and 5 km downstream) in which the freeway segment is located.

An interchange is defined as having at least one on-ramp. Therefore,

interchanges that have only off-ramps would not be considered in
determining interchange density.

Interchanges considered should include typical interchanges with arterial or

highways and major freeway-to-freeway interchanges
Calculation of Density and determining LOS

Level of service on the basis of density can be calculated using the

following equation
D = Vp/S

Where, D = density (pc/km/ln), Vp= flow rate (pc/h/ln), S = average

passenger car speed (km/h).

The density of the traffic stream can be used to determine the level
of service of a freeway segment.
 Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on
Downgrades

Source: Highway Capacity Manual, TRB, Washington, D. C., 2000

 Multilane Highway

A highway is a public road especially a major road connecting

two or more destinations

A highway with at least two lanes for the exclusive use of

traffic in each direction, with no control or partial control of
access, but that may have periodic interruptions to flow at
signalized intersections not closer than 3.0 km is called as
multilane highway.

They are typically located in suburban areas leading to central

cities or along high-volume rural corridors that connect two
cities or important activity centers that generate a
considerable number of daily trips.
 Highway Classification
Two-lane highways
Multilane highways
 Highway Characteristics

Multilane highways generally have posted speed limits between

60 km/h and 90 km/h

They usually have four or six lanes, often with physical medians
or two-way left turn lanes (TWLTL), although they may also be
undivided.

Traffic volumes generally varies from 15,000 - 40,000 veh/day. It

may also go up to 100,000 vehicles per day with grade
separations and no cross-median access.

Traffic signals at major intersections are possible for multilane

highways which facilitate partial control of access.
 Highway Capacity

An important operation characteristic of any transport

facility including the multi lane highways is the concept of
capacity

Capacity may be defined as the maximum sustainable

flow rate at which vehicles or persons reasonably can be
expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane
or roadway during a specified time period under given
roadway, traffic, environmental, and control conditions;
usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars
per hour, or persons per hour
 Highway Capacity

There are two types of capacity

Possible capacity
Practical capacity

Possible capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles

that can pass a point in one hour under prevailing roadway and
traffic condition.

Practical capacity on the other hand is the maximum number that

can pass the point without unreasonable delay restriction to the
average drivers freedom to pass other vehicles.
 Highway Capacity
Procedure for computing practical capacity for the
uninterrupted flow condition is as follows:
1. Select an operating speed which is acceptable for the class of highways,
the terrain and the driver.

2. Determine the appropriate capacity for ideal conditions given in table

below

3. Determine the reduction factor for conditions which reduce capacity

(such as width of road, alignment, sight distance, heavy vehicle adjustment
factor).

4. Multiply these factors by ideal capacity value obtained from step 2.

 Level of Service

Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative term describing

the operational performance of any transportation facility.

The qualitative performance measure can be defined

using various quantitative terms like:
1. Volume to capacity ratio
2. Mean passenger car speed ( in km/h)
3. Density (in p/km/ln)
 Level of Service

Basically any two of the above three performance

characteristics can describe the LOS for a multilane highway

Each of these measures can indicate how well the highway

accommodates the traffic demand since speed does not vary
over a wide range of flows, it is not a good indicator of service
quality

Density which is a measure of proximity of other vehicles in

the traffic stream and is directly perceived by drivers and does
not vary with all flow levels and therefore, density is the most
important performance measure for estimating LOS
Level of Service A
Travel conditions are completely free flow.

The only constraint on the operation of vehicles lies in the geometric

features of the roadway and individual driver preferences.

Lane changing, merging and diverging manoeuvre within the traffic stream
is good, and minor disruptions to traffic are easily absorbed without an effect
on travel speed.

Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car

lengths.

Level of Service B
Travel conditions are at free flow. The presence of other vehicles is noticed
but it is not a constraint on the operation of vehicles as are the geometric
features of the roadway and individual driver preferences.

Minor disruptions are easily absorbed, although localized reduction in LOS

are noted.

Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car

lengths.
Level of Service C

Traffic density begins to influence operations. The ability to manoeuvre

within the traffic stream is affected by other vehicles.

Travel speeds show some reduction when free-flow speeds exceed 80

km/h.

Minor disruptions may be expected to cause serious local deterioration in

service, and queues may begin to form.

Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car length.

Level of Service D

The ability to manoeuvre is severely restricted due to congestion. Travel

speeds are reduced as volumes increase.

Minor disruptions maybe expected to cause serious local deterioration in

service, and queues may begin to form.

Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car length

 Level of Service E
Operations are unstable at or near capacity. Densities vary, depending on
the free-flow speed.

Disruptions cannot be easily dissipated and usually result in the formation of

queues and the deterioration of service to LOS F.

For the majority of multilane highways with free-flow speed between 70 and
100km/h, passenger-car mean speeds at capacity range from 68 to 88 km/h
but are highly variable and unpredictable

Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car length.

Level of Service F
A forced breakdown of flow occurs at the point where the no. of vehicles
that arrive at a point exceed the no. of vehicles discharged

Queues form at the breakdown point, while at sections downstream they

may appear to be at capacity.

Operations are highly unstable, with vehicles experiencing brief periods of

movement followed by stoppages.

Travel speeds within queues are generally less than 48 km/h.

 Determination of LOS
Determination of level of service for a multilane highway
involves three steps:

1. Determination of free-flow speed

2. Determination of flow rate

3. Determination of level of service

 Free-flow Speed
Free-flow speed is the theoretical speed of traffic density, when density
approaches zero. It is the speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling
under the physical, environmental and traffic conditions existing on an
uncongested section of multilane highway.

In practice, free-flow speed is determined by performing travel-time studies

during periods of low-to-moderate flow conditions.

The upper limit for low to moderate flow conditions is considered as 1400
passenger cars per hour per lane(pc/h/ln) for the analyses (Speed Vs Flow
Figure)

This figure shows that the capacity of a multilane highway under base
conditions is 2200 pc/h/ln for highways with a 90 km/h free-flow speed.

Density Vs Flow figure shows that density varies continuously throughout

the full range of flow rates.
Set of base conditions for multilane highways

1. Lane widths are 3.6 m

2. Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.

3. A minimum of 3.6 m of total lateral clearance in the direction of

travel. Clearances are measured from the edge of the outer
travelled lanes (shoulders included) and lateral clearance of 1.8 m
or greater are considered to be equal to 1.8 m.

4. No direct access points along the highway.

5. A divided highway.

6. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream

7. A free-flow speed of 90 km/h or more.

 Average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the field under low
volume conditions can be used directly as the free-flow speed if such
measurements were taken at flow rates at or below 1400 pc/h/ln.

No adjustments are necessary as this speed reflects the net effect of all
conditions at the site that influence speed, including lane width, lateral
clearance, type of median, access points, posted speed limits, and
horizontal and vertical alignment.

Free-flow speed also can be estimated from 85th-percentile speed or

posted speed limits, research suggests that free-flow speed under base
conditions is 11 km/h higher for 65 km/h to 70 km/h speed limits and 8 km/h
higher for 80 km/h to 90 km/h speed limits.

Speed-flow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways, here LOS is
easily determined for any value of speed simply by plotting the point which
is a intersection of flow and corresponding speed.

Note that density is the primary determinant of LOS.

 Determination of Free Flow Speed
When field data are not available, the free-flow speed can be estimated
indirectly as follows:
FFS = BFFS fLW fLC fM fA (1)

Where, FFS is the estimated FFS (km/h), BFFS= base FFS (km/h), fLW=
adjustment for lane width, (km/h), fLC= adjustment for lateral clearance, (km/h),
fM= adjustment for median type, (km/h), and fA= adjustment for access points,
(km/h).

FFS on multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11 km/h

higher than the speed limit for 65 and 70 km/h speed limits, and it is 8 km/h
higher for 80 and 90 km/h speed limits.

BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h ( i.e decrease in 1.6 km/h) when the
85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h ( i.e decrease in 4.8 km/h)
when the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is
found out by interpolation.

Adjustment in km/h increase as the lane width decreases from a base lane
width of 3.6 m. No data exist for lane widths less than 3.0m.
 The adjustment for lateral clearance (TLC) is given as:
TLC = LCL + LCR

Where, TLC = Total lateral clearance (m), LCL = Lateral clearance (m), from the right
edge of the travel lanes to roadside obstructions (if greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m),
and LCR= Lateral clearance (m), from the left edge of the travel lanes to obstructions
in the roadway median (if the lateral clearance is greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m).

Once the total lateral clearance is computed, the adjustment factor is obtained
from Table

For undivided highways, there is no adjustment for the right-side lateral

clearance as this is already accounted for in the median type.

Therefore, for undivided highways, the lateral clearance on the left edge is
always 1.8 m.

The access-point density for a divided roadway is found by dividing the total
number of access points (intersections and driveways) on the right side of the
roadway in the direction of travel being studied by the length of the segment in
kilometers.

Thus the free flow speed can be computed using equation 1 and applying all the
adjustment factors.
 Determination of Flow rate
The next step in the determination of the LOS is the computation of the
peak hour factor.

The fifteen minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), is

determined by using following formula:
vp = V /(PHF N fHV fp)
where, vp is the 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln), V is the
hourly volume (veh/h), PHF is the peak-hour factor, N is the number of
lanes, fHV is the heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, and fp is the driver
population factor.

PHFs for multilane highways have been observed to be in the range of 0.75
to 0.95

Lower values are typical of rural or off-peak conditions, whereas higher

factors are typical of urban and suburban peak-hour conditions.

Where local data are not available, 0.88 is a reasonable estimate of the
PHF for rural multilane highways and 0.92 for suburban facilities.
 Besides that, the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream decreases
the FFS because base conditions allow a traffic stream of passenger cars
only.

Therefore, traffic volumes must be adjusted to reflect an equivalent flow rate

expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This is
accomplished by applying the heavy-vehicle factor (fHV ).

Once values for ET and ER have been determined, the adjustment factors
for heavy vehicles (fHV) are applied as follows:
fHV = 1/ ((1 + PT (ET 1) + PR(ER 1))

where, ET and ER are the equivalents for trucks and buses and for
recreational vehicles (RVs), respectively, PT and PR are the proportion of
trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the traffic stream (expressed as
a decimal fraction)

Adjustment for the presence of heavy vehicles in traffic stream applies for
three types of vehicles: trucks, buses and recreational vehicles (RVs).

There is no evidence to indicate any distinct differences between buses and

trucks on multilane highways, and thus the total population is combined.
 Determination of LOS
The level of service on a multilane highway can be determined directly
from Fig. or Table based on the free-flow speed (FFS) and the service
flow rate (vp) in pc/h/ln.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Define a segment on the highway as appropriate. The following conditions
help to define the segmenting of the highway:
Change in median treatment
Change in grade of 2% or more or a constant upgrade over 1220 m
Change in the number of travel lanes
The presence of a traffic signal
A significant change in the density of access points
Different speed limits
The presence of bottleneck condition

In general, the minimum length of study section should be 760 m, and the
limits should be no closer than 0.4 km from a signalized intersection.
2. On the basis of the measured or estimated free-flow speed on a highway
segment, an appropriate speed-flow curve is drawn.

3. Locate the point on the horizontal axis corresponding to the appropriate flow
rate (vp) in pc/hr/ln and draw a vertical line.

4. Read up the FFS curve identified in step 2 and determine the average travel
speed at the point of intersection.

5. Determine the level of service on the basis of density region in which this
point is located.
Density of flow can be computed as
D = vp/S
where, D is the density (pc/km/ln), vp is the flow rate (pc/h/ln), and S is the
average passenger-car travel speed (km/h).

To use the procedures for a design, a forecast of future traffic volumes has
to be made and the general geometric and traffic control conditions, such as
speed limits, must be estimated.

An estimate of no. of lanes required for each direction of travel can be

determined.