Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Coastlines
Introduction
Depth of the Ocean Floor
Salinity & Temperature of the Oceans
Oceanic Circulation
Coastlines
Wave Action
Shorelines & the Sediment Budget
Shoreline Protection
Summary
The oceans are the planet's last great living wilderness, man's only
remaining frontier on earth, and perhaps his last chance to prove himself a
rational species.
John L.Culliney
Figure 1. The
distribution of the
world's oceans
and selected seas.
Nearly 90% of the
Southern
Hemisphere is
covered by
oceans.
2
Today we appreciate the oceans for their direct and indirect
impacts on human activity. This chapter is divided into two
halves. The first part considers the physical characteristics of
the oceans and begins with the depth of the ocean floor. The
floor of the ocean is a few hundred meters below sea level
along the margins of the continents but averages over 3 km
depth between the major oceans and reaches a maximum depth
of 11 km in the western Pacific. The ocean floor has the
potential to be a great source of mineral wealth in the future
and mining companies are already staking claims to potentially
lucrative sections of subsea real estate.
Ocean currents are influenced not only by the extent and depth
Average ocean of the oceans but also the salinity and temperature of ocean
area and depth: waters. Ocean waters are thought to have originated from
Pacific Ocean meteorites and icy comets colliding with the early Earth. Both
165,250,000 km2 temperature and salinity change with depth and latitude and
4.28 km each is influenced by atmospheric weather patterns. Each
Indian Ocean factor is examined in the section titled salinity and
73,440,000 km2 temperature of the oceans.
3.89 km
Atlantic Ocean The final section of the first half of the chapter examines how
82,440,000 km2 depth, salinity, and temperature combine to generate
3.33 km characteristic patterns of oceanic circulation. Surface currents
are controlled by dominant wind patterns that are in turn linked
to the rotation of the planet. Deepwater circulation patterns are
controlled by the density of ocean waters and the distribution
of landmasses. Both sets of currents redistribute the Earth's
heat budget and play a crucial role in controlling climate.
3
states and was especially destructive in North Carolina where
winds of over 100 mph generated more than $5 billion in
damages.
4
miles) in elevation. In addition, the average elevation of the
land surface is less than a kilometer but the average depth of
the oceans is approximately 3.8 km (2.3 miles). We could
dump the continents in the ocean basins and still have plenty of
room to spare.
Figure 3.
Characteristics of
the seafloor for the
eastern Pacific and
northwestern
Atlantic Ocean
basins. Map of
seafloor topography
from satellite
altimetry from
NOAA's National
Geophysical Data
Center.
5
(tens of kilometers) landward of subduction zones (e.g., west
coast of South America).
The width of the shelf increases when sea level rises and
decreases during times of sea level decline. Rapid seafloor
spreading associated during the Early Cretaceous period (138-
100 million years ago) caused an expansion of the oceanic
ridge system, displacing water and raising sea level. In
contrast, sea level declined during the most recent Ice Age (2
million -10,000 years ago) when substantial volume of ocean
water was locked up in ice sheets. The Atlantic shore of the
North American continent was located near the present edge of
the continental shelf during the Ice Age.
Figure 4.
Diagrammatic view
of the principal
features of the
ocean floor include
an elevated
oceanic ridge;
deep, narrow
trenches; and a
gradual rise of the
Beyond the shelf break the ocean floor steps down across the ocean floor to the
continental slope and continental rise oceanward of the shelf. continents along
The slope and rise mark the transition from the relatively passive margins.
shallow shelf to the second depth level, the deep ocean floor Note narrow shelf
known as the abyssal plain (Figs. 4, 5). As its name suggests, along active
margin, broad
the continental slope represents an increase in the gradient of
shelf along passive
the ocean floor from the adjoining shelf. The slope is often margin. Vertical
dissected by submarine canyons formed during times of lower and horizontal
sea level. The canyons transported sediment from the shelf to dimensions of
the continental rise. The rise is that section of the slope that has some elements
been a site of sediment accumulation, resulting in an decrease have been
in slope gradient toward the abyssal plain. There is an exaggerated.
unbroken transition from slope to rise, to abyssal plain along
passive margins where the continental and oceanic crust make
up part of the same plate. These margins are not characterized
by the volcanism and earthquake activity that distinguishes
active margins located along plate boundaries.
Much of the abyssal plain lies over four kilometers below the
ocean surface and represents the flattest portions of the Earth's
surface. The plains are covered by layers of sediment
precipitated in the oceans and are dotted with submarine
volcanoes (seamounts). The ocean floor rises to a third level
approaching the oceanic ridge system, a submarine mountain
6
Figure 5. Principal
topographic
features of the
floor of the
southern Atlantic
Ocean. The
oceanic ridge
occupies more
than half the width
of the ocean floor.
Image modified from chain that can be traced around the world. The ocean floor is
original at NOAA's relatively shallow (less than 3 km) along the ridge system. The
National
Geophysical Data
ocean ridge system dominates the floor of the Atlantic Ocean,
Center. occupying over half its width.
Think about it . . .
1. Examine the maps and diagrams of ocean floor
topography at the end of the chapter and answer the
related questions.
2. Label as many features as you can in the image of the
ocean floor adjacent to Monterey Bay, California, found
at the end of the chapter.
7
Ocean temperatures of 27oC are typical of tropical surface
waters and temperatures of 2oC are typical for deep ocean
waters.
Cold water is more dense than warm water, but ice (frozen
solid water) is less dense than liquid water.
Figure 6. Map of
salinity at the
ocean surface.
Numbers
represent salinity
values in parts per
thousand. Salinity
in the open ocean
is greatest in
tropical regions
and decreases in
the isolated Arctic
Ocean. Map
generated at
University of Tokyo
website.
8
Figure 7. High and
low salinity in
restricted seas in
low (Red Sea) and
Salinity and Depth
high (Baltic Sea) Salinity values are variable in the shallow (e.g. 0-200 m) ocean
latitudes. Maps but are much more uniform in deeper waters below 2,000
generated at meters (6,600 feet; Fig. 8). Salinity may decrease with depth in
University of Tokyo
website. the tropics but increases with depth at high latitudes (+60oN/S).
The salinity in the Arctic Ocean (north of 70oN latitude)
increases with depth from 30 to 35 ppt. Salinity in this
relatively isolated ocean basin remains uniform below a depth
of approximately 300 meters (1,000 feet).
9
Figure 8. North-
south profile
through the Pacific
Ocean along the
155.5 meridian
illustrating the
range of salinity
with depth and
latitude. Numbers
represent salinity
values in parts per
thousand. Cross
section generated at
University of Tokyo
website.
10
Second, cold water can be both less dense and more dense than
warm water. Water density increases as water temperature
decreases down to approximately 4oC. Below that temperature
water density decreases, especially when water changes state
from a liquid to solid (ice) form. Consequently, dense cold
water can sink below less dense warm water but ice will float
on the ocean's surface.
11
Figure 11. North-
south profile
through the Pacific
Ocean along the
155.5 meridian
illustrating the
range of
temperature with
depth and
latitude. Cross
section generated at
University of Tokyo
website.
Think about it . . .
Use the data in the thermocline exercise at the end of the
chapter to plot two ocean temperature profiles and answer
the questions that follow.
Oceanic Circulation
Surface ocean currents are driven by winds and involve
only 10% of ocean waters.
Oceanic circulation patterns generate current systems
known as gyres.
Fast-flowing western boundary currents redistribute heat
from the relatively warm tropics to cooler high latitudes
The Coriolis effect is the name of the apparent deflection of
ocean currents or winds to the right of their course in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left of their course in the
Southern Hemisphere.
12
The global conveyer belt moves heat energy from the
tropics to the poles in surface waters and transports cold
waters to warmer location by deep ocean circulation.
Ocean Currents
Ocean surface currents are mainly controlled by climate
(temperature, winds) but are also influenced by the distribution
of continents and Earth's rotation. Surface currents involve
approximately 10% of the world's ocean waters. Sea level is
higher at the equator because of thermal expansion of warm
waters and diminishes toward the poles. The contrast in the
elevation of the ocean surface is about 15 cm (6 inches). In the
absence of winds, water would simply flow away from the
equator ("downhill") under the influence of gravity. Winds
blowing over the ocean exert a frictional drag on surface waters
and are the principal force in controlling oceanic circulation.
Ocean currents follow wind directions except where wind
blows onland. The continents represent barriers to currents,
deflecting them to the north or south of their course (Fig. 12).
Figure 12.
Distribution of
ocean currents.
Note circular
patterns (gyres)
with clockwise
pattern north of
equator and
counterclockwise
pattern south of
equator.
13
Westerly winds cause water to pile up along the western sides
of major oceans. These concentrations of surface water
generate fast-flowing western boundary currents that
redistribute warm tropical waters toward the poles (Fig. 12).
These currents (e.g., Gulf Stream, Kuroshio, Brazil) can be
thought of as marine rivers, relatively narrow (less than 100 km
across) water masses that flow at speeds of 100 to 200 km/day
for thousands of kilometers. The Gulf Stream can transport
over 50 million cubic meters of water per second, hundreds of
times more water than the Amazon, the world's largest river.
Coriolis Effect
Currents are deflected to the right of their course in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left of their course in the
Southern Hemisphere: this pattern is termed the Coriolis effect
(Fig. 13).
Figure 13. Objects
on Earth's equator
travel further (and
faster) than objects
at higher latitudes.
It is this contrast in
velocity that results
in the Coriolis
effect. Objects
moving north from
the equator have a
greater component
of eastward motion
than objects at
higher latitudes
and thus appear to
To an observer on earth, the path of a north- or south-directed deflect to the right
of their course.
wind or ocean current will appear to be deflected. Note that the
wind or current doesnt actually change direction, but the
planet beneath it has changed position. An object (rocket, air
mass, ocean current, etc.) that travels directly north or south in
the Northern Hemisphere appears to be deflected to the
right of its course when viewed from a location on the solid
14
Earth's surface. Objects are deflected to the left of their course
in the Southern Hemisphere. The net result of these
deflections is the circular path of ocean currents.
15
Think about it . . .
1. A shipment of rubber elephants falls overboard in the
northern Pacific Ocean at location A on the map below.
What path do the elephants subsequently follow?
a) A to G to B to F to E to A c) A to G to C to E to A
b) A to E to C to G to A d) A to E to F to B to G to A
Coastlines
Over a quarter of the U.S. population lives in counties
along the Atlantic or Gulf Coasts.
Ten hurricanes have inflicted over a billion dollars of
damages on sites along the East Coast since 1980 and
Hurricane Andrew was the most expensive natural disaster
in U.S. history.
16
Coastal landforms are dependent on the interaction of wave
action with fluvial processes in the continental interior and
human activity.
Long-term processes such as climate cycles (hundreds of
years) and tectonic history (thousands to millions of years)
can raise or lower sea level or coastlines, respectively.
Figure 15.
Hurricane Fran
approaches the
U.S. coastline.
Image from Goddard
Space Flight
Center's Public
Photographic Image
Retrieval System.
17
states. Hurricane Andrew (August 24, 1992) decimated
southern Florida and was the most expensive natural disaster in
U.S. history (58 deaths, $30 billion damages). Many small
insurance companies went bust following Andrew. State Farm,
the nations largest insurance company, shelled out $3.7 billion
in claims. Many in the insurance industry are nervous of a
financial meltdown following a cataclysmic hurricane that
generates damages similar to those of an unnamed storm that
killed over 8,000 people in Galveston, Texas, September 8,
1900.
Figure 16. Rocky
coastline with
headlands and
beaches
characteristic of
U.S. West Coast
(top) and sandy
coastline with low-
lying beaches
typical of the East
Coast (bottom).
Images courtesy of
NOAA photo
collection.
18
Some areas in the Gulf of Mexico coastline are actively
subsiding. Sediment deposited in a delta at the mouth of the
Mississippi River is submerged below sea level during
compaction. Subsidence rates are approximately 1 meter per
century. In the past this subsidence was compensated by
additional sediment supplied during flood events. However, the
construction of levees along the rivers channel prevents the
redistribution of sediment during flooding.
19
Wave Action
Wave size, speed, and direction are controlled by winds.
The wave shape moves but the water within it does not
travel.
Wavelength is the distance between adjacent waves.
Waves increase height and break along the shore when the
depth of water diminishes to less than the wave base.
Waves are refracted toward headlands.
Wave Motion
Shoreline erosion is tied to the interaction between waves and
the coastline. Wave action erodes, transports, and redistributes
sediment along the shoreline. Wave size, speed, and direction
are controlled by winds. Water does not travel with waves but
simply moves vertically, tracing a circular path as a wave
passes. It is the shape of the wave (the waveform) that moves
across the ocean surface, not the water itself (Fig. 18).
Consider the "wave" performed by a crowd at a sporting event.
The wave passes around the stadium as each individual in turn
stands up and sits down. The people in the stadium play the
role of the water particles in ocean waves.
Figure 18.
Sequential wave
motion in open
water. The
waveform moves
while water
particles follow a
circular path and
remain in place.
20
Figure 19. Water
particle motion
decreases
downward from
waves on the
ocean surface
ending at the
wave base.
21
Renewed tectonic activity may result in uplift of the coastline
and another cycle of erosion. The rugged coastline of Oregon
and Washington is constantly revitalized as part of an active
plate boundary separating North America and the small Juan de
Fuca Plate. The coastline is dominated by rocky headlands
separated by small (pocket) beaches.
22
Shorelines and the Sediment Budget
Twenty-six of the thirty states bordering an ocean or Great
Lake are presently experiencing net loss of their shorelines.
Waves that strike a beach at an angle will generate a
longshore current that transports sediment parallel to the
beach in the surf zone.
The sediment budget is the balance between material added
to the shore by deposition and the material removed by
erosion.
Sediment entering the shoreline system is frequently
reduced by human activity (dams, development) and is also
subject to changing natural conditions (drought).
Shoreline Erosion
The short-term evolution of landforms along a coastline
represents the interaction of wave action with fluvial
processes in the continental interior, and human activity. The
coastline is a dynamic environment that advances or retreats
depending upon the balance between the supply of sediment
and the material removed by wave erosion. Twenty-six of the
thirty states bordering an ocean or Great Lake are presently
experiencing net loss of their shorelines (Fig. 23). The most
Figure 23. Coastal
erosion rates along
the Atlantic, Gulf,
and Great Lakes
shorelines. Image
modified from
original in Coasts in
Crisis, an on-line
USGS publication.
23
rapid erosion rates are along the Gulf Coast (Louisiana) and
Atlantic shore (South Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey).
24
Sediment Transport
Wave action causes the erosion, transportation and re-
deposition of sand along the Atlantic shore. In this
environment, the relative orientation of the waves to the beach
controls the distribution of erosion and deposition. Waves that
strike a beach at an angle (Fig. 25) will generate a longshore
current that transports sediment parallel to the beach in the
surf zone (Fig. 26). In addition, sediment on the beach is also
transported laterally parallel to the shoreline. Sediment is
carried up the beach parallel to the direction of wave motion.
Water washes back down slope carrying the sediment parallel
to the slope of the beach. If the waves strike the beach
obliquely the sediment is transported along the beach in a
zigzag pattern. Both mechanisms ensure that sediment is
transported along the length of the beach (Figs. 26, 27).
Figure 25. Waves
strike a
Washington beach
obliquely,
generating a
longshore current
that transfers
sediment from left
to right along the
shore. Image
courtesy of USGS
Center for Coastal
Geology.
Figure 26.
Longshore
currents are
generated in the
surf zone where
waves strike
obliquely against
the shoreline.
Sand particles are
moved along the
beach in a zigzag
pattern and
sediment is
transported along
shore.
25
Figure 27. Addition of
sand to a beach as a
result of longshore
currents generated
during winter storms,
Tomales Bay, north of
Point Reyes,
California. Left: Prior
to storms. Right: After
Sediment transported along the beach can give rise to some storms, sand was
characteristic landforms when it is eventually deposited in calm transported along the
waters of adjoining bays (Fig. 28). Sediment may block the shoreline from the left
entrance to the mouth of a bay to form a baymouth bar or may side of the image.
only partially block a channel to form a landform termed a Images courtesy of
spit. USGS Center for
Coastal Geology.
Sediment Budget
The beach (or shoreline) is not the final resting place for the
sediment. It is an intermediate stop on a longer journey.
Sediment is transported to the coast by streams, redistributed
along the coast by longshore currents, and eventually deposited
offshore.
26
Figure 29. frequently reduced by human activity and is also subject to
Sediment supply changing natural conditions (Fig. 29).
along a coastline
can be disrupted
by human activity
such as dredging
or building jetties
to prevent in-filling
of bays or stream
channels; or by
shoreline
development that
results in the
construction of
seawalls or
breakwaters to
prevent erosion
(and sediment The construction of dams on major rivers will reduce the
production) that volume of sediment reaching the coast, resulting in sediment
threatens homes starvation. Sediment that would once have been deposited
and other along the shoreline is trapped in upstream reservoirs. Dams
buildings. within the Mississippi River drainage basin have reduced
sediment supply to the Mississippi delta by approximately half.
Drought conditions may also reduce streamflow and thus
diminish sediment transported to the shore by streams. Coastal
development may result in the construction of structures
designed to reduce erosion (e.g., breakwaters, seawalls) or to
control the local depositional patterns to prevent infilling of
navigation channels (Fig. 29).
Think about it . . .
Scientists surveyed the Californian coastline to evaluate
erosion and/or accretion associated with winter storms of
1997-1998. Two images of the coastline around Ventura,
California, are presented at the end of the chapter that
show the coastline before and after the storms. Answer the
related questions.
27
Shoreline Protection
Structures built to protect coastlines may prevent erosion of
part of the shoreline but can result in accelerated erosion
elsewhere.
Seawalls, groins, and breakwaters differ in their locations
and orientations relative to the shoreline but all act to
prevent erosion and/or encourage deposition.
Artificial beach nourishment occurs when sand is dredged
and pumped onto the beach from offshore.
Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes and is
surrounded by the large population centers along U.S. and
Canadian shores.
Most of Lake Erie's shoreline is eroding and erosion rates
are greatest where glacial deposits form the shoreline and
are least where bedrock forms the coast.
Presque Isle in the east basin of Lake Erie is eroding
because of shoreline protection measures in the central and
west basins.
Seawalls
Sea walls are built to protect shoreline property owners from
receding shorelines (Fig. 30). As such, they represent a barrier
between waves and the shoreline. Waves are reflected back
from the walls onto the adjoining beach and may promote
beach erosion. Unfortunately, erosion is often exaggerated
where the seawall ends, causing the shoreline to recede more
rapidly on either side of the structure.
28
Figure 30. Seawall
(left) at base of
eroding cliff, north
of Monterey,
California. Note
how erosion is
exaggerated
where the seawall
ends. Image
courtesy of USGS
Center for Coastal
Geology.
Groins
Groins are wall-like structures built along beaches to act as
barriers to longshore currents (Fig. 31). A longshore current
will lose velocity as it meets the groins, causing the current to
deposit part of its sediment load on the upcurrent side of the
groin, thus building up the adjacent beach. However, as the
current passes the groin it picks up additional sediment on the
downcurrent side of the structure causing local erosion.
Breakwaters
Breakwaters are barriers built offshore to protect part of the
shoreline (Fig. 32). They act as obstacles to waves, preventing
erosion and allowing the beach to grow behind the structure.
However, the beach behind the breakwater often grows at the
expense of the adjacent unprotected shoreline.
29
Figure 32.
Breakwaters,
south shore of
Lake Erie,
Maumee Bay State
Park, Ohio. Image
courtesy of the U.S.
Army Corps of
Engineers.
30
east. Regional flow in the lake carries water from west to east
but local currents may reverse that direction.
31
Erie alone has climbed from 3 million to over 14 million
people today.
Think about it . . .
Create a concept map that illustrates the characteristics of
sediment erosion, deposition, and transport along the
shoreline and the factors that affect these processes.
32
Summary
1. How much of Earth's surface is covered by oceans?
Approximately 71% of the planet is covered by oceans. There
are three major oceans (Indian, Pacific, Atlantic) that are
connected along their southern margins by the Southern Ocean
circling Antarctica.
33
6. What factors control the temperature of the oceans?
Solar radiation is distributed over a wider area and must
penetrate a greater thickness of atmosphere at the poles,
reducing the amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface.
Consequently, ocean temperatures are greater near the equator.
The highest ocean temperatures (~27oC) are present along the
equator and temperatures decrease symmetrically to the north
and south approaching 0oC at high latitudes.
34
the world's oceans before upwelling in the northern Pacific and
Indian Oceans.
35
reaching the coast. Drought conditions may also reduce
streamflow and thus diminish sediment transported to the shore
by streams. Coastal development may result in the construction
of structures designed to reduce erosion (e.g., breakwaters,
seawalls) or to control the local depositional patterns to prevent
infilling of navigation channels (jetties).
36
Image Analysis: Continental Margins
1. The image below illustrates part of South America. The
ocean floor is represented by the blue colors. The deeper
depths are shown as darker blues. Label the following
features on the image.
37
3. Which of the profile views below most accurately reflects
the topography of the ocean floor along an east-west line
from Australia to South America?
38
Image Analysis: Monterey Bay
The image below illustrates the topography of the ocean floor
adjacent to Monterey Bay, California. The landforms of
California are shown on the top right side of the image in the
green and gray colors. The blue colors represent the ocean
floor.
39
Thermoclines
The thermocline marks a zone of relatively rapid temperature
change between the warm surface currents and deeper cold
waters. This exercise will attempt to identify the depth range of
this boundary by identifying the location of the thermocline.
1. Plot the data points from the table below on the graph on
the next page and sketch a best fit line for the data.
40
41
Doing Science: Measuring Rates of Coastal
Erosion/Accretion
Scientists with the U.S. Geological Survey devised a plan to
evaluate erosion (removal of material along the shoreline) or
accretion (addition of material) over 1,200 km (750 miles) of
shoreline following the winter storms of 1997 to 1998. They
flew aerial surveys of the coastline before and after the storm
season and compared the images they acquired.
Two images of the coastline around Ventura, California, are
presented on page 43. One represents the coastline prior to the
winter storms and the other illustrates the state of the coastline
after the storms. The accompanying graph shows the relative
positions of the beach before (blue squares) and after (red
triangles) the storms.
1. Examine the graph. What happened to the beach as a result
of the winter storms?
42
x
x marks A
the
same
location
in each x
image
43