HISTORICAL EVENTS AND Research subjects were divided into two groups.

DEVELOPMENT OF CODE OF ETHICS One group of 400 men who had untreated
syphilis.
NAZI MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS (1933-1945)
Control group of 200 men without syphilis.
Atrocious, unethical activities implemented in
Third Reich in Europe from 1933-1945. WILLOWBROOK STUDY (1950-1970)
Programs included sterilization, euthanasia, and Research on hepatitis by Dr. Krugman at
numerous medical experiments in Nazi Willowbrook among mentally retarded children.
concentration camps.
Sterilized Jews whom Nazis considered as racial Early subjects were fed extracts of stool from
enemies. infected individuals.
Medical experiments involved exposing to high Later subjects received injections of purified
altitudes, freezing temperature, malaria, poisons, virus.
typhus fever, untested drugs and surgery without
anesthesia. Parents were forced to give permission for the
Selection of subjects was racially based child to be a subject.
Subjects had no opportunity to refuse the JEWISH CHRONIC DISEASE HOSPITAL STUDY
participation. (1960)
NUREMBERG CODE- 1949 Study conducted to determine patients rejection
Mistreatment of human subjects in Nazi responses to live cancer cells.
experiments led to the development of Twenty two patients were injected with a
Nuremberg Code (1949). suspension containing live cancer cells.
Nuremberg Code contains guidelines for:
Voluntary consent. Physician from Sloan-Kettering Institute for
Withdrawal of subjects from study cancer research directed the study.
Protection of subjects from physical and Study conducted without the informed consent.
mental suffering, injury, disability, and
death.
The balance of benefits and risks in the
study.
DECLARATION OF HELSINKI (1964)
Greater care can be exercised to protect subjects
from harm.
Strong, independent justification for exposing a
healthy volunteer to substantial risk of harm.
Investigators must protect life and health of
research subjects.
TUSKEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY (1932)
U S Public Health Service initiated the study in
town of Tuskegee, Alabama.