Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

2. Let x, y X and suppose that x 6= y. Then {x}c is open in the cofinite topology and contains y but not x. The
cofinite topology on X is therefore T1 .
Since X is infinite it contains two distinct points x and y. Suppose there exist disjoint open sets A and B (in the
cofinite topology) such that x A and y B. Then A B c , which is finite so A is also finite. This is a contradiction
because Ac is finite but X = A Ac is infinite. Hence, the cofinite topology on X is not T2 .
Suppose that X is countable, and let x X. Choose a surjection q : N {x}c , and for each n N set An := {q(k)}nk=1
and Bn := Acn , so that x Bn and Bn is open. If U is open and x U then U c {x}c is finite and hence U c AN
for some sufficiently large N N. This implies that BN U, so {Bn }
n=1 is a neighbourhood base at x. The cofinite
topology on X is therefore first countable.
Conversely, suppose that the cofinite topology on X is first countable. Choose x X and a countable neighbourhood
base {An } c c c
n=1 at x. If y {x} then {y} is an open neighbourhood of x, so there exists n N such that An {y} , and
hence y Acn . It follows that {x}c c c
n=1 An , which is countable because each An is finite. Therefore X = {x} {x}
c

is also countable.

3. Let (X, ) be a metric space with closed subspaces A and B. Given x X and (0, ), let y B (x). If a A
then (x, A) (x, a) (x, y) + (y, a) < (y, a) + , so (x, A) (y, A). Similarly (y, A) (x, A), so
(y, A) (x, A) . This shows that x 7 (x, A) is continuous. Similarly x 7 (x, B) is continuous.
It follows that x 7 (x, A) (x, B) is continuous, so the preimages of (, 0) and (0, ) under this map are open.
These preimages are {x X | (x, A) < (x, B)} and {x X | (x, A) > (x, B)}, which are clearly disjoint. The first
set contains A and the second contains B because (x, A) = 0 iff x A and (x, B) = 0 iff x B. Indeed, if x X
and (x, A) = 0 then every neighbourhood of x meets A, because no r (0, ) is a lower bound for {(x, a)}aA .
Finally, (X, ) is T1 because distinct points are separated by positive distance. Therefore (X, ) is normal.

4. Firstly , R T because = ( Q) and R = R ( Q). If {W }A T and W has decomposition

U (V Q) for each A, then A W = (A U ) ((A V ) Q) T. Moreover, if A = {1, 2} then

W1 W2 = (U1 (V1 Q)) (U2 (V2 Q))

= (U1 U2 ) (U1 (V2 Q)) ((V1 Q) U2 ) ((V1 Q) (V2 Q))
= (U1 U2 ) (((U1 V2 ) (V1 U2 ) (V1 V2 )) Q)
T.

By induction it follows that T is closed under finite intersections, so T is a topology.

Let x, y R be distinct. There exist disjoint open intervals U, V R such that x U and y V. Since U = U (Q)
and V = V ( Q), both these intervals are open in T. Therefore T is Hausdorff.
Note that Qc is closed in T. Let W1 , W2 T be neighbourhoods of 0 and Qc respectively. Since 0 W1 , there exists
n N such that ( n1 , n1 ) Q W1 . If W2 has decomposition
U2 (V2 Q), then Qc U2 because (V2 Q) Qc = .
In particular U2 ( n1 , n1 ) 6= , because it contains, say, 2n2 . This implies that U2 ( n1 , n1 ) Q 6= , since Q is dense
in R with respect to the usual topology. Therefore W2 W1 6= , so T is not regular.

5. Let X be a separable metric space with a countable dense subspace A. Then B := {B1/n (a) | a A, n N} is
countable because N N is countable. Clearly each member of B is open in X. Conversely, if U X is open
and x U, then x B1/n (x) U for some n N. If x A then B1/n (x) B. Otherwise x acc(A) because

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

X = A = A acc(A). It follows that B1/2n (x) contains some point a A, in which case x B1/2n (a) B. By the
triangle inequality B1/2n (a) B1/n (x) U. This shows that U is the union of a (possibly empty) subcollection of B.
Therefore B is a base for the topology on X, so this topology is second countable.

6. (a) Clearly R = n=1 (n, n]. Let a, b, c, d R and suppose that a < b and c < d. Then (a, b] (c, d] = or
max{a, c} < min{b, d}, in which case (a, b] (c, d] = (max{a, c}, min{b, d}]. This shows that E is a base for a
topology T on R. Clearly each member of E is open in T. If a, b R and a < b then

(
n=1 (a n, a n + 1]) (n=1 (b + n 1, b + n])

is open in T, so its complement (a, b] is closed in T.

(b) Let x R and note that N := {(x n1 , x]} n=1 is a collection of open neighbourhoods of x. If U T contains x
then (since E is a base for T) there exist a, b R such that a < b and x (a, b] U. It follows that (x n1 , x] U
for some n N (with n1 x a). Therefore N is a countable neighbourhood base at x, so T is first countable.
Let B be a base for T, and let x R. Then B contains a neighbourhood base at x, so there exists Ux B
such that x Ux (x 1, x]. In particular sup Ux = x, which implies that x 7 Ux is injective. Therefore B is
uncountable. This implies that T is not second countable.
(c) Let x R and let U T contain x. Then x (a, b] U for some a, b R with a < b. There exists q (a, x) Q,
since Q is dense in R with respect to the usual topology. Clearly q U \ {x}, so x acc(Q) with respect to T.
Therefore acc(Q) = R, so Q is dense in R with respect to T. In particular T is separable.

7. Suppose (xn )
n=1 has a subsequence (xnk )k=1 which converges to x. If U is a neighbourhood of x, there exists N N
such that xnk U for all k N with k N, hence for infinitely many k. Therefore x is a cluster point of (xn )
n=1 .

Conversely, suppose that x is a cluster point of (xn )

n=1 . Since X is first countable, there exists a nested countable

neighbourhood base {Un }n=1 at x. Set n0 := 0 and, for each k N, choose nk N inductively so that nk > nk1 and
xnk Uk . This is possible because {m N | xm Uk } is infinite and hence {m N | xm Uk } \ [1, nk1 ] 6= . If U
is a neighbourhood of x then UN U for some N N. It follows that xnk Uk UN U for all k N with k N.
This shows that the subsequence (xnk )
k=1 of (xn )n=1 converges to x.

10. (a) Suppose X is connected, and let A X be clopen. Then A and Ac are disjoint open sets which cover X. Since
X is connected, it follows that A = or Ac = . Therefore and X are the only clopen subsets of X.
Conversely, suppose that and X are the only clopen subsets of X. If U, V X are disjoint open sets which
cover X, then U = V c and hence U is clopen. This implies that U {, X}, so U = or V = . Therefore X
is not disconnected, i.e. it is connected.
(b) Define E := A E and suppose that U, V E are non-empty open sets (relative to E) which cover E. Choose
x A E , and without loss of generality assume x U. Also choose y V, so that y E for some A.
Now x U E and y V E , so U E and V E are non-empty open sets (relative to E ) which cover
E . Since E is connected, these sets cannot be disjoint. Therefore U V 6= , which shows that E is connected.
(c) Let U, V A be disjoint open sets (relative to A) which cover A. Then U = U 0 A and V = V 0 A for some
open sets U 0 , V 0 X which cover A such that U 0 V 0 A = . It follows that U 0 A and V 0 A are disjoint open
sets (relative to A) which cover A. Since A is connected, U 0 A = without loss of generality. This implies that
U 0 acc(A) = , because if x U 0 acc(A) then (U 0 \ {x}) A 6= , which is impossible. Therefore U 0 A = ,
because A = A acc(A), and hence A is connected.

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

(d) Let x X and set C := {A X | A is connected and x A}. Then C := C is connected by part (b). If A X
is connected and C A then x A and hence A C. This implies that A C, so C is maximal. Similarly,
if C 0 X is a maximal connected set containing x, then C 0 C and hence C 0 C, so C 0 = C because C 0 is
maximal. Therefore C is unique. Since C is connected (by part (c)) and C C, it follows that C = C, which
means C is closed.

13. Clearly U A U . Conversely, note that A is contained in the closed set U c (U A), and hence U c (U A) = X.
This implies that U U A, so U U A. Therefore U = U A.

14. Suppose that f is continuous and let A X. Then f 1 (f (A)) is closed (as f (A) is closed) and A f 1 (f (A)) because
f (A) f (A). It follows that A f 1 (f (A)), which implies that f (A) f (A).
Now suppose that f (A) f (A) for all A X. If B Y, then f 1 (B) X and hence f (f 1 (B)) f (f 1 (B)). Since
f (f 1 (B)) B, this implies that f (f 1 (B)) B, or equivalently f 1 (B) f 1 (B).
Finally, suppose that f 1 (B) f 1 (B) for all B Y. If C Y is closed, then f 1 (C) f 1 (C) = f 1 (C). This
implies that f 1 (C) = f 1 (C), so C is closed and hence f is continuous.

16. (a) Consider the following diagrams:

id f
Y X
h
1 1
Y Y Y g Y Y Y
id
2 2

Y Y

There exist unique maps : Y Y Y and h : X Y Y which make the resulting diagrams commute, and
they are both continuous by Proposition 4.11. Note that (Y ) = {(y, y) | y Y } is closed, because (Y )c is
open: if (a, b) (Y )c then a 6= b and there exist disjoint open neighbourhoods U and V of a and b respectively;
in particular (a, b) U V (Y )c . It follows that {x X | f (x) = g(x)} = h1 ((Y )) is closed.
(b) Since {x X | f (x) = g(x)} is closed and contains a dense subset of X, it is equal to X. Therefore f = g.

17. Suppose that, for every x, y X with x 6= y, there exists f F such that f (x) 6= f (y). Given x, y X with x 6= y,
choose such a function f and disjoint open sets U, V R such that f (x) U and f (y) V. Then f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V )
are disjoint members of T with x f 1 (U ) and y f 1 (V ). This shows that T is Hausdorff.
Now suppose that T is Hausdorff, and let x, y X be distinct. There exists U T such that x U and y / U. Clearly
1
6= U 6= X, so there exist U1 , U2 , . . . , Un R and f1 , f2 , . . . , fn F such that x k=1 fk (Uk ) U. It follows that
n

/ fk1 (Uk ) for some k {1, 2, . . . , n}, and hence fk (x) 6= fk (y).
y

22. If x0 X, then 0 (fn (x0 ), fm (x0 )) supxX (fn (x), fm (x)) for all m, n N. Therefore (fn (x0 ))
n=1 is a Cauchy
sequence in the complete metric space (Y, ), which has a limit f (x0 ). This defines a map f : X Y. Given (0, )
there exists N N such that supxX (fn (x), fm (x)) < 2 for all m, n N with m n N. If x X and n N
with n N then (fm (x), f (x)) < 2 for some m N with m n, so (fn (x), f (x)) < . This implies that
supxX (fn (x), f (x)) for all n N with n N, so (supxX (fn (x), f (x))) n=1 converges to 0.

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

Suppose g : X Y and (supxX (fn (x), g(x)))

n=1 converges to 0. If (0, ) and x X then (fN (x), f (x)) < 2
and (fN (x), g(x)) < 2 for some N N, which implies that (f (x), g(x)) < . Therefore (f (x), g(x)) = 0, so
f (x) = g(x) and hence f = g. This shows that f is unique.
Now suppose that fn is continuous for all n N. Let x0 X and suppose that U Y is a neighbourhood of f (x0 ).
There exists (0, ) such that B (f (x0 )) U, and there exists N N such that supxX (fN (x), f (x)) < 3 . Since
1
fN is continuous, V := fN (B/3 (fN (x0 ))) is an open neighbourhood of x0 . If x V then

(f (x), f (x0 )) (f (x), fN (x)) + (fN (x), fN (x0 )) + (fN (x0 ), f (x0 )) < + + =
3 3 3
and hence f (V ) B (f (x0 )) U. This implies that f 1 (U ) is a neighbourhood of x0 , so f is continuous.

23. Let A R be closed a R, b (a, ) and f C(A, [a, b]). We aim to extend f to some F C(R, [a, b]). Since Ac is
open, it is a disjoint union of open intervals {(an , bn )} n=1 . At most two of these are unbounded, and on these we let
F be constant, equal to the value of f at the finite endpoint. On bounded intervals (an , bn ), we let F be the linear
function from (an , f (an )) to (bn , f (bn )). By construction F has the same image as f, and is continuous on Ac .
Given x A, we will show that F is right continuous at x; the proof of left continuity is similar. For each (0, ),
there exists (0, ) such that |f (x) f (y)| < for all y (x, x + ) A. If (x, x + ) A then we are done.
Otherwise (x, x + ) meets (an , bn ) for some n N; this implies that an = x or an (x, x + ). If an = x we are
done, since F is continuous on [an , bn ]. Otherwise |F (x) F (y)| < for all y (x, an ): if y A we know this already,
and if y (am , bm ) for some m N then F (y) is between f (am ) and f (bm ), which are both within of f (x) = F (x)
because x am < bm < an < x + and am , bm A. Therefore F is right continuous at x, and we are done.

24. If X is normal, then by Urysohns lemma and the Tietze extension theorem, it satisfies the conclusions of Urysohns
lemma and the Tietze extension theorem. Conversely, if X satisfies the conclusion of Urysohns lemma, we claim that
X is normal. To this end, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X. There exists f C(X, [0, 1]) such that f |A = 0
and f |B = 1. Note that f 1 ((, 37
1
)) and f 1 (( 42
37
, )) are disjoint open sets which contain A and B respectively.
Therefore X is normal. Finally, suppose that X satisfies the conclusion of the Tietze extension theorem. We need to
show that X is normal; by the above it suffices to show that X satisfies the conclusion of Urysohns lemma. To this
end, let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of X. Note that A B is closed, and that A and B are open in A B.
Therefore B C(A B, [0, 1]), and there exists f C(X, [0, 1]) extending B , as required.

26. (a) As is often the case, it is easier to talk about disconnected spaces. We need to show that, if f (X) is disconnected,
then X is disconnected. Since f (X) is disconnected, it has a nonempty proper subset A which is both open and
closed (clopen). Note that A = U f (X) for some open set U Y, and A = C f (X) for some closed set
C Y, by definition of the relative topology on f (X). Therefore f 1 (A) = f 1 (U ) = f 1 (C) is a nonempty
proper clopen subset of X. This implies that X is disconnected.
(b) Again we prove the contrapositive: if X is disconnected, then it is not arcwise connected (usually this is called
path connected). Let A be a nonempty proper clopen subset of X. There exists x0 A and x1 Ac , but there
is no path joining these points: if there was such a path, say f, then f ([0, 1]) A is a nonempty proper clopen
subset of f ([0, 1]), which is impossible by part (a).
(c) By part (a) the spaces X + := X ((0, ) R) and X := X ((, 0) R) are connected. If A is a clopen
subset of X, we need to show that A = or A = X. Without loss of generality (0, 0) A (otherwise, take Ac ).
Clearly, there is a sequence in X + which converges to (0, 0). Since A is a neighbourhood of (0, 0), it follows that

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

A X + is a nonempty clopen subset of X + . This implies that A X + = X + . Similarly, A X = X . Therefore

A = X, which shows that X is connected.
If X is path connected, there should be a path f from (0, 0) to ( 1 , 0). Define t0 := sup f 1 ({(0, 0)}) and note
that f (t0 ) = (0, 0) because f 1 ({(0, 0)}) is compact. Since f is continuous, there exists t1 (t0 , 1) such that
f (t) B 1 (0, 0) for all t [t0 , t1 ]. Note that f (t1 ) Y, so 1 (f (t1 )) 6= 0, where 1 : R2 R is the projection
2
onto the x-axis. In particular, there is a point (x, 1) of Y such that x is between 1 (f (t1 )) and 0. By part (a)
1 (f ([t0 , t1 ])) is connected, so it contains x (if not, then (, x) 1 (f ([t0 , t1 ])) is a nonempty proper clopen
subset) and hence f ([t0 , t1 ]) contains (x, 1). This contradicts the fact that f ([t0 , t1 ]) B 1 (0, 0).
2

27. If X = then X is connected. Otherwise choose x X and let C X be the connected component of x. Suppose
that C 6= X. Then there exists y C c , and C is closed (by the previous homework), so there exist 1 , 2 , . . . , n A
and U1 X1 , U2 X2 , . . . , Un Xn open such that y nk=1 1
k
(Uk ) C c . Define zk X by

(y), { , , . . . , }
1 2 k
(zk ) :=
(x),
/ { , , . . . , }
1 2 k

for each k {0, 1, . . . , n}, so that z0 = x and zn nk=1 1

k
(Uk ). Given k {1, 2, . . . , n} define ik : Xk X by

p, = k
(ik (p)) := ,
(z ), 6=
k k

so that ik is continuous for all A and ik is continuous. In particular ik (Xk ) is connected, and it contains
both zk and zk1 . Since z0 = x this implies that i1 (X1 ) C, and by induction it follows that zn in (Xn ) C.
But zn C c , which is a contradiction. Therefore C = X, so X is connected.

32. Suppose X is Hausdorff and let hx iA be a net in X which converges to x X. If y X and x 6= y, there exist
disjoint open sets U, V X such that x U and y V. There exists A such that x U for all A with
& . If A then there exists A such that & and & , which implies that hx iA is not eventually in
V because x / V. Therefore x is the only limit point of hx iA .
Conversely, suppose that X is not Hausdorff, and choose x, y X distinct with no disjoint open neighbourhoods.
For each pair (Nx , Ny ) Nx Ny we may choose xNx ,Ny Nx Ny , because if Nx and Ny were disjoint, they would
contain disjoint open neighbourhoods of x and y respectively. If Nx Nx , choose Ny Ny and note that xOx ,Oy
Ox Oy Nx for all (Ox , Oy ) Nx Ny such that (Ox , Oy ) & (Nx , Ny ). This implies that hxNx ,Ny i(Nx ,Ny )Nx Ny
converges to x, and a similar argument shows that it also converges to y.

34. If hx iA is a net in X which converges to x X, and f F, then f is continuous so hf (x )iA converges to f (x).
Conversely, let hx iA be a net in X and suppose there exists x X such that hf (x )iA converges to f (x) for all
f F. Given a neighbourhood U X of x, there exist f1 , f2 , . . . , fn F and U1 f1 (X), U2 f2 (X), . . . , Un fn (X)
open such that x nk=1 fk1 (Uk ) U. For each k {1, 2, . . . , n} there exists k A such that fk (x ) Uk
for all A with & k . By induction there exists an upper bound for {1 , 2 , . . . , n }, and it follows that
x nk=1 fk1 (Uk ) U for all A with & . Therefore hx iA converges to x.

36. Suppose there exists a topology T on X in which convergence corresponds to pointwise almost everywhere convergence.
For each n N {0} and k {0, 1, . . . , 2n 1} define f2n +k := [2n k,2n (k+1)] . Since it takes on each of the values 0

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

and 1 infinitely many times, (fn (x))

n=1 fails to converge for all x [0, 1]. In particular, (fn )n=1 does not converge to
0 in (X, T). Hence there exists U T such that 0 U with the property that for each N N there exists n N such
that n N and fn / U. Define n0 := 0, and for each k N choose nk N so that nk > nk1 and fnk / U. Clearly
1
(fnk )k=1 converges to 0 in L (as does (fn )n=1 ), so it has a subsequence (fnkj )j=1 which converges to 0 pointwise
almost everywhere. This is impossible because fnkj / U for all j N.

38. Suppose that T T 0 . If x, y X and x 6= y, there exist disjoint sets U, V T T 0 such that x U and y V.
Therefore (X, T 0 ) is Hausdorff. Suppose that (X, T 0 ) is compact, and let V T 0 . Then V c is closed in T 0 , hence
compact relative to T 0 . The identity map from (X, T 0 ) to (X, T) is continuous, so V c is compact relative to T. Since
T is Hausdorff V c is closed in T, so V T and hence T = T 0 . In particular, if T T 0 then (X, T 0 ) is not compact.
Conversely, suppose that T 0 T. The identity map from (X, T) to (X, T 0 ) is continuous, so (X, T 0 ) is compact.
Therefore (X, T 0 ) is not Hausdorff, by the previous argument.

39. Suppose a space X has a countable open cover {Un } n=1 with no finite subcover. For each n N there exists
xn (nk=1 Uk )c . Let hxnk i
k=1 be a subsequence of hxk ik=1 and let x0 X. Then x0 Um for some m N, and
/ Um for sufficiently large k N. This implies that hxnk i
xnk k=1 does not converge, so X is not sequentially compact.

40. Let hxn i c

n=1 be a sequence in X, and for each n N define En := {xk }k=n . If n=1 E n = , then {(E n ) }n=1 is a
countable open cover of X, which has a finite subcover {(E n1 )c , (E n2 )c , . . . , (E nm )c }. It follows that

m m m c c c
k=1 Enk k=1 E nk = (k=1 (E nk ) ) = X = ,

which is a contradiction because xN m m

k=1 Enk for N := max{nk }k=1 . Hence there exists x0 n=1 E n . If U X
is a neighbourhood of x0 and n N then U \ {x0 } meets En , so there exists k N such that k n and xk U.
This implies that x0 is a cluster point of hxn i
n=1 . By exercise 7 (see above), it follows that hxn in=1 has a convergent
subsequence provided that X is first countable.
P
43. Let hank i
k=1 be a subsequence of hak ik=1 , and define x :=
k (nk +1) . Then x [0, 1) (in fact x [0, 1 ])
k=1 (1+(1) )2 4
and ank (x) = 12 (1 + (1)k ) for all k N. The sequence hank (x)i k=1 = h0, 1, 0, 1, . . . i does not converge, so ha i
nk k=1
does not converge in [0, 1][0,1) and hence hak i
k=1 has no convergent subsequence.

44. If {Un }
n=1 is a (countable) open cover of f (X), then {f
1 (U )} is an open cover of X, which has a finite subcover,
n n=1
1 N N
say {f (Un )}n=1 . It follows that {Un }n=1 covers f (X), which shows that f (X) is countably compact.

45. Suppose X is countably compact. If f C(X), then f (X) is countably compact by Exercise 44. Since C is first
countable, it follows that f (X) is sequentially compact by Exercise 40, and hence bounded by Heine-Borel.
Conversely, suppose that X has a countable open cover {Un } n=1 with no finite subcover. For each n N there exists
n c
xn (k=1 Uk ) . Define C := {xn }n=1 , and let K C. If x0 X then x0 Un for some n N. Since X is T1 ,
for each k {1, 2, . . . , n} there is an open neighbourhood Vk of x0 such that xk / Vk \ {x0 } (if xk = x0 just set
n
Vk := X). It follows that Un (k=1 Vk ) is a neighbourhood of x0 which is disjoint from K \ {x0 }, so x0 / acc(K).

Therefore acc(K) = , so every subset of C is closed. If n N then xn Um for some m N, and hxk ik=1 eventually
lies outside Um . Hence we may define f : C N by f (c) := max{k N | xk = c}. Note that f is continuous and
unbounded, because every subset of C is closed and f (xn ) n for all n N. By Tietzes extension theorem, there
exists an extension F C(X) of f, which is unbounded and hence C(X) 6= BC(X).

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 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

49. (a) If x E, then x has a compact neighbourhood N E. This contains an open neighbourhood U N of x, and
U = U E is relatively open, so N is a neighbourhood of x in the relative topology. It is actually a compact
neighbourhood, because the topologies on N relative to E and X are the same. Therefore E is locally compact.
(b) Let x E and choose a compact neighbourhood N E of x in the relative topology. As N is a compact
subspace of the Hausdorff space X, it is closed. Let U N be a relatively open neighbourhood of x, so that
U = V E for some open V X. By Exercise 13, x V V = V E N E, which shows that E is open.
(c) Suppose E is locally compact in the relative topology. Since E X is closed, it is compact and E is a compact
Hausdorff space. The relative topologies on E inherited from E and X are the same, so E is locally compact
in the relative topology inherited from E. If C E is relatively closed and E C, then C = D E for some
closed D X, so C is closed and hence C = E. This implies that E is dense in E, so E is relatively open in E
by part (b) with X replaced by E.
Conversely, suppose that E is relatively open in E. Again, note that E is a compact Hausdorff space, in which
case E is locally compact in the relative topology inherited from E, by part (a). This is the same as the relative
topology inherited from X, so E is also locally compact in that topology.

51. Suppose is proper, and extend it to a map X Y . Let U Y be open. If Y / U then 1 (U ) is open,
because |X is continuous. Otherwise U c Y is compact, so 1 (U c ) is compact and hence 1 (U ) = 1 (U c )c is
open (as X is Hausdorff, or because X 1 (U )). Therefore is continuous.
Conversely, suppose that extends continuously to a map X Y . If K Y is compact, then K c is open in Y ,
so 1 (K c ) is open in X . Since X 1 (K c ), it follows that 1 (K) = 1 (K c )c is compact. Thus is proper.

54. (a) If K Q is a neighbourhood of 0, then (, ) Q K for some (0, ) Q. Clearly 2 K \ K, so K is

not a closed subset of R; in particular it is not compact. Therefore 0 has no compact neighbourhood in Q.
(b) Define K := {0} { n1 } c 1 1
n=1 , and note that K = n=1 ( n+1 , n ) (, 0) (1, ) is open, so K is closed (in R)
and bounded, hence compact. For each n N let fn : Q C be the indicator function of { n1 }. The sequence
hfn i
n=1 converges to 0 pointwise, but not uniformly on K.

56. (a) If t (0, ) then 0 (t) = (t + 1)2 > 0, so is strictly increasing on [0, ) by the mean value theorem. Since
(t) < 1 for all t [0, ), it follows that is strictly increasing. If s, t [0, ) then
t+s t s t s
(t + s) = = + + = (s) + (t),
1+t+s 1+t+s 1+t+s 1+t 1+s
and the same clearly holds if s = or t = .
(b) If y Y then ((y, y)) = (0) = 0. Conversely, if x, y Y and ((x, y)) = 0 then (x, y) = 0 (as is
injective) and hence x = y. Clearly is nonnegative and bounded. If x, y, z Y then ((x, y)) = ((y, x))
and ((x, z)) ((x, y) + (y, z)) ((x, y)) + ((y, z)). Therefore is a metric.
If y Y and r (0, ) then

Br (y) = {x Y | (x, y) < r} = {x Y | ((x, y)) < (r)} = B(r) (y).
r
Moreover, if r < 1 then r = ( 1r ) and hence

Br (y) = {x Y | ((x, y)) < ( 1r

r
)} = {x Y | (x, y) < r
1r } = B r (y).
1r

Otherwise Br (y) = Y. This shows that and define the same topologies on Y.

7
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

(c) The proof is the same as part (b), except that

B1 (g) = {f CX | (f, g) < 1} = {f CX | sup |f (x) g(x)| < }

xX

for all g CX . These sets are still open in the topology of uniform convergence, as required.
(d) It is routine to check that is a metric. Let r (0, ) and f CX . For each g Br (f ) there exists (0, )
such that B (g) Br (f ). Choose m, N N so that (m1 ) < 2 and n < . Note that
P
n=N 2 2
(  N 1 ! )
X 1 X 
 X
n
{h C | sup |h(x) g(x)| < m } h C  2 sup |h(x) g(x)| < B (g).
xU N
 xU n 2
n=1

This shows that Br (f ) is open in the topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. Conversely, let f CX
and m, n N. For each g CX with supxU n |g(x) f (x)| < m1 , there exists (0, ) such that

{h CX | sup |h(x) g(x)| < } {h CX | sup |h(x) f (x)| < m1 }.

xU n xU n

It is clear that B2n () (g) is contained in the former set. This shows that the latter set is open in the metric
topology, so the two topologies are equivalent.

57. (a) Let {U }A be an open cover of X, and choose a sequence hEn i n=1 of precompact open subsets of X such that
E n En+1 for all n N and n=1 En = X. Set E0 := and for each n N define Un := {U (En+2 \E n1 )}A ,

so that Un is an open cover of the compact set E n+1 \ En (or E 2 in the case n = 1), having a finite subcover
Vn . Write
n=1 Vn = {Vn }n=1 , and note that this cover is a refinement of {U }A . We claim it is locally finite.

Indeed, if x X then x En+2 \ E n1 for some n N, which is an open neighbourhood of x that meets no
members of Vm for all m N with |m n| 3. If n N then V n is a closed subset of E m+2 for some m N,
and is therefore compact.
For each x X there exists n N such that x Vn , and x has a compact neighbourhood Nx Vn . Given n N,
there is a finite set Yn X such that V n yYn Ny . From above it is clear that Vn meets only finitely many
members of {Vm } m=1 , say {Vm }mJn for some finite index set Jn N. Define Zn := {y mJn Ym | Ny Vn }
and Wn := yZn Ny . Since Zn is finite W n yZn Ny Vn . Moreover, if x X then there exists n N such
that x Vn yYn Ny , so x Ny for some y Yn . By definition Ny Vm for some m N, and x Vn Vm so
n Jm , implying that y Zm and hence x Wm . This shows that {Wn } n=1 is an open cover of X. Since it is

a refinement of {Vn }n=1 , it is a locally finite refinement of {U }A . Note also that Wn is precompact for each
n N (as W n V n ).
(b) For each n N, by Urysohns lemma there exists fn Cc (X, [0, 1]) such that fn (W n ) = {1} and fn (Vnc ) = 0,
where {Wn }
n=1 and {Vn }n=1 are the covers constructed in part (a). Since {Vn }n=1 is locally finite, each x X
P
has an open neighbourhood on which f := n=1 fn is well-defined and continuous. Note that f 1 because
{Wn }n=1 covers X, and in particular gn := fn /f is a well-defined member of Cc (X, [0, 1]) for each n N. It is

n=1 is a partition of unity subordinate to U.

clear that {gn }

58. Let K A X be closed, and suppose there exists x K . Then there exists a finite subset B A and open
Q

sets U X for each B such that x B 1 (U ) K. Since B is finite, X is noncompact for some
A \ B. Hence there exists an open cover {V } of X which has no finite subcover. If {1 (V )} covers K,
Q
for some , then {V } covers X . Indeed, if y X then the point y A X defined by (y) = y

8
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

and (y) = (x) for all A \ {} lies in K, so y 1 (V ) and hence y V for some . This implies that
{1 (V )} is an open cover of K with no finite subcover. Therefore K is not compact, which shows that every
Q
closed compact subset of A X has empty interior.

59. Let X and Y be locally compact spaces. If (x, y) X Y, then x and y have compact neighbourhoods K X
and L Y. By Tychonoffs theorem K L is a compact subset of X Y, and it is a neighbourhood of (x, y) (by
the definition of the product topology). Therefore X Y is locally compact; by induction a finite product of locally
compact spaces is locally compact.
Q
60. Let {Xn }
n=1 be a collection of sequentially compact spaces, and let hxn in=1 be a sequence in n=1 Xn . Starting with
0
hxn in=1 :=
hxn in=1 , define for each m N a subsequence hxn in=1 of hxn in=1 such that hm (xm
m m1
n )in=1 converges

to xm Xm . Define x n=1 Xn by n (x) = xn for all n N, and let U n=1 Xn be a neighbourhood of x.
Q Q

There exists N N and open subsets Un Xn for each n {1, 2, . . . , N } such that x N 1
n=1 n (Un ) U. Given
m {1, 2, . . . , N }, hxnn i m n m
n=m is a subsequence of hxn in=1 , so there exists Nm N such that m (xn ) = x for all n N
with n Nm . If n N and n max{Nm }N n m n
m=1 then m (xn ) = x for all m {1, 2, . . . , N }, and hence xn U. This

shows that hxnn i
Q
n=1 (a subsequence of hxn in=1 ) converges to x. Therefore n=1 Xn is sequentially compact.

63. If f = 0 then T f = 0 C([0, 1]). Otherwise kf ku > 0. Let (0, ) and note that K is uniformly continuous
(because [0, 1]2 is compact). Hence there exists (0, ) such that |K(z1 ) K(z2 )| < /kf ku for all z1 , z2 [0, 1]2
with |z1 z2 | < . It follows that
Z 1 Z 1 
 
|T f (x1 ) T f (x2 )| = 
 K(x1 , y)f (y) dy K(x2 , y)f (y) dy 
0 0
Z 1 
 
=  (K(x1 , y) K(x2 , y))f (y) dy 

0
Z 1
|K(x1 , y) K(x2 , y)||f (y)| dy
0
Z 1

|f (y)| dy
0 kf ku
Z 1

kf ku dy
0 kf ku
Z 1
= dy
0
=

for all x1 , x2 [0, 1] with |x1 x2 | < . This shows that T f C([0, 1]). Now let (0, ) and choose (0, ) such
that |K(z1 ) K(z2 )| < for all z1 , z2 [0, 1]2 with |z1 z2 | < . Then |K(z1 ) K(z2 )| < /kf ku for all f C([0, 1])
with 0 < kf ku 1 and z1 , z2 [0, 1]2 with |z1 z2 | < , so {T f | kf ku 1} is equicontinuous by the above calculation
and the fact that |0 0| < . Moreover, if x [0, 1] and f C([0, 1]) with kf ku 1 then
Z 1  Z 1 Z 1
 
|T f (x)| =  K(x, y)f (y) dy  |K(x, y)||f (y)| dy |K(x, y)| dy,
0 0 0

so {T f | kf ku 1} is pointwise bounded, and thus precompact by the Arzela-Ascoli theorem.

64. Let (0, ) and define := . If f F := {f C(X) | kf ku 1 and N (f ) 1} then

|f (x) f (y)| N (f )(x, y) (x, y) < =

9
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

for all x, y X with (x, y) < . This implies that F is equicontinuous. Moreover, if f F and x X then
|f (x)| kf ku 1, so F is pointwise bounded and hence precompact, by the Arzela-Ascoli theorem. Now let hfn i n=1
be a sequence in F which converges in C(X) to some f C(X). If x X then hfn (x)i n=1 is a sequence in [1, 1]

which converges to f (x), so |f (x)| 1 and hence kf ku 1. Similarly, if x, y X then hfn (x) fn (y)in=1 converges
to f (x) f (y), and hence |f (x) f (y)| (x, y) . This implies that f F, so F is closed, thus compact.

68. Define E := {(x, y) 7 f (x)g(y) | f C(X), g C(Y )}. The collection A of finite sums of elements of E is the algebra
generated by E, because this algebra contains A, and A is an algebra. Indeed, if f1 , f2 , . . . fn , h1 , h2 , . . . , hm C(X)
and g1 , g2 , . . . , gn , k1 , k2 , . . . , km C(Y ), then

n
! m
n X
m n X
m
X X X X
fi gi hj kj =
fi gi hj kj = (fi hj )(gi kj ) A.
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

Note that A is closed under complex conjugation, because if f1 , f2 , . . . fn C(X) and g1 , g2 , . . . , gn C(Y ) then
n
X n
X n
X
fi gi = fi gi = fi gi A.
i=1 i=1 i=1

Because complex conjugation is continuous, A is also closed under complex conjugation. If (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) X Y
and (x1 , y1 ) 6= (x2 , y2 ), then x1 6= x2 or y1 6= y2 . In the former case, there exists f C(X) with f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
because X is normal, and hence f 1 A separates (x1 , y1 ) from (x2 , y2 ). The latter case is similar, and we conclude
that A separates points. Since X Y is compact and Hausdorff, and A contains the constant functions, the complex
Stone-Weierstra theorem implies that A = C(X Y ).

69. Let A and B be the subalgebras of C(X) and C(X, R), respectively, generated by the coordinate maps and the
constant function 1. Then A = spanC (B), because A contains B (note that A C(X, R) is a subalgebra of C(X, R))
and spanC (B) is an algebra. Indeed, if a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b1 , b2 , . . . , bm C and f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , g1 , g2 , . . . , gm B then

n
! m
n X m n Xm
X X X X
ai fi bj gj =
ai fi bj gj = (ai bj )(fi gj ) spanC (B).
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

Therefore A is closed under complex conjugation, because if a1 , a2 , . . . , an C and f1 , f2 , . . . fn B then

n
X n
X n
X
ai fi = ai fi = ai fi A.
i=1 i=1 i=1

Because complex conjugation is continuous, A is also closed under complex conjugation. If x1 , x2 X and x1 6= x2 ,
then (x1 ) 6= (x2 ) for some A, and hence A separates points. By Tychonoffs theorem X is compact, and it
is also Hausdorff because [0, 1] is Hausdorff. Since A contains the constant functions, the complex Stone-Weierstra
theorem implies that A = C(X).

70. (a) By definition h(I) = f I f 1 ({0}), which is closed because {0} is closed in R.
(b) Clearly 0 k(E). If f, g k(E) and a R then af (x) + g(x) = 0 for all x E, so af + g k(E). Moreover,
if f k(E) and g C(X, R) then f (x)g(x) = 0 for all x E, so f g k(E). This shows that k(E) is an ideal
of C(X, R). For each x E the coordinate map x : C(X, R) R is (Lipschitz) continuous (relative to the
uniform norm on C(X, R)), so k(E) = xE e1x ({0}) is closed.

10
 Real Analysis Chapter 4 Solutions Jonathan Conder

c
(c) Clearly E h(k(E)), and hence E h(k(E)). If x E then, since X is normal, there exists f C(X, R) such
that f (E) = 0 and f (x) = 1. It follows that x
/ h(k(E)), because f k(E) but f (x) 6= 0. Thus h(k(E)) = E.
(d) Clearly I k(h(I)), and hence I k(h(I)). Define U := X \ h(I), and let x U. Then {x} and U c are closed
and disjoint, so there exist disjoint open neighbourhoods V, W X of x and U c . It follows that W c U is a
compact neighbourhood of x, since X is compact and V W c . This shows that U is locally compact. Define
J := { f |U | f I}. If f I and (0, ) then {x U | |f |U (x)| } = {x X | f (x) } because f (x) = 0
for all x h(I). Since this set is closed (thus compact), f |U C0 (U ). Therefore J is a closed subalgebra of
C0 (U, R) (because function restriction respects pointwise addition and multiplication, and uniform limits). If
x, y U and x 6= y, there exists f I such that f (x) 6= 0. Since X is normal there exists g C(X, R) such
that g(x) = 1 and g(y) = 0. Then gf I and hence (gf )|U J, so J separates points. Moreover, there is
no x U such that f (x) = 0 for all f J. By the Stone-Weierstra theorem, it follows that J = C(U, R) or
J = C0 (U, R), depending on whether U is closed or not. If f k(h(I)) then f |U C0 (U, R) for the same reason
that J C0 (U, R), so f |U = g|U for some g I, in which case f = g because f (x) = g(x) = 0 for all x h(I).
This shows that k(h(I)) I, and hence k(h(I)) = I.
(e) The previous two exercises show that k is a bijection from the closed subsets of X onto the closed ideals of
C(X, R).

76. Let B be a countable base for the topology on X. Since X is normal, for each U, V B such that V U, there exists
fU,V C(X, [0, 1]) which is 0 on U c and 1 on V . Clearly F := {fU,V | U, V B and V U } is countable. Let C X
be closed and let x C c . There exists U B such that x U C c , and by normality there exist disjoint open sets
U 0 , V 0 X such that U c U 0 and x V 0 . Then x V V 0 for some V B, and V V 0 (U 0 )c U. Now C U c ,
so fU,V (C) = {0}, while fU,V (x) = 1 because x V. This shows that F separates points and closed sets.

77. Clearly maps into [0, 1]. If x X, then (x, x) = 0 by definition. Given x, y X with x 6= y, there exists n N
such that xn 6= yn , in which case (x, y) 2n n (xn , yn ) > 0. Clearly (x, y) = (y, x) for all x, y X. Moreover,

X
X
X
X
(x, z) = 2n n (xn , zn ) 2n (n (xn , yn )+(yn , zn )) = 2n n (xn , yn )+ 2n (yn , zn ) = (x, y)+(y, z)
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

for all x, y, z X. This shows that is a metric.

Let n N and U Xn be open. Given x n1 (U ), there exists r (0, ) such that Br (xn ) U. If y B2n r (x)
then (x, y) < 2n r, and in particular n (xn , yn ) < r, which implies that yn U and hence y n1 (U ). This shows
that n1 (U ) is open in (X, ), and hence every member of the product topology on X is open in (X, ).
Conversely, let U X be open in (X, ). Given x U, there exists r (0, ) such that Br (x) U. Choose N N
so that 21N r. For each n {1, 2, . . . , N } define Un := Br/2 (xn ), and set V := N 1
n=1 n (Un ). If y V then

N
X
X N
X
X
(x, y) = 2n (xn , yn ) + 2n (xn , yn ) < 2n1 r + 2n < 21 r + 2N r,
n=1 n=N +1 n=1 n=N +1

so y U. Since x V, this shows that U is open in the product topology. Therefore (X, ) has the product topology.

11