Running head: RESILIENCE THEORY 1

Resilience Theory:

Applications for Prevention Programs in Elementary Schools

Sasha Gordon

University of Utah

Comprehensive Qualifying Examination

Mary Wells

November 13, 2017

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Introduction

In recent decades, there has been a shift in health and human-related services, which has

begun to move the focus of treatment away from deficit reduction and towards strengths-based

practices. This change can be seen clearly within the field of positive psychology, where

researchers are finding evidence that the most powerful ingredient common to effective

therapies may be the building of human strengths (Carruthers & Hood, 2007, p. 277).

One theory in particular that has gained traction within this movement is resilience

theory. Zimmerman (2013) stated that resilience theory provides a conceptual framework for

considering a strengths-based approach to understanding child and adolescent development and

informing intervention design (p. 381). Similarly, Zolkoski and Bullock (2012) explain that this

theory is focused more on strengths than on deficits as it attempts to explain how some children

achieve healthy outcomes in spite of exposure to risk and trauma.

No child is immune to the fast-paced environment in which they are growing up.

According to Goldstein, Brooks & DeVries (2013), even children fortunate to not face

significant adversity or trauma, or to be burdened by intense stress or anxiety, experience the

pressures around them and the expectations placed upon them (p. 74). Thus, it is important for

all children to develop their strengths and build resilience to deal with change and to cope with

the challenges they will experience.

The purpose of this paper will be to show how resilience theory provides a strengths-

based approach to developing a prevention program for fifth and sixth graders in an elementary

school setting. The paper will begin by defining resilience and identifying the key components of

the theory, while also explaining the history and research that has been done to learn more about

resilience. The paper will then outline typical child development for this age group, and show
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how a resilience prevention program could benefit the developmental needs of elementary school

children.

Defining Resilience

Throughout the literature, resilience has been defined in many ways. One of the

pioneering researchers, Emmy Werner, coined the term to describe the ability that many young

people have to bounce back, or thrive in the face of adversity (Peterson, 2006). Another

definition states that it is achieving positive outcomes despite challenging or threatening

circumstances, coping successfully with traumatic experiences, and avoiding negative paths

linked with risks (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012, p. 2296). Others have broadened the term to

suggest that it is the ability to overcome the emotional, developmental, economic, and

environmental challenges children face as they grow up (Goldstein et al., 2013, p. 73).

Although there are many different definitions of resilience, they tend to have several

things in common. For example, Werner (1995) explained that the term is usually used to

describe three things: achieving good developmental outcomes in spite of exposure to risk,

competence in the face of stress, and the ability to recover from traumatic experiences. Similarly,

a critical review of resilience research found that some of the similar features in definitions of

resilience included a reference to human strengths, some form of disruption and growth,

adaptation and the ability to cope, and positive outcomes following exposure to trauma or

adversity (Prince-Embury, 2013, p. 9).

There have also been some differences that have come up in the definitions. For example,

some researchers have suggested that resilience is within the person, while others suggest that

there are many sources of resilience. Additionally, several people have differentiated between

resiliency as a personality trait, and resilience as a dynamic process that is impacted by a

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combination of personal and environmental factors (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000). For

instance, Rutter (2007) suggested that resilience is not an observed trait, as some people may be

resilient in some environments or situations, and not in others. As research has expanded, the

majority of researchers seem to agree with the idea that resilience is most appropriately

conceptualized as a developmental process or a dynamic capacity rather than as a static outcome

or trait (Yates, Tyrell, & Masten, 2014, p. 774).

History and Development of Resilience Theory

The study of resilience has roots in the fields of medicine, education, and psychology.

Research about resilience within the behavior sciences began with the same forces that brought

about research into developmental psychopathology in the 1970s (Masten, 2007; Zolkoski &

Bullock, 2012). Since that time, there have been three primary waves of research and

development in resilience theory, which have focused on (1) risk factors, (2) protective factors,

and (3) intervention and prevention efforts.

Risk Factors

The first wave was largely descriptive and emerged as scientists attempted to understand

the development of psychopathology, as well as what could be done to prevent it. The main

focus of this early phase was on risk factors, which are adverse circumstances or events, which

jeopardize a childs development and chances of achieving good long-term outcomes (Patton,

2013, p. 649). Researchers began to identify biological, psychological, economic, and social

factors that could hinder development. Some examples of risk factors they identified include

prenatal exposure to drugs, poverty, and parental mental illness (Aronowitz, 2005).

Early researchers evaluated children who seemed to experience healthy outcomes in spite

of growing up in high-risk situations. For example, Manfred Bleuler, one of the earliest
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resilience researchers, conducted longitudinal studies to look at the families of individuals

diagnosed with psychiatric disorders. He claimed to find evidence of strength and healthy

development among these families in spite of the difficulties they were facing (Zolkoski &

Bullock, 2012). Another early researcher, Michael Rutter, conducted a series of studies known as

the Isle of Wight Studies. In his research, he looked at children growing up in the face of various

risk factors including parental psychiatric disorders, low socioeconomic status, and family

conflict. He found that children experiencing a combination of multiple risk factors were less

likely to achieve positive outcomes. He also found that the presence of some risk factors

increased the negative influence of others. Based on his results, he suggested that the way to

enhance the positive development of these children would be to try to eliminate the presence of

these stressors or risk factors (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012).

Protective Factors

With the second wave of research, investigators began to focus on the processes and

factors associated resilience. They realized that understanding the risk factors was not enough

they wanted to evaluate the factors that helped to explain why many individuals growing up in

the face of adversity seemed to overcome that exposure and experience healthy development

(Patton, 2013). They began to identify themes and to classify protective factors, or variables that

serve to modify or compensate for the effects of risk exposure (Luthar, Lyman, & Crossman,

2014). Through this research, they found that individuals with many protective factors often

experienced better outcomes than those with just a few. Additionally, they began to realize that

the presence of some factors could lead to the development of others (Erikson, Cater, Andershed,

& Andershed, 2010).

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The work of Norman Garmezy opened the door to more of a strengths-based approach to

understanding these different protective factors that lead to resilience. Through his early studies,

he began to notice cases of children that seemed to be doing well in spite of adversity. This

finding led to a shift in his research, as he recognized that understanding resilience might provide

clues about how to prevent mental illness and promote healthy development. He founded the

Project Competence studies of risk and resilience, and through these studies began to notice the

importance of factors such as good parenting and cognitive skills in developing resilience in

children (Masten, Nuechterlein, & Wright, 2011).

Emmy Werner was another one of the early researchers that began to notice specific

factors that helped children overcome the odds and develop into competent adults. She

conducted a longitudinal study where she followed a group of 660 individuals from birth to age

32 to evaluate the effects of risk factors over time. Of these individuals, about 30% of them were

considered high-risk due to things such as poverty, prenatal stress, family discord, and parental

mental illness. Her findings showed that one-third of these high-risk children achieved healthy

outcomes (Werner, 1995). She identified factors such as outgoing personality dispositions,

ability to identify sources of support, and perceptions of self-worth that all seemed to influence

these individuals abilities to cope. She concluded that to help vulnerable children become more

resilient, it is necessary to decrease their exposure to potential risk factors and increase their

competencies and self-esteem, as well as the sources of support they can draw upon (Werner,

1995, p. 84). As evidenced by this statement, during this second wave of research, researchers

realized that increasing resilience was not entirely about removing the risk factors, but also about

developing strengths to cope with risk and adversity (Alvord & Grados, 2005).
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Continuing the work of these pioneering researchers, many other researchers began to

focus on these protective processes. They began to recognize that protective factors fall into

three main categories, referred to as the triad of resiliency: personality disposition or individual

characteristics, a family support system, and the environment outside the family (Richardson,

2002). Other researchers have broadened this to look at internal assets and external resources that

factor into resilience.

Internal protective factors. In a review of current literature, Eriksson et al. (2010)

identified several internal factors that have been found to influence resilience. The list included

factors such as positive temperament, effective problem solving, coping skills, internal locus of

control, motivation, self-efficacy, positivity, emotional/self-regulation, and self-esteem. They

were able to cite several studies that had found these factors to be significant in healthy

development. For example, one study looked at the relationship between self-efficacy and

resilience. The findings showed that these two constructs are reciprocal, meaning that resilience

was found to predict the development of self-efficacy, and evidence showed that possessing self-

efficacy had a positive impact on an individuals ability to adapt and cope to changes and

adversity (Milioni et al., 2014).

Milioni and colleagues (2016) conducted a study to evaluate the connections between

resilience and positivity. Their results showed that positivity was able to predict resilience over

time, and they also found strong associations between positivity and the ability to cope with

changing and difficult environments (Milioni, Alessandri, Eisenberg, & Caprara, 2016).

Another study evaluated how locus of control plays into resilience and found that when

individuals felt like they had control and power to change their situation, they were less likely to

be negatively impacted by adversity (Juby & Rycraft, 2004). Other studies have found that when
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children are better able to control and regulate their emotions, they exhibit cognitive and socio-

emotional competence and can form more positive social relationships (Alvord & Grados, 2005).

External protective factors. Many studies have shown the importance of external

resources that can help to build resilience. These resources involve family members as well as

other individuals and the outside environment.

Many studies have shown the importance of family and parental support in an

individuals ability to overcome risk factors. For example, the results of a longitudinal study

conducted by Conger and Conger (2002) showed that individuals with supportive and involved

parents experienced more positive adjustment, higher levels of self-confidence, and less

antisocial behaviors. Werner (1995) also found that resilient children have usually been able to

establish a close bond with at least one competent and stable adult. For some children, this was a

parent, but for others, it was another family member, a teacher, coach, or someone in the

community that became a positive role model for the child. Aronowitz (2005) explained,

Having a connected relationship with a caring, competent, and responsible adult has been

shown to decrease risk behaviors in adolescents (p. 206).

Researchers have also identified many other community resources that contribute to

resilience such as community prevention and intervention programs, support services,

recreational facilities and programs, and accessibility to adequate health services (Alvord &

Grados, 2005).

Intervention & Prevention Programs

Over the last few decades, resilience research has expanded significantly with the third

wave of research. Researchers began to take the information learned about protective factors and

focused on how they could promote them through intervention and prevention programs
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(Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). While science was trying to explain the phenomena and processes

of resilience, there were an increasing number of children growing up in the face of difficult

odds. Researchers needed to figure out if they could implement this information in clinically

relevant interventions for youth facing risk and adversity. Additionally, they wanted to find out if

it could be applied to the population of children in general in an effort to create a resilient

mindset in all youth (Goldstein et al., 2013, p. 74). In other words, they realized that they

needed to shift from identifying protective factors and move towards understanding them so they

could help to promote them (Luthar et al., 2000). They began conducting experiments to test the

findings directly. Many of these researchers were professionals trained in clinical, community,

and educational psychology (Masten, 2007).

These intervention and prevention efforts have taken many different forms. Masten and

colleagues (2009) categorized them into risk-focused, asset-focused, and process-focused

strategies. Risk-focused strategies are the programs that attempt to remove or reduce risk factors.

Some examples of these are reducing neighborhood crime, increasing prenatal care, and avoiding

multiple foster care placements. Asset-focused strategies are those programs that attempt to

increase the number or quality of protective factors for an individual. These processes include

things such as educating parents and teachers about child development, organizing clubs or

community programs, providing tutors to adolescents, and building recreation centers with the

intent to include prevention-type programming. Finally, process-focused strategies are those that

seek to protect, activate, or restore basic adaptive systems that support development (Yates et

al., 2015, p. 778). These programs focus on things such as encouraging the development of

healthy relationships through extracurricular activities and providing training programs for new

parents to foster secure attachments (Masten, Cutuli, Herbers, & Reed, 2009).
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Application to Practice

As the study of resilience has gone through these phases of research, it has become

evident that interventions need to focus on developing assets and resources for those exposed to

risk rather than concentrating on risk amelioration (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). Many

researchers have compiled lists of protective factors for use by professionals, families, schools,

and communities in developing programs to promote resilience in individuals. One specific

example of this is the Seven Resiliencies Model (see Figure 1) created by Wolin and Wolin

(1993). They have conducted years of research about resilience, and have identified strengths

that survivors of trauma and adversity possess. They combined these strengths into seven

categories of resilience, which are insight, independence, relationships, initiative, humor,

creativity, and morality. These seven strengths form the resiliency mandala. The following is a

brief explanation of each strength (Wolin, Desetta, & Hefner, 2000):

Insight: the ability to ask difficult questions and give honest answers.

Independence: being able to draw boundaries and keep an emotional and physical

distance from sources of trouble in ones life.

Relationships: making fulfilling connections with those who matter, and balancing the

processes of give and take with those people.

Initiative: taking charge and addressing problems head-on.

Creativity: using ones imagination as a way to express oneself and handle difficult

feelings and experiences.

Humor: finding the comic in difficult, stressful, or tragic situations, and being able to

keep perspective.

Morality: doing the right thing even when it is not easy.

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They suggest that this resiliency mandala can be used to guide a strengths-based approach to

promoting and building resilience. Project Resilience is based on the idea that these strengths can

be taught, modeled, and learned (Wolin & Wolin, 1999).

Figure 1: The Seven Resiliencies. (Wolin & Wolin, 1999).

They have also suggested that these strengths look different during various stages of

development, and have expanded the model to show the phases of development for each of the

strengths through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (see Figure 2). Each circle of the model

shows one of the phases, with childhood being the closest to the center, adolescence in the

middle, and adulthood on the outside, so the diagram shows the usual progression of

development for each of the resiliencies.

Figure 2: Phases of the Seven Resiliencies. (Wolin & Wolin, 1999).

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This information can be beneficial to professionals working to develop intervention and

prevention programs with individuals of different age groups. For example, if designing a

prevention program for children, it would be helpful to understand that morality takes the form

of judging, meaning that the children can make distinctions between good and bad. They are not

yet at the stage of valuing where they begin acting and making decisions based on their

principles. So efforts with children would need to focus more on helping them identify and make

distinctions between wrong and right.

Child Development

As children near the end of their elementary school years, they are experiencing many

developmental changes. Although they are in the stage of development typically referred to as

middle childhood, they are also nearing adolescence. Many professionals differ by a year or so in

when middle childhood begins (between ages 6-8 years), but most agree that the transition

between middle childhood and adolescence usually starts around the age of twelve. These years

are a critical transitional period for children as they are moving towards adolescence and

adulthood.

Children in fifth and sixth grade are usually between the ages of ten and twelve and are

experiencing many changes in their physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.

Although there are typical milestones that children pass through as they develop, it is important

to remember that development is a mix of both common and unique experiences (Glowiak &

Mayfield, 2016, p. 281). This is because children are growing up in different environments and

are facing different challenges; so many aspects of development are unique to each child. It is

still important to understand the basic developmental stages in order to recognize where a child

is in his or her development.

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Physical Development

Physical changes. Middle childhood is a time of biological and neurophysiological

development (Zembar & Blume, 2009). During middle childhood, physical growth is slow and

steady, which is in contrast to the rapid growth of early childhood. Although their growth is

slower than previous development, children are still growing a significant amount during this

period. For example, on average children grow about 2-3 inches in height, and gain about 6-7

pounds per year (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). At the beginning of middle childhood, boys are

usually taller than the girls, but that shifts as they move towards puberty. Additionally, boys tend

to be more muscular than girls, while girls tend to retain more of their fatty tissue, which

prepares them for puberty (Campbell, 2011).

Late in middle childhood, children begin to experience hormonal changes, which take

place around the same time as they are developing their permanent molars, and their brains reach

their complete volume (Campbell, 2011). Some of these changes lead to the appearance of

axillary and pubic hair, axillary odor, and increased secretion of sebum (sometimes causing

acne) (Finkelstein, 2000, p. 221). Additionally, in the later years of middle childhood, some

children may begin to go through puberty. The onset of puberty takes place at different times for

each child, but the changes can begin to take place as early as age nine or ten (Glowiak &

Mayfield, 2016). As these changes take place and children transition into puberty, children often

begin to feel awkward and confused about the changes taking place in their bodies. It is

important for adults to appropriately educate children about these changes to help them through

the transition (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015).

Motor development. Because physical growth slows during middle childhood, children

can maintain the coordination they have developed thus far and continue to refine and develop
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new physical skills (Berger, 2013). They are able to jump higher and farther, as well as run

faster. As they continue to develop their gross motor skills, they experience increased flexibility,

balance, and agility (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). Because of these improved abilities, they begin

to participate more in advanced physical activities and sports. In addition to their gross motor

development, they also experience improved fine motor skills, which are manifest in their

handwriting, art, the ability to play a musical instrument, etc. (Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016).

Cognitive Development

The cognitive changes that take place during middle childhood are often even more

noticeable than the physical changes (Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016). Two main theorists have

attempted to explain cognitive development in children: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

Piagets theory of cognitive development. According to Piagets theory, children go

through four main phases of cognitive development: sensorimotor (birth to age 2 years);

preoperational (ages 2 to 7 years); concrete operations (ages 7 to 11 years); and formal

operational (ages 11 to 15 years through adulthood). During middle childhood, children are

usually progressing through the last three stages.

Children in fifth and sixth grades will most likely be in the concrete operations stage,

which is characterized mostly by the childs ability to think more logically and reason about their

experiences and perceptions based on what they know and have seen. However, they are not yet

able to think about abstract mental concepts (Berger, 2013). For example, a child in this stage

will likely be able to tell you that a consequence of not brushing their teeth might be cavities, but

will likely struggle to think of any other implications or consequences (Glowiak & Mayfield,

2016). Similarly, the child may struggle to fully understand the implications for a family if the

parent loses a job (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015).

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Some examples of specific cognitive skills that children develop during the concrete

operations stage are things such as conservation, decentration, reversibility, classification and

spatial reasoning (Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016). These technical skills develop without the child

even realizing that they have been able to master them, but they are noticeable to the adults and

outside observers that are familiar with the childs progress (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). Part of

the processes that allow them to develop these skills relate to their increased attention span and

improved ability to store and remember information.

While most children will remain in the concrete operations stage during their late

elementary school years, some may begin to transition to the formal operational stage. This

typically happens between the ages of 11 and 15 years but is not a sudden change. Rather, it

occurs over time as they become better at organizing their thinking and looking at things in a

more complex way. During this stage, they develop the ability to move past concrete thinking

and start thinking more abstractly and hypothetically. This allows them to utilize deductive

reasoning skills more effectively (Scott & Saginak, 2016).

Vygotskys social development theory. Although Piagets theory has been widely

accepted and utilized in child development, Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development is

not that simple. He suggested that social, interpersonal, and linguistic factors impact cognitive

development during middle childhood. According to this theory, children learn and develop these

cognitive abilities through their interactions with others. The term zone of proximal

development is used to explain the difference between what children can do on their own and

what they can do with the help of others (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). According to social

development theory, the ideal environment for a child to develop the cognitive skills described
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by Piaget is one where the experiences fall within this zone and one where they have adults and

peers to provide scaffolding to help them develop the skills further.

Psychosocial Development

As with physical and cognitive development, middle childhood is a time of significant

emotional and social growth. According to Erik Erikson, at this age children are in the Industry

vs. Inferiority stage of psychosocial development. Industry is defined as a sense of feeling

industrious and productive, which happens when the child is able to develop and establish skills,

and then feels successful when they demonstrate them effectively. In contrast, inferiority is a

result of the child feeling inadequate or incompetent when he or she fails to accomplish

something. This means that it is important during middle childhood to provide opportunities for

children to experience success and feel a sense of industry (Berger, 2013).

Emotional development. During middle childhood, the main components of emotional

development are emotions, identity, and self-esteem (Zembar & Blume, 2009). Children are

better able to recognize the emotions they are experiencing, as well as those of the people around

them. They also have increased abilities to manage their emotions and communicate about what

they are feeling (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). Additionally, they begin to understand the

complexity of emotions, and can identify how emotions can drive behaviors; they begin to

recognize that the way a person reports the emotions he or she is feeling may not be consistent

with what they are actually feeling (Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016). As their ability to recognize

and identify complex emotions increases, children also develop stronger perspective-taking

skills. This means they can imagine what other people are thinking and feeling and develop more

empathy towards those people (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015).

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Middle childhood is also a time when personality characteristics become more defined,

and personal identity becomes more complex. Rather than describe themselves based on their

observable characteristics, children of this age begin to describe themselves more using

personality qualities and can usually identify both strengths and weaknesses. This is when they

begin to compare themselves to others, and their self-esteem reflects those comparisons in

different areas such as appearance, intelligence, physical abilities, and artistic abilities (Morelli

& Dombeck, 2015).

Overall self-esteem and personal identity may fluctuate during middle childhood, but

with support and guidance from parents, teachers, and other positive role models, it generally

begins to rise again as children learn to build on their strengths and address their weaknesses.

This relates to Eriksons explanation of industryas the child begins to feel successful and

productive with a combination of challenging experiences and some adult support, he or she will

realize that success does not depend only on abilities, but on outside factors such as the support

of others, effort, perseverance, and asking for help (Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016).

Social development. Middle childhood is a time when social connections become

increasingly influential. As children begin their full-time schooling, they are spending more time

with their peers than they are with their families. This means that while they become more

independent and rely less on their parents, the peer group becomes more influential than ever

before (Berger, 2013).

Due to their cognitive and emotional development, the friendships children make during

middle childhood begin to take on some of the characteristics of adult relationships, and become

more than simple companionship. As children are increasingly able to think more abstractly and

understand others emotions, they are able to build relationships based on mutual regard, trust,
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and respect (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). This is the time when peer groups start to form, and

children often experience a decrease in the total number of friends they have as a result of

spending more time building specific relationships (Berger, 2013).

Though middle childhood leads to decreasing dependence on parents, the family still

plays an important role in supporting a childs social development. According to Isabella (2016),

school-age children will likely experience positive development if their families support them in

five ways: provide basic necessities, encourage learning, instill self-respect, nurture peer

relationships, and ensure harmony and stability (p. 9). Children will generally model the

behaviors and beliefs of their family members, and as they begin to develop their social

relationships, they will seek support and nurturing from parents and other close family members

(Morelli & Dombeck, 2015).

Moral development. In the early years of middle childhood, children tend to view moral

issues in a black and white way of thinking. This aligns with their cognitive development, and

they tend to accept rules given by authority figures and accept them based on their understanding

of the consequences associated with breaking the rules (Morelli & Dombeck, 2015). However,

this begins to change towards the end of middle childhood, as they begin to be able to think more

abstractly and understand different perspectives. When this happens, children begin to shift

towards a more contextual framework in looking at moral issues (Passini, 2010). As the child

attempts to integrate varying viewpoints, the moral self becomes more developed and solidified

(Glowiak & Mayfield, 2016).

Resilience Prevention Program

Understanding the development that takes place during middle childhood provides some

important implications for designing a resilience-based prevention program for fifth and sixth
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graders. As was mentioned in the introduction, no child is immune to change, stress, or adversity,

so it is important to provide children with the resources and abilities they need to cope and

achieve positive developmental outcomes. Goldstein et al. (2013) suggested that by developing

resilience, children will be able to deal more effectively with stress and pressure, to cope with

everyday challenges, to bounce back from disappointments, adversity, and trauma, to develop

clear and realistic goals, to solve problems, to relate comfortably with others, and to treat oneself

and others with respect (p. 74).

During middle childhood, children are experiencing many changes, and since they are

spending a good portion of their day at school, their teachers and peers have a large influence on

their development. With todays educational policies and expectations, as well as the emphasis

on test scores and academic achievement, it can be easy to overlook the importance of focusing

on a childs social/emotional development at school. However, Goldstein et al. (2013) explained,

Strengthening a students feeling of well-being, self-esteem, and dignity should not be an

afterthought. If anything, a students sense of belonging, security, and self-confidence in the

classroom provides the scaffolding that supports the foundation for enhanced learning,

motivation, self-discipline, responsibility, and the ability to deal more effectively with obstacles

and mistakes (p. 82). Mallin, Walker, and Levin (2013) expounded on this by suggesting that

schools should regularly offer mental health promotion strategies that can help children develop

resilience.

Wolin and Wolins (1993) Seven Resiliencies Model provides scaffolding to align a

resilience-based prevention program for elementary schools with the specific developmental

needs of fifth and sixth graders. In creating such a program, the phases of development outlined
RESILIENCE THEORY 20

by the model could be used to identify specific developmental needs that could be met by each of

the seven resiliencies.

Insight

During the end of middle childhood, children are beginning to gain a greater

understanding of who they are. Their personality characteristics are developing, and they start to

be able to think more abstractly about various topics. Since insight is the ability to ask and

answer difficult questions, some initial work that could be done to help children develop and

strengthen this protective factor would be to have them think about who they are and what they

want to accomplish. Since their moral thinking is also developing, they could begin to think

about their core beliefs and how they impact who they are and their goals for themselves. Some

of these thoughts might be too abstract for those children still within the concrete operations

phase, but for those that have begun to move towards formal operations, they should be able to

begin thinking more abstractly about these concepts.

Independence

As defined earlier in this paper, independence refers to an individuals ability to draw

boundaries and separate oneself from sources of trouble. In children, this takes the form of

straying away from trouble. By adolescence, resilient individuals tend to disengage and stand up

for themselves in troubling situations (Wolin & Wolin, 1999).

In a program attempting to promote this strength, it could be helpful to work with

children on identifying healthy boundaries. Because they are still mostly in the concrete

operations stage of development, it would be important to do this in a way that is not too

abstract. Children could be asked to role-play different situations and think about how they could

keep themselves out of trouble. They will likely need specific examples of what healthy
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boundaries look like as compared to those that are not healthy. Additionally, because they might

not be able to fully understand the complexity of some situations, it might be beneficial to talk

with them about possible consequences of both healthy and unhealthy boundaries.

Relationships

Relationships are incredibly important during middle childhood because of the social and

emotional development that is taking place. Because peer groups begin to play such a large role

during this time, it is important to help children learn how to develop healthy and positive

relationships. In a resilience program, children could be supported and provided with scaffolding

in their efforts to form friendships with their peers. Their emotional development could be tied

into this, and they could be encouraged to take different perspectives and feel empathy for their

peers so they can build relationships based on trust and respect.

Initiative

The concept of initiative within this model aligns well with Eriksons stage of industry

vs. inferiority that takes place during middle childhood. According to the Seven Resiliencies

Model, initiative is the ability to take charge of problems. As children are developing this

protective factor, it usually takes the form of trial and error as they experiment with different

things. As they move into adolescence, it becomes more goal-directed problem-solving behavior

(Wolin & Wolin, 1999).

There are many directions a resilience program could go to address the developmental

needs of children in this age group in helping them develop initiative. They could be taught

about different decision-making skills or coping skills that could help them take charge when

problems arise. Additionally, they could be given opportunities to use their strengths to solve

tasks and feel productive to develop that feeling of industry and success.
RESILIENCE THEORY 22

Creativity

Creativity begins in childhood with playing, or using ones imagination, and grows into

the ability to express oneself through imagination (Wolin & Wolin, 1999). Many different

approaches could be taken in a resilience program for children to help address their

developmental needs in relation to creativity. Again, it could be related to the need for industry

during middle childhood, and the program could focus on helping children determine their

creative strengths to be productive and feel successful. As children further develop their

emotions, creativity work could also be focused on helping them learn creative and imaginative

ways to express their emotions.

Humor

This factor of resilience takes the same early form as creativitythrough play, and then

using humor to express ones emotions and thoughts (Wolin & Wolin, 1999). As children

progress through concrete operations and towards the formal operational stage, they could be

supported in finding ways to use humor to help them keep perspective during difficult or

stressful situations. Similarly, kids just need opportunities to play and laugh as they are trying to

solve problems or make difficult decisions.

Morality

Middle childhood is a time of great transition regarding moral development, as children

are beginning to think more abstractly and contextually about moral issues. This is a time when

they are trying to establish their moral self. A resilience-based program could be beneficial in

helping them navigate this process. Wolin and Wolin (1999) suggest that morality during

childhood manifests itself in the form of judging, which is the ability to make distinctions

between good and bad. As they transition to adolescence, individuals shift towards valuing and
RESILIENCE THEORY 23

making decisions. To help them with this process, it could be effective to help children identify

their core values, and think about what is important to them. Then they could be prompted

through the process of figuring out how they can implement those values in their daily actions

and decisions. By helping them determine their values, they will likely be better able to make the

decision to do the right thing when situations arise, no matter how difficult it may be.

Conclusion

All too often in research, society, education, and popular culture there is a tendency to

focus on what is wrong with people, rather than on their strengths and abilities. Resilience theory

provides a framework to view individuals through a strengths-based approach. By understanding

this theory and the protective factors that have been found to lead to resilient individuals,

professionals can support children in developing resources that will lead to positive

developmental outcomes as they transition to adolescence and adulthood. Knowledge of typical

development during middle childhood can be combined with this knowledge of resilience to

create programs that are designed to help children build their current strengths and develop

additional ones that align with their specific developmental needs. Such programs have the

potential to help children deal with change and adversity as it comes into their lives. As

Goldstein et al. (2013) stated, Nurturing resilience is an immeasurable, lifelong gift that can be

offered to all children through prevention and promotion efforts (p. 88).
RESILIENCE THEORY 24

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