Introduction

Hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store

water on its up-stream side.
Stored water utilized as and when required
Water level in the upstream side is very much increased,
and a large area may be submerged depending upon the
water spread of the reservoir so formed.
 Classification
According to use
~ Storage Dam to compound water to its upstream side during periods of
excess supply in the river and is used in periods of deficient supply. Example:
Gravity dams, Earth dam, rock-fill dam and Arch dam etc.
~ Diversion Dam rises water level slightly in the river slightly and thus
provides head for diverting water into ditches, canals etc. Example: Weirs and
Barrages
~Detention Dam to store water during floods and release it gradually at a
safe rate, when the flood recedes. Example: Dike, water spreading dams.
In a multipurpose river valley project, the dam may serve the purpose of
storage, flood protection and recreation.
 According to Hydraulic design
~ Non-overflow dam top of the dam is kept at a higher elevation
than the maximum expected high flood level. Example: Gravity dams,
Earth dam, rock-fill dam and Arch dam etc.

~ Overflow dam designed to carry surplus discharge over its crest.

Crest is kept lower than the top of the other portion of the dam.
Example: Spillways

According to Material
~ Rigid dams constructed of rigid materials such as masonry,
concrete, steel or timber. Example: Gravity dams, and Arch dam etc.

~ Non-rigid dam constructed of non rigid materials like earth

and/or rock fill. Example: Earth dam, rock-fill dam
Gravity Dams
External forces are resisted by self weight of the dam. It is
most permanent and most commonly used and is
constructed either of masonry or concrete.

Advantages
Relatively more stronger than earth dams
Well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest
Can be constructed of any height, provided suitable
foundation is provided
Specially suited to areas where heavy downpours occur
Requires least maintenance
Failure is not sudden
Cheaper in long run
 Disadvantages
Constructed only on sound rock foundations
Initial cost is high
If mechanized plants, such as manufacturing and
transporting mass concrete, curing of concrete etc. are not
available, a gravity dam may take more time to construct
Require skilled labour or mechanized plants for
construction
Difficult to allow subsequent rise in height unless specific
provisions have been made in the initial design.
Gravity Dams

Tygart Dam, West Virginia

 Steel dams
Constructed with a frame work of steel with a thin skin plate as
deck slab on the upstream slab
Advantage
Greater speed and cheaper
Stresses are more determinate
Greater flexibility to resist unequal settlement without excessive
leakage
Not affected by frost action and repairs can be easily done by
welding
Disadvantage
Lighter not adaptable to absorb shock from vibrations
Requires greater and more constant maintenance
 Timber dams
Constructed of framework of timber struts and beams, with timber
planks to resist water pressure.
Advantage
Low initial cost
Suitable for any type of foundation
Where only temporary dams are to be constructed they are most
suitable
Greater speed in construction can be achieved
Disadvantages
High maintenance cost
Life is short
Suitable only for small heights
 Earth and Rock fill dams
Made of locally available soils and gravels.
Advantage
Can be constructed on any type of foundation
Can be constructed rapidly with unskilled labour
Cheaper and can be subsequently raised in height
Disadvantage
Vulnerable to damage by floods and fail suddenly
Cannot be used as overflow dams
Not suitable at the location where heavy downpour is more
common
Heavy maintenance cost and constant supervision
 Selection of type of dam
Topography
Geology and foundation conditions
Materials of construction
Spillway size and location
Roadway
Length and height of dam
Life of dam
Selection of site for a dam
Foundation
Site for spillway
Materials
Reservoir and catchment area
Communication
Locality
Forces acting on a gravity dam
Water pressure
Weight of dam
Uplift pressure
Pressure due to earthquake
Ice pressure
Wave pressure
Silt pressure
 Water pressure
Major external force acting on the dam. Intensity of water pressure
acting horizontally varies triangularly, with a zero intensity at the
water surface, to a value w H at any depth h below water surface.
Resultant pressure horizontal & vertical components
Horizontal force P = w H2/2 acting at H/3 from base
Vertical force P1 = weight of water contained
If there is tail water of height H/
Horizontal force P2 = W H2/2
Vertical force P3 = weight contained
Weight of dam
It is the major resisting force.
For analysis purposes generally unit length of the dam is
considered.
The cross section of the dam may be divided into
several triangles and rectangles, and the weights of each
of these are computed.
The total weight W of the dam acts at the C.G. of its
section.
 When the reservoir is empty, the weight of the dam is
directed vertically downward.
When the reservoir is full, a combination of hydrostatic
pressure on the upstream face of the dam and the weight of
the dam produces a force vector inclined downstream away
from the vertical force vector
 Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure is the upward pressure of water as it flows or seeps
through the body of the dam or its foundation.
Criteria for design
Uplift pressure in body intensity exceeding the tailwater pressure
by one-third the difference between reservoir level and tailwater
level.
It is assumed that uplift pressure are not affected by earthquakes
Uplift pressure
The uplift pressure will be considered as acting over 100
percent of the base.
A hydraulic gradient between the upper and lower pool
is developed between the heel and toe of the dam.
The pressure distribution along the base and in the
foundation is dependent on the effectiveness of drains
and grout curtain, where applicable, and geologic
features such as rock permeability, seams, jointing, and
faulting.
According to USBR recommendations, the uplift
pressure intensities at the heel and the toe should be
taken equal to their respective hydrostatic pressures and
joined by straight line in between.
Uplift pressure
Uplift pressure distribution
without foundation drainage:

Where there have not been

any provisions provided for
uplift reduction, the
hydraulic gradient will be
assumed to vary, as a straight
line, from headwater at the
heel to zero or tailwater at
the toe.
 When drainage galleries are provided to relive the
uplift, the recommended uplift at the face of the gallery
is equal to the hydrostatic pressures at the heel and the
toe (wH) plus 1/3rd the difference of the hydrosatatic
pressures at the heel and toe .
Pressure due to Earthquake
The earthquake sets up primary, secondary, Rayleigh and Love waves
in the earths crest. The waves impart accelerations to the foundations
under the dam and causes its movement. Earthquake may travel in any
direction.
It is customary to resolve the earthquake force into horizontal and
vertical component.

For dams upto height 100m, the horizontal seismic coefficient shall be
taken as 1.5 times seismic coefficient (h) at the top of the dam
reducing linearly to zero at the base. Vertical seismic coefficient shall
be taken as 0.75 times the value of h at top reducing linearly to zero
at the base.
 Seismic Waves
Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic waves in all
directions through the Earths layers, reflecting and refracting at each interface.
These waves are of two types - body waves and surface waves;
The surface waves are restricted to near the Earths surface and consist of Love waves
and Rayleigh waves.
Body waves consist of PrimaryWaves (P-waves) and SecondaryWaves (S-waves).
Under P-waves, material particles undergo extensional and compressional strains
along direction of energy transmission, but under S-waves, oscillate at right angles to
it.
Love waves cause surface motions similar to that by S-waves, but with no vertical
component. Rayleigh wave makes a material particle oscillate in an elliptic path in
the vertical plane (with horizontal motion along direction of energy transmission).
 P-waves are fastest, followed in sequence by S-, Love and Rayleigh
waves. For example, in granites, P- and S-waves have speeds ~4.8
km/sec and ~3.0km/sec, respectively.
S-waves do not travel through liquids. S-waves in association with
effects of Love waves cause maximum damage to structures by their
racking motion on the surface in both vertical and horizontal
directions.
When P- and S-waves reach the Earth's surface, most of their energy is
reflected back. Some of this energy is returned back to the surface by
reflections at different layers of soil and rock.
Shaking is more severe (about twice as much) at the Earth's surface
than at substantial depths. This is often the basis for designing
structures buried underground for smaller levels of acceleration than
those above the ground.
 Strong Ground Motions
Shaking of ground on the Earths surface is a net consequence of motions
caused by seismic waves generated by energy release at each material point
within the three-dimensional volume that ruptures at the fault.
These waves arrive at various instants of time, have different amplitudes and
carry different levels of energy.
Thus, the motion at any site on ground is random in nature with its
amplitude and direction varying randomly with time.
Large earthquakes at great distances can produce weak motions that may not
damage structures or even be felt by humans.
However, from engineering viewpoint, strong motions that can possibly
damage structures are of interest. This can happen with earthquakes in the
vicinity or even with large earthquakes at reasonable medium to large
distances.
Earthquake Related Terminology
The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or
Hypocenter, and the point vertically above this on the
surface of the Earth is the Epicenter.
The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as Focal
Depth, is an important parameter in determining the
damaging potential of an earthquake. Most of the
damaging earthquakes have shallow focus with focal
depths less than about 70km.
Distance from epicenter to any point of interest is called
epicentral distance.
Magnitude

Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of

the earthquake. Professor Charles Richter noticed that
(a) at the same distance, seismograms (records of
earthquake ground vibration) of larger earthquakes have
bigger wave amplitude than those of smaller
earthquakes; and (b) for a given earthquake,
seismograms at farther distances have smaller wave
amplitude than those at close distances. These prompted
him to propose the now commonly used magnitude
scale, the Richter Scale. It is obtained from the
seismograms and accounts for the dependence of
waveform amplitude on epicentral distance. This scale is
also called Local Magnitude scale.
 An increase in magnitude (M) by 1.0 implies 10 times
higher waveform amplitude and about 31 times higher
energy released. For instance, energy released in a M7.7
earthquake is about 31 times that released in a M6.7
earthquake, and is about 1000 (3131) times that
released in a M5.7 earthquake. Most of the energy
released goes into heat and fracturing the rocks, and only
a small fraction of it (fortunately) goes into the seismic
waves that travel to large distances causing shaking of the
ground en-route and hence damage to structures. (Did
you know? The energy released by a M6.3 earthquake is
equivalent to that released by the 1945 Atom Bomb
dropped on Hiroshima!!)
Intensity
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a
location during an earthquake, and is assigned as Roman
Capital Numerals. There are many intensity scales. Two
commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity
(MMI) Scale and the MSK Scale. Both scales are quite
similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most
severe). The intensity scales are based on three features
of shaking perception by people and animals,
performance of buildings, and changes to natural
surroundings. Table 2 gives the description of Intensity
VIII on MSK Scale.
The distribution of intensity at different places during an
earthquake is shown graphically using isoseismals, lines
joining places with equal seismic intensity.
 Intensity of Earthquake
The intensity of an earthquake at a place is a measure of the
effects of the earthquake
Rossi-Forel (RF) - 10 points (I to X)
Modified Mercalli (MM) - 12 points (I to XII)
MSK 1964 - 12 points (I to XII)
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) - 7 points (I to VII)
Presently MSK 12 point scale is the most used, JMA being used in
Japan
Seismic Zones of India
FOLLOW THE SEISMIC PROVISIONS OF THE
CODES
IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002
IS 13920 : 1993
IS 4326 : 1993
IS 13828 : 1993
IS 13827 : 1993
IS 13935 : 1993
 The earthquake sets up Primary, Secondary, Raleigh and Love waves in the

earths crust

The waves impart accelerations to the foundations under the dam and causes its

movement

In order to avoid rupture, the dam must also move along with it

This acceleration introduces an inertia force in the body of dam and sets up

stresses initially in lower layers and gradually in the whole body of the dam

Earthquake wave may travel in any direction and for design purpose, it has to be

resolved

In vertical directions and

In horizontal directions
 The intensity of an earthquake at a place is a measure of the strength of

shaking during the earthquake

It is indicated by a number according to the Modified Mercalli Scale or

M.S.K. Scale of seismic intensities

The comprehensive intensity scale (MSK 64), recommended by IS 1893

(Part 1) 2002, has rating numbers from 1 to 12

In India, the entire country has been divided into five seismic zones

depending upon the severity of the earthquakes (IS 1893-1984)

According to its revised version (IS 1893-2002) the seismic zone map is

revised with only Four Zones, instead of five.

Zone I has been merged to zone II

Acceleration Spectra:

Spectrum of an earthquake is the representation of the maximum

dynamic response of idealized structure during an earthquake

The idealised structure is a Single degree of freedom system

The maximum response is plotted against the natural period of

vibration (T) and can be expressed in terms of the following:

1. Maximum absolute acceleration
2. Maximum relative velocity
3. Maximum relative displacement
 Acceleration Spectra are very useful as they give the

seismic force on the structure directly by multiplying it

with the generalised or modal mass of the structure, i.e.

The earthquake acceleration is usually designed as

fraction of the acceleration due to gravity and it is

expressed as g, where is known as seismic coefficient
 Two accelerations i.e. one horizontal acceleration (h) and one

vertical acceleration (v) are introduced by an earthquake

A value of equal to 0.1 to 0.15g is generally sufficient for high

dams in seismic zone

For areas not extreme earthquakes, h = 0.1g and v = 0.05g

may be used

In areas of no earthquakes or very less earthquakes, these

forces may be neglected

In extremely seismic regions and in conservative designs,

even a value upto 0.3g may sometimes adopted

 It may either act downward or upward

When it is acting in the upward direction, then the foundation of the

dam will be lifted upward and becomes closer to the body of the dam

Thus the effective weight of the dam will increase and hence the stress

developed will increase.

When the vertical acceleration is acting downward, the foundation

shall try to move downward away from the dam body

Thus reducing the effective weight and the stability of the dam and

hence is the worst case for design.

 Vertical acceleration will, exert an Inertia force given by,

(. . = )

Where, W is the total weight of the dam
K
The net effective weight of the dam = W M
L

IF = M
Where, Kv = is the fraction of gravity adopted for vertical acceleration, such
as 0.1g or 0.2, etc.
Then, the net effective weight of the dam

K
= W M M = [1 ]
L

In other words, vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of the dam
material and that of water to [1 Kv] times their original unit weight.
Horizontal acceleration may cause the following two
forces:
1. Hydrodynamics pressure and

2. Horizontal inertia force

 Horizontal acceleration acting towards the reservoir

causes a momentary increase in the water pressure as

the foundation and dam accelerate towards the
reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to
its inertia

The extra pressure exerted by this process is known as

hydrodynamics pressure.
Fig. 1 Hydrodynamic Pressure by a Horizontal Earthquake
According to Von-Karman,

The amount of this Hydrodynamic force (Pe) given by

= 0.555 M M X (1)

Where, Kh = is the fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal

acceleration, such as 0.1, 0.2, etc.

= unit wt. of water

YZ
Its acts at the height of above the base as shown in fig. 1
[\

Moment of this force about base

YZ
= = = . M 2
[\
 According to Zanger,

= 0.726 M M 3

Where,
= M (4)
= 0.726 M X 5

Where,

= Maximum value of pressure coefficient for a given constant slope

l
= 0.735 (6)
no

= is the angle in degree which the u/s face of the dam makes with the horizontal

= fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal acceleration () such as = M

= unit wt. of water

 The moment of this force about the base is given as:

= 0.299 X (7)
rs
= 0.299 M
o.tXu MZ

= 0.412 M 8
If the u/s face is partly inclined (fig. 2 a) which does not
extend to more than half the depth of the reservoir it can be
taken as vertical
If the slope extend to more than half the depth (fig. 2 b) the
overall slope up to the whole height may be taken as the value
of in Eq. (6).
Fig. 2
 In addition to extending the hydrodynamic pressure, the horizontal

acceleration produces an inertia force into the body of the dam

This force is generated in order to keep the body and the force into

the body and the foundation of the dam together as one piece

The direction of the produced force will be opposite to the

acceleration imparted by the earthquake

An earthquake may impart either u/s or d/s acceleration, it

produces most unfavourable effects under the considered

conditions.
 When the reservoir is Full, this force would produce worst results if it

additive to the hydrostatic water pressure, thus acting towards the

downstream (i.e. when u/s earthquake acceleration towards reservoir is
produced).

When the reservoir is Empty, this force would produce worst results if

considered to be acting upstream (i.e. when earthquake acceleration,

moving towards D/s is produced).

Under reservoir empty conditions, earthquake forces produce effects,

which may cause slight tension near the toe

The stability analysis for reservoir empty case may be carried out only on

the basis of wt. of the dam by ignoring earthquake forces and keeping the
section free from any tension.
 The amount of this horizontal inertia force is equal to the

product of the mass of the dam and the acceleration

This Horizontal Inertia force,

= = M M = M (9)

This force should be considered to be acting at the centre

of gravity of the mass, regardless of the shape of the c/s

and it acts horizontally downstream in worst cases, for
reservoir full case.
 Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds,
which causes a pressure towards the d/s side.
Wave pressure depends on the wave height.
/4
= 0.032 M + 0.763 0.271 3 (10) .. for F < 32 km

= 0.032 M (11) .. for F > 32km

Where,
= height of water from top of crest to bottom of trough in metres
V = wind velocity in km/hr.
F = Fetch or straight length of water expanse in km
Fig. 3
 The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by,

= 2.4 M
|}
Its acts at metres above the sill water surface
X

~|}
The pressure distribution may be assumed to be triangular of height as shown
[
in fig. 3
The total force due to wave action (Pw)

1 5
= 2.4 M M M
2 3

Pw = 2 M M X = 2 9.81 X

= 19.62 X

[
This force acts at a distance above the reservoir surface

 Wave pressure
Waves are generated on the reservoir surface because of the wind
blowing over it. Wave pressure depends on the height of the wave
developed.
The pressure intensity due to waves is given by
pw = 2.4 w hw (t/m2)
where pw is the maximum unit pressure which occurs at 1/8 hw
meters above still water surface.
For design purpose, the pressure distribution may be assumed to be
represented by a triangle of height equal to 5/3 hw. Hence the total
pressure pw is
Pw = 2000 hw2 (kg/m)
and this acts at a distance of 3/8 hw above the reservoir surface
 Ice pressure
Important for dams constructed in cold countries. The ice formed
on the water surface of the reservoir is subjected to expansion and
contraction due to temperature variations. The coefficient of
expansion of ice being five times more than that of concrete, the
dam face has to resist the force due to expansion of ice.
An average value of 5 kg/cm2 may be taken as allowable pressure
under ordinary conditions.
Wind pressure
It is a minor force and need hardly be taken into account. Normally
taken as 100 to 150kg/m2 for the area exposed to wind pressure
 Silt pressure
If is the submerged unit weight of silt and is the angle of
internal friction and h is the height to which the silt is deposited,
the silt pressure is given by
1 2 1 - sin f
Ps = g ' h
2 1 + sin f
According to IS : 6512-1972
Horizontal silt and water pressure is assumed to be equivalent to
that of a fluid weighing 1360 kg/m3, and
Vertical silt and water pressure is determined as if silt and water
together have a density of 1925 kg/m3
 Combination of load for design
Normal load combination
~ Normal water surface elevation, ice pressure, silt pressure and
normal uplift
~ Normal water surface elevation, earthquake force, silt pressure
and normal uplift
~ Maximum water surface elevation, silt pressure and normal uplift
Extreme load combination
~ Maximum flood water elevation, silt pressure and extreme uplift
with no drain in operation to release the uplift.
 IS Recommendations (IS:6512-1984)
Gravity dam design shall be based on the most adverse loading conditions
A, B, C, D, E, F or G given below using the safety factors prescribed
Load combination A (construction condition): Dam completed but no
water in reservoir and tail water
Load combination B (Normal operating condition): Full reservoir
elevation (or top of gates at crest), normal dry weather tail water, normal
uplift, ice and silt (if applicable)
Load combination C (Flood Discharge condition): Reservoir of maximum
flood pool elevation, all gates open, tail water at flood elevation, normal
uplift, and silt (if applicable)
Load combination D: Combination A with earthquake
Load combination E: Combination B with earthquake but no ice
Load combination F: Combination C but extreme uplift (drainage
inoperative)
Load combination G: Combination E but extreme uplift (drainage
inoperative)
Modes of failure
Overturning
Sliding
Compression or Crushing
Tension
Overturning takes place when resultant force at any section cuts
the base of the dam downstream of the toe.
factor of safety against overturning
F.S. = Righting moments / Overturning moments
F.S should not be less than 1.5
IS Code Recommendation
Before a gravity dam overturns bodily, other types of
failures may occur, such as cracking of the upstream
material due to tension, increase in uplift, crushing of
toe material and sliding.
A gravity dam is, therefore, considered safe against
overturning if the criteria of no tension on the upstream
face, the resistance against sliding as well as the quality
and strength of concrete/masonry of the dam and its
foundation is satisfied assuming the dam and foundation
as a continuous body.
Sliding
A dam will fail in sliding at its base, or at any other level, if the
horizontal forces causing sliding are more than the resistance available
to it at that level.
Factor of safety against sliding =
actual coefficient of static friction () / sliding friction
Sliding factor is the minimum coefficient of static friction required to
prevent sliding
If H = sum of the horizontal forces causing the sliding and V= is
the net vertical forces

Sliding factor = tan =

H
and
V
V
Factor of Safety against Sliding (F.S.S.) = =
tan H
 In low dams the safety against sliding should be checked only for
friction, but in high dams the shear strength of the joint which is an
additional shear resistance must also be consideded.
If shear resistance of joint is also considered then equation for factor of
safety against sliding which is measured by shear friction factor (SFF)

V + b.q
Shear Friction Factor (S.F.F.) =
H
Where b = width of dam at the joint,
q= average shear strength of the joint which varies from about 1400
kN/m2 (14 kg/cm2) for poor rocks to about 4000 kN/m2 (40 kg/cm2)
for good rocks
The factor of safety against sliding shall be computed from the
following equation (IS method) and shall not be less than 1.0.
 The coefficient of friction Loading F.S. S.F.F.
varies from 0.65 to 0.75. Condition against
sliding
The factor of safety against
(F.S.S.)
sliding should be greater
A, B, C 2.0 4.0
than the value given in the
Table
D, E 1.5 3.0

F, G 1.2 1.5
 The value of internal friction may be estimated for the purpose of
preliminary designs on the basis of available data on similar or
comparable materials.
For final designs, however, the value of cohesion and internal
friction shall be determined by actual laboratory and field tests.
The shear strength (q) at the base and other joints can be increased
by providing steps at the base and measures are taken to ensure
better bond between the dam base and the rock foundation.
Compression or crushing
In order to calculate the normal stress distribution at the base, or
at any section, let FH be the total horizontal force, FV be the
total vertical force and R be the resultant force cutting the base at
an eccentricity e from the centre of the base of width b (Fig.),
which is equal to
b/2 where is the distance of the resultant force R from the
toe given by
Compression or crushing
The normal stress at any point on the base will be the
sum of the direct stress and the bending stress. Thus,
direct stress cc is

and bending stress cbc at any fibre at distance y from

Neutral Axis is
Compression or crushing
Since M = e x FV ; I =(1xb3)/12 for rectangular section
of 1 m wide and b m deep; and y = b/2 for extreme
fibre at toe or heel, hence the total normal stress pn is
given by

The positive sign will be used for calculating normal

stress at the toe, since the bending stress will be
compressive there, and negative sign will be used for
calculating normal stress at the heel. Thus, the normal
stress at the toe is
Compression or crushing
Thus, the normal stress at the toe is

and the normal stress at the heel is

 Compression or crushing
Fig. shows the normal stress
distributions for a general case when
the pressure at both toe and heel are
compressive.
Evidently, the maximum
compressive stress occurs at the toe
and for safety, this should not be
greater than the allowable
compressive stresses both for the
dam and foundation materials.
When the eccentricity e is equal to
b/6 we get
Compression or crushing
Maximum compressive stress occurs at the toe (nearer to the
toe) and for safety, this should not be greater than the
allowable compressive stress f for the foundation material
V 6e
1 + f
b b

If compressive stress exceeds the allowable compressive

stress of dam material (generally taken as 3000 kN/m2 (30
kg/cm2) for concrete ) the dam may fail by crushing.
 The compressive strength of concrete should satisfy early
load and construction requirements and at the age of one
year it should be four times the maximum computed
stress in the dam or 14 N/mm2, whichever is more. The
allowable working stress in any part of the structure shall
not also exceed 7 N/mm2.
The compressive strength of masonry should satisfy early
load and construction requirements and at one year it
should be five times the maximum computed stress on
the dam or 12.5 N/mm2 whichever is more.
 Tension
From equation for the normal stress at the heel it is evident
that if e > b/6, the normal stress at the heel will be -ve or
tensile as shown in Fig. When the eccentricity e is greater
than b/6 a crack of length lc will develop due to tension
which can be calculated as
 Tension
No tension should be permitted at any point of the dam at
any circumstance for moderately highly dams. For no
tension to develop, the eccentricity should be less than b/6,
or the resultant must lie within the middle third.
However, in case of extra high dams, 230 to 260 m, small
tension within the permissible limit is generally permitted
for comparatively small periods of loading such as heavy
flood or earthquake as listed in Table 2.
 Effect of Tension Cracks
Since concrete cannot resist the tension, a crack develops at the heel,
which modifies the uplift pressure diagram, as illustrated in Fig. Due to
tension crack, the uplift pressure increases in magnitude and net
downward vertical force or the stabilizing force reduces. The resultant
force thereby gets further shifted towards the toe and this leads to further
lengthening of the crack.
The base width thus goes on reducing and the compressive stresses on toe
goes on increasing, till the toe fails in compression or sliding.
 No tensile stress shall be permitted at the upstream face of the
clam for load 6 combination B. Nominal tensile stresses, however,
may be permitted in other load combinations and their
permissible values shall not exceed the values given in Table 2.
Small values of tension on the downstream face may be permitted
since it is very improbable that a fully constructed dam is kept
empty and downstream cracks which are not extensive and for
limited depths from the surface may not be detrimental to the
safety of the structure.
 Principle and Shear stress
Consider an elementary triangular section at either the heel
or the toe of the dam section such that stress intensities may
be assumed to be uniform on its faces.

The face of the dam will be a principal plane as water

pressure acts on it in the perpendicular direction, with no
accompanying shear stress.
 Principle Stress
Since the principal planes are mutually at right angle, the
plane AB, considered at right angles to the face AC, will also
have only a normal stress on it, and will be the other
principal plane. The forces acting on the elementary section
are shown in Fig.
 Principle Stress
Let ds, dr and dy be the lengths of AC, AB and BC; p = intensity of
water pressure; 1 = principal stress on plane AB; = shear stress; and
pn = normal stress.
Considering unit length of the dam, the normal forces on the planes
AB, BC and CA are respectively 1 dr, pn dy and p ds. Resolving all
the forces in the vertical direction, we get
 Principle Stress
If pe is the intensity of hydrodynamic pressure due to an earthquake,
then the principal stress is given by

This equation is known as the principal stress relationship, and is

applicable to both upstream and downstream faces.
It should be noted, however, that for the upstream face 1 will always
be less than p. Hence 1 is the minor principal stress and p is the major
principal stress for the upstream face.
 Principle Stress
For the downstream face 1 will always be greater than p, so 1 is the
major principal stress and p is the minor principal stress.
However, for the downstream side, the worst condition will be when
there is no tailwater, and hence p will be zero and 1 will be
maximum. If pe is the intensity of hydrodynamic pressure of tailwater
due to an earthquake, the principal stress at the downstream becomes
Principle stress
p = intensity of water pressure
1 = principal stresses

t = shear stress
pn = normal stress

s1 =
( p n - p sin f
2
)
cos f 2
For downstream, the worst condition will be when there
is no tail water. In the circumstance,

s 1 = p n sec 2 f
Shear stress
Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, we
get

The above equation is applicable for downstream side

only. For the upstream side, the magnitude of will be
the same but its direction will be reversed. If tailwater is
neglected (p = zero), the shear stress at the downstream
side will be maximum.
Shear stress
Considering the hydrodynamic pressure due to
earthquake, the shear stress at downstream is given by

t = p n tan f
 Stability analysis: Gravity method - Analytical
Consider unit length of the dam. Calculate all vertical forces acting
i.e. weight of dam, weight of water acting on the inclined faces,
uplift pressure and inertial forces due to vertical acceleration. Find
their algebric sum V
Find sum of horizontal force H, and the horizontal pressure due
to hydrodynamic pressure.
Find out the sum of the overturning moments M0 and the sum of
righting moments MR at the toe. Find M = MR M0
Find out the location of the resultant force R from toe

-
x=
M
V
 Find out the eccentricity e of the resultant R, fro the centre as
b -
e= -x
2

pn =
V 6e
1 +
b b

Find normal stress at the heel by the expression

pn =
V 6e
1 -
b b
Find out the principal and shear stress at toe and heel
Find Factor of safety against overturning = MR/ M0
Find the factor of safety against sliding
Sliding factor = V/ H
Shear friction factor = ( V + b q)/ H
 q = average cohesion or shear strength of the joint the value
of which varies from 1300 kN/m2 to 4500 kN/m2 for good
rock to 650 kN/m2 to 1300 kN/m2 for concrete
B = width of the joint or section
A = area of the joint = bx1 for unit length of the dam
 Example 1
Fig. 1 shows the section of a gravity dam (non-
overflow position) built of concrete. Calculate
(neglecting Earthquake effects)
1) The maximum vertical stresses at the heel and toe
of the dam
2) The major principal stress at the toe of the dam
3) The intensity of shear stress on a horizontal plane
near the toe

Assume weight of concrete = 23.5 kN/ m3 and unit

length of dam. Allowable stress in concrete may be
taken 2500 kN/ m3.
 Solution
Assuming w = 9.81 kN/ m3

The various forces acting on the dam are drawn.

Consider 1m length of the dam.

The various forces and their moments about the toe

are then calculated and tabulated in Table.
 Name of the Designation Lever arm
Magnitude in kN Moments about toe in kN.m
Force if given in m
Vertical Forces

W1 (+) 84 x 6 x 1 x 23.5 = 11844 53.0 (+) 627732

Downward weight
of the dam
W2 (+) 1/2 x 50 x 75 x 1 x 23.5 = 44063 33.33 (+) 1468603

Weight of water
supposed on d/s - (+) 1/2 x 4 x 6 x 1 x 9.81 = 118 1.33 (+) 157
face

V1= 56024 M1=(+) 2096492

U1 (-) 300.8 x 8 x 1 = 2406 52.0 (-) 125133
U2 (-) 1/2 x 484 x 8 x 1 = 1936 53.33 (-) 103247
Uplift Pressure
U3 (-) 58.9 x 48 x 1 = 2827 24.0 (-) 67853
U4 (-) 1/2 x 241.9 x 48 x 1 = 5806 32.0 (-) 185779

V2= (-) 12975 M2=(-) 482012

V1 - V2 = 43049
Horizontal Forces

Water Pressure

On u/s face P 1/2 x 784.8 x 80 x 1 = 31392 26.67 (-) 837225

On d/s face P' (-) 1/2 x 58.9 x 6 = 177 2.0 (+) 353

H = (towards downstream) 31569 =(-) 836871

M = Net (+) moment (in kN.m) = 2096492 - 482012 - 836871 = 777609 kN.m
Distance of resultant from the toe
ttttuon .
= = = 18.06 m
Y[oYn

Eccentricity = e = (56/2) 18.06 = 9.94 m

Vertical stress Pv is given as
u s
Pv max/min = [1 ]

Y[oYn u n.nY
Pv = [1 ] = 768.73 (1 1.065)
~u ~u

Max. vertical stress = pmax at toe =768.73 x 2.065

= 1587.42 kN/m2
Min. vertical stress = pmin at heel = 768.73 x (-) 0.065
= (-) 49.97 kN/m2
(ii) Major principal stress at toe () is given as
= pv(toe) sec2 - p tan2

Here pv(toe) = 1587.6 kN/ m2

p = 58.9 kN/ m2
tan = 2/3
sec2 = 1+tan2 = 1 + 4/9 = 13/9

= 1587.6 x (13/9) - 58.9 x (4/9)

= 2267 kN/ m2 < 2500 kN/ m2

(iii) Intensity of shear stress on a horizontal plane near toe is

given by
0 = [pv(toe) - p] tan
0 = (1587.6 - 58.9) (2/3)
= 1019.1 kN/ m2
 Example 2 (Home Assignment)
Figure 2 shows the section of a gravity dam built of
concrete. Examine the stability of this section at the base.
The earthquake forces may be taken as equivalent to 0.1 g
for horizontal forces and 0.05 g for vertical forces. The uplift
may be taken as equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the
either ends and is considered to act over 60% of the area
of the section.
A tail water depth of 6 m is assumed to be present when
the reservoir is full and there is no tail water when the
reservoir is empty.
Also indicate the values of various kinds of stresses that
are developed at the heel and toe. Assume the unit wt. of
concrete as 24 kN/m3 and unit wt. of water = 10 kN/m3
 Example 3 (Home Assignment)
Examine the stability of the dam section given in
the previous example, if there are no seismic forces
acting on the dam. Also state the magnitude of
maximum compressive stress and maximum shear
stress that may develop under any conditions of
loading in the dam and also state whether tension
is developed anywhere or not.
Limiting height of Gravity dam
Low gravity dam
f
H<
g w (G + 1)
High gravity dam

f
H>
g w (G + 1)
 Galleries
Opening left in the dam for the following purposes
To provide drainage of the dam
To provide facilities for drilling and grouting operations for
foundations
To provide space for header and return pipes for post cooling of
concrete and grouting the longitudinal joints after completion of
dam
To provide access to observe and measure the behavior of structure.
To provide an access of mechanical contrivances needed for the
operation of outlet gates and spillway gates.
 Joints, Keys and Water Seals
Joints
~ Construction joints
~ Contraction joints
-Transverse joints
-Longitudinal joints
Keys to permit the transfer of shearing stresses from one block to
another
Water sops to prevent leakage of water
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES for DAM
CONSTRUCTION
 Thank You
End of Chapter