GENERAL ENGLISH

NOUNS dish dishes wish wishes

box boxes hoax hoaxes
Kinds of Nouns: fax faxes six sixes
Common Nouns They are names of people fox foxes tax taxes
(e.g. man), things (e.g. books), animals (e.g. By adding es to nouns ending in o.
monkey) and places (church). buffalo buffaloes potato potatoes
Proper Nouns They are special names of cargo cargoes mosquito mosquitoes
people (e.g. George ), things (e.g. Financial echo echoes tomato tomatoes
Times), animals (e.g. King Kong) and places (e.g. By adding s to nouns ending in o.
Paris). A proper noun begins with a Capital Letter. banjo banjos patio patios
Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is the bamboo bamboos photo photos
name of something that we can only think of or radio radios video videos
feel but can-not see (e.g. friendship). By replacing y with ies.
Collective Nouns They are names used for a baby babies lorry lorries
num-ber of people, things or animals together fly flies navy navies
and treated as one. For example: a group of hobby hobbies puppy puppies
friends, a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies. By adding s to nouns ending in y.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns boy boys key keys
Countable nouns are nouns which can be day days toy toys
counted (e.g. trees). Uncountable nouns are
donkey donkeys turkey turkeys
nouns which cannot be counted. (e.g. smoke). By replacing f or fe with ves.
Nouns have four genders: calf calves loaf loaves
1. Masculine Gender The masculine gender
half halves self selves
is used for all males. Example: boy, man
life lives wife wives
2. Feminine Gender The feminine gender is
By adding s to nouns ending in f or fe.
used for all females. Example: girl, woman
chief chiefs hoof hoofs
3. Common Gender The common gender is used
dwarf dwarfs reef reef
where the noun can be both male and female.
gulf gulfs roof roofs
Example: cousin, friend, person, child, student
By changing vowels.
4. Neuter Gender The neuter gender is
foot feet louse lice
used for things which have no life or sex.
goose geese tooth teeth
Example: table, chair.
mouse mice woman women
Singular and Plural Nouns A noun that Some nouns have same words for plural and singu-
shows only one person (e.g. a girl), thing (e.g.
lar.
pencil), animal (e.g. tiger) or place (e.g. market)
aircraft aircraft music music
is called a singular noun.
crossroads crossroads series series
A noun that shows more than one person (e.g.
furniture furniture sheep sheep
girls), thing (e.g. pencils), animal (e.g. tigers) or
Exceptional plural.
place (e.g. markets) is called a plural noun.
child children ox oxen
Plural nouns are formed. crisis crises passer-by passers-by
By adding s. es to nouns ending in ch, s, sh and
mouse mice radius radii
x.
beach beaches peach peaches
branch branches speech speeches
ditch ditches watch watches
boss bosses glass glasses
bus buses lens lenses
chorus choruses pass passes
brush brushes fish fishes
bush bushes lash lashes

VERB
Verbs are words that show action. Every sentence
must have a verb. A verb is not always one word. It
may be made up of more than one word.
Auxiliary verbs
The words: am, is, are, was, and were are
verbs. They are forms of the verb to be. They
are helping verbs called auxiliary verbs.
If the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb
must be singular. If the subject of a sentence is
plural, the verb must be plural. The verb must
agree with the subject in number.
Examples of subjects and verbs being
singular: The man is sleeping.
She goes to the market.
The student does his homework every
day. The train has arrived.
Man, she, student and train are known as
subjects.The subjects are all singular.The verbs
is, goes, does and has are all singular too.
Examples of subjects and verbs being
plural: The men are sleeping.
They go to the market.
The students do their homework every
day. The trains have arrived.
Men, they, students and trains are known as
subjects. The subjects are all plural. The verbs
are, go, do and have are all plural too.
Other singular and plural subjects that take on
singu-lar and plural verbs:
Subjects with words like each, every, any,
no, none and nobody take on the singular
verbs. Examples: Each student is given a pen.
Every child is happy watching the show.
Nobody is allowed to walk on the grass.
Uncountable nouns always take singular verbs.
Examples: Rice is eaten in many countries.
There is oil on the floor.
Salt is added to make the food taste bet-
ter.
Subjects with words like both, all, many, some,
several and a number of take on a plural verb.
Examples: Both of you have to come home early.
All of us want to be happy.
Some of my friends are female.
Two or more subjects joined by and always
take a plural verb.
Examples:
My brother and his friends like to
play football.
His father and mother are watching
tele vision.
Transitive and intransitive verbs
The verb which needs an object to make its
meaning clear or complete is called a transitive
verb. Example: He feeds a cat.
The word cat is called the object of the verb
feeds. The object can be a noun or a pronoun.
The intransitive verb does not need an object
but the meaning is clear or complete.
Example:
He ran.
The verb ran does not need an object.
She reads every day. (No object)
He eats quickly. (No object)
The Finite verb
The finite verb changes with the subject. The subject
is the person, thing, animal or place we refer to.
When the subject is in the first or second person or is
plural, the verb does not change. When the subject
is in the third person or is singular, the verb changes
from, say, eat to eats. The verb eat is a finite
verb. Every sentence must have a finite verb.
Other usage of verbs to remember:
1. When and is used to join two nouns or pronouns
together, the verb is usually in the plural.
Examples: Beef and mutton are meat.
He and I were classmates.
2. When we use two nouns for the same person
or thing, the verb should be in the singular.
Examples: My friend and classmate is
very helpful.
Bread and butter is his only food.
3. When we use two nouns for the same
person, we use the article the only once
and the verb should be in the singular.
Example:The shopkeeper and owner of the
shop is my uncle.
4. When we refer to two different persons, we use the
article twice and the verb must be in the plural.
Example:The shopkeeper and the owner
of the shop are my good friends.
5. When we join two nouns and treat them as a
whole, the verb is in the singular.
Example:Bread and butter is his usual breakfast.
6. When a noun is a quantity or an amount, it is
treated as a whole and the verb is in the singular.
Examples:Ten kilometers is not a long way to
travel. Nowadays, fifty dollars is not a lot
of
money.
A verb is used in different forms as follow:
Simple Present Tense eat
Simple Past Tense ate
Present Participle is eating
Past Participle has eaten
Future Tense will eat
 THE PRESENT TENSE
1. The Present Simple
Used for a habitual or repeated action,
that is, for something that we do always,
every day, often, usually, etc.
Example: He plays football on Sundays.
a. Used for a general truth or a fact, that is,
for something that is true.
Example: Night follows day.
b. Used for something or an action
happening now.
Example: See how she walks.
c. Used instead of the future tense.
Example: He arrives tomorrow.
d. Used instead of the past tense, to make
some thing look more real.
Example: The tiger comes; it catches the boy.
e. Used instead of the present perfect tense.
Example: We hear that the king is dead.
f. Used to introduce a quotation, that is, to repeat
words spoken or written by someone else.
Example: Shakespeare says: Neither a bor
rower nor a lender be.
2. The Present Continuous Tense
Used to show that something is still
happen-ing, that is, an action is still going
on at the time of speaking. It shows that
the action is not yet complete.
Example: He is writing a letter.
a. Used instead of the future tense. We
usually say the time when this future
action will take place
Example: He is going to Japan next week.
b. Used to use the phrase is going
which means about to.
Example: It is going to rain.
c. Used to show an action which happens
many times. We often use always with
this expres-sion.
Example: He is always getting into trouble.
3. The Present Perfect Tense
Used to show an action which has just
been completed or a past action when
the time is not mentioned. The action
may be a recent one or it may be one
which happened a long time ago.
Example: I have finished reading the book.
There have been many changes in
this country.
a. Used for an action that has been going on
from the past until now, that is, something that
happened in the past but is going on still.
Example: I have lived here for ten years.
b. Used often with just, already, recently,
never, yet and (in questions) with ever.
Example: I have already told them about
the plan
She has never replied to my letter.
Have you ever been to London?
c. Used often to answer questions which contain
a verb in the Present Perfect tense. Example:
Where have you been? I have been
to London to see the Queen. What
have you lost? I have lost all
my money.
4. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Used for an action that had been going
on in the past before another action
occurred in the past.
Example: She had been cooking when
we visited her.
THE FUTURE TENSE
The Future Tense is used to show some action or
hap-pening in the future. Future Simple + Going To
1. Simple Future Tense is used to show
future action or that something will
happen in the fu-ture.
Example: We will complete the work
tomor-row.
2. Going to is used to express a future
action that has been planned in advance.
Example: We are going to Japan next week.
3. Future Continuous Tense is used to show
con-tinuous action at some future time.
Example: I shall be seeing both of you tomorrow.
4. Future Perfect Tense is used for an
action which will have finished by some
future time or date which is mentioned or
before another action has begun.
Example: I shall have finished this job by
seven oclock.
I shall have finished this job by
the time you arrive.
5. Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
This continuous tense is formed with
shall/will have been + a present particle.
Example: I shall have been married for exactly
ten years next Saturday.
Exercise
Write the correct form of the verb in the
brack-ets:
1) I -----to the cinema yesterday.( to go)
2) Peter ----- 13 tomorrow. ( to be)
3) My friend----- to music every evening.( to listen)
4) They ------ their car. It looks new again.( to clean)
5) Listen! Mr Jones-------- the piano.( to play)
6) She ------- her left arm two weeks ago. (to break)
7) We -------- a test now. ( to write)
8) Danny ---------- a book this evening. ( to read)
9) Ken and Emily often------- lunch at
school. ( to have)
10) He ---------- his money. So he cant buy this
hamburger.( to lose)
Answers
1.went 2. will be 3. listens
4. have cleaned 5. is playing 6. broke
7. are writing 8.is going to read 9. have
10. has lost
 ADJECTIVES
wonderful more wonderful most wonderful
An adjective is a word that tells us something
bad worse worst
about a noun, that is, about a person, an
good better best
animal, a thing or a place.
little less least
For example:
Exercise
She is a pretty girl.
A giraffe has a long neck.
Pick the correct words in the brackets.
1. My father is as (strong, stronger, strongest)
The table is round.
as his father.
That is an old temple.
2. She is (pretty, prettier, prettiest) than her
There are various kinds of adjectives:
sister.
1. An adjective which tells us about the quality
3. You are not as (tall, taller, tallest) as
of the noun.
your brother.
Example: the blue sky, a big house, a
4. That pond is the (shallow,
square table, a cold morning.
shallower, shallowest) in this area.
2. An adjective which tells us about the
5. That has to be the (interesting, more
quatity of the noun. interest-ing, most interesting) film I have seen.
Example: The zoo has many animals.
6. Which university offers (the good, the
The pen has not much ink left. better, the best) degree courses?.
3. An adjective which tells us about 7. This clown is not as (funny, funnier,
the ownership of the noun. funniest) as the other one.
Example: That is my dog. 8. He is easily the (bad, worse, worst)
Those are their bicycles. player in the team.
4. An adjective which poses question in 9. The second half of the play was (little,
an interrogative manner. less, the least) interesting.
Example: Which school do you go
to? Whose car is this?
5. An adjective which specifies a noun.
Example: This boy is a member of the club.
That girl is my sister.
Adjectives which end in -ing,
e.g. an interesting film, an amazing player, an
an-noying habit,
Adjectives which end in -ed,
e.g. the damaged goods, the escaped
prisoners, im-proved version,
Comparison of adjectives
We use the Positive degree to compare two
equal nouns.
For example: His house is as big as my
house. We use the Comparative degree to
compare two unequal nouns.
For example: His house is bigger than my
house. We use the Superlative degree to
compare three or more Nouns.
For example: His house is the biggest in the
neigh-bourhood
Positive Comparative Superlative
bold bolder boldest
deep deeper deepest
near nearer nearest
rich richer richest
tall taller tallest
careful more careful most careful
enjoyable more enjoyable most enjoyable
forgetful more forgetful most forgetful
useful more useful most useful
 ADVERBS
Positive Comparative Superlative
An adverb adds more to the meaning of a verb,
comfortably more comfortably most comfortably
an adjective or another adverb.
happily more happily most happily
I called you last night. (called=verb; last
kindly more kindly most kindly
night=adverb)
loudly more loudly most loudly
Your dress is very beautiful.
(beautiful=adjective; noisily more noisily most noisily
very=adverb) The rain stopped quite suddenly. Exercise
(suddenly=adverb; quite=adverb) Choose the most suitable adverb to fill each blank:
Types of Adverbs (angrily, enough, never, outside, yesterday ,down,
last week, often, quickly, rarely ,always, just, nearly,
Adverb of Time This shows when an action
online, unusually )
or something is done or happens. It answers
the ques-tion When? It is either placed at the 1. She left _____ for the university where
beginning or at the end of a sentence. she is doing a degree course.
Example: I phoned you yesterday. 2. We are standing _____ his house waiting for him.
I saw her walking along the 3. He told us _____ not to walk on the grass.
river last week. 4. I am not strong _____ to help him carry that box.
Adverb of Place This shows where an action or
5. She will _____ be happy in that job.
something is done or happens. It answers the 6. _____, I saw him walking to the church.
ques-tion Where? It is placed after the verb. 7. My father is _____ late for work.
Example: I live here. 8. He drove _____ to avoid being late.
He fell down. 9. I _____ play badminton with my sister.
Adverb of Manner This shows how an action 10. This is the place where he fell _____.
or something is done. It answers the question 11. It took _____ two hours to get here.
How? It is usually placed just after the verb. 12. They were _____ very friendly.
Example: She sleeps soundly.
13. He has _____ strong hands.
He drives quickly.
14. She has _____ completed her degree course.
Adverb of Degree or Quantity This answers the
15. This dictionary went _____ in 2003.
questions, To what degree? or How much? It is
Answers
usually placed before the adjective and the adverb.
1.yesterday 2.outside 3.angrily 4.enough
Example: It is too dark for us to see anything.
5.never 6.Last week7.rarely 8.quickly 9.of-
Last night it rained very heavily..
ten 10.down. 11nearly 12.always
Adverb of Frequency This answers the question
13.unusually 14.just 15.online
How often?
Example: He will never have finished in time.
We always go to school by bus.
Affirmative Adverb (yes) and Adverb of
negation (No)
Example: yes, surely, certainly, indeed,
by all means, no, not at all, by no means.
Interrogative Adverb (Question)
Example: When? Where? How? Why?
How much/often?
Relative Adverb: when, where, how, why
These words are the same in form as
Interrogative Adverbs; but they are not questions.
Example: The time when he arrived.
The scene where the
accident occurred.
He knows how to do it.
The reason why he left.
Comparison of Adverbs
Similar to the comparison of adjectives,
adverbs have three degrees of comparison the
Positive, the Comparative and the Superlative. Most
adverbs which end in -ly form the Comparative with
more and the Superlative with most.
 2. Before the name of a place, town,
THE ARTICLES country, street, or road.
Example: Barcelona is a beautiful
Definite Article The
city. (not A or The Barcelona)
Indefinite Article A or 3. Before names of materials.
An A is used: Example: Gold is found in Australia.
Before a word which begins with a (not A or The gold)
consonant. Example: a woman 4. Before abstract nouns used in a general
Before a singular, countable noun. sense. Example: We love all beauty.
Example: a banana (not a beauty or the beauty)
When we mention something for the first Exercise
time. Example: I saw a dog. Fill each blank with a, an, the or leave it blank.
Before a word with a long sound of u. 1. He left _____ home without informing anyone.
Example: a university, a uniform, a useful 2. There is _____ box of sweets on _____ table.
book, a European, 3. Do you need _____ degree in Economics or
Before the word one. Example: a one-way ____ degree in finance to be a better manager?
street, a one-eyed man, a one-year course, a 4. When we arrived, she went straight to _____
one-day holiday, etc. kitchen and started to prepare ___ meal for us.
An is used: 5. He has _____ cut on his leg and _____
Before a noun which begins with a bruise on _____ chin.
vowel. Example: an apple. 6. Mt. Everest is _____ highest mountain in
Before a word which begins with a vowel sound _____ world.
or a silent h. 7. Switch off _____ air-conditioner please. I have
Example: an hour, an honest man, an heir, an _____ cold.
honour, an honourable man, etc 8. We reached _____ top of _____ hill during
Before a singular, countable noun which begins _____ afternoon.
with a vowel or silent h. 9. Do you like _____ weather here? Isnt it
Example: an orange too hot during _____ day but it is very cold at
The is used: night?
1. When the same thing or person mentioned
10. _____ attempt has been made to collect
again, that is, a particular thing or person.
funds to start _____ public library in _____ town
Example: I bought an orange. The
where I live.
orange is sweet..
Answers
2. When there is only one such thing.
1. 2.a, the 3.a,a 4.the,a 5.a, a, the
Example: the earth, the sun, the moon.
6.the,the7.the,a 8.the,a, the 9.the,the, 10.an, a, the
3. Before the names of famous buildings, etc.
Example: The Eiffel Tower, The Great Wall
of China.
4. When a singular noun is used to point
out a whole class, race, group, etc.
Example: The bear is a strong animal.
5. Before the special names of rivers, seas,
oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands,
certain organizations, political parties, and
countries such as the U.S.A., the U.K., the
U.S.S.R. and the U.A.E., The Nile, The Dead
Sea, The Pacific Ocean, The Himalayas, The
United Nations, The Republican Party, etc.
6. Before the names of holy or important
books. Example: The Koran, The Bible.
7. Before an adjective when the noun is
under-stood.
Example: The poor need help.
Articles are not used:
1. Before the name of a person:
Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson.
(not A or The Michael Jackson)
 Direct Speech / Quoted Speech
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted
speech) Here what a person says appears within quotation marks (...) and should be
word for word. For example: She said, Todays lesson is on presentations. or
Todays lesson is on presentations, she said.
Indirect Speech / Reported Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesnt use quotation marks to enclose what the
person said and it doesnt have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we
are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in
the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech
Im going to the cinema, he said.
Indirect speech
He said he was going to the cinema.
Tense change
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left
changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech Indirect speech

Present simple Past simple
She said, Its cold. She said it was cold.
Present continuous Past continuous
She said, Im teaching English online. She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple Past perfect simple
She said, Ive been on the web since 1999. She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, Ive been teaching English for seven years. She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple Past perfect
She said, I taught online yesterday. She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, I was teaching earlier. She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect Past perfect
She said, The lesson had already NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when
started he arrived. he when arrived.
Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
She said, Id already been NO CHANGE - She said shed already been teaching
teaching for five minutes. for five minutes.
Modal verb forms also sometimes change:
Direct speech Indirect speech
will would
She said, Ill teach English online tomorrow. She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can could
She said, I can teach English online. She said she could teach English online.
must had to
She said, I must have a computer to teach English online.
She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall should
She said, What shall we learn today? She asked what we should learn today.
may might
She said, May I open a new browser? She asked if she might open a new browser.
Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.
Direct speech Indirect speech
I might go to the cinema, he said. He said he might go to the cinema.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true i.e. my name has always
been and will always be Leela so:-
Direct speech Indirect speech
My name is Leela, she said. She said her name was Leela. or She said her name is Leela
You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.
Direct speech (exact quote) Indirect speech (not exact)
Next weeks lesson is on reported speech , she said. She said next weeks lesson is on reported speech.
Time change
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different meanings at the time
and place of reporting.
Today Indirect speech
Todays lesson is on presentations. She said yesterdays lesson was on presentations.
Expressions of time if reported on a different day
this (evening) that (evening)
today yesterday
these (days) those (days)
now then
(a week) ago (a week) before
last weekend the weekend before last / the previous weekend
here there
next (week) the following (week)
tomorrow the next/following day
In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the
place (here) to the place (there).
For example:-
At work At home
How long have you worked here? She asked me how long Id worked there.
Pronoun change
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:
I teach English online. She said she teaches English online.
Reporting Verbs
Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect
speech. We use asked to report questions:-
For example: I asked Prema what time the lesson started.
We use told with an object.
For example: Sasikala told me she felt tired.
Note - Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example: Sophy said she was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to ;
For example: Romy said to me that shed never been to China.
Note - We usually use told.
For example: Aruna told me that shed never been to China.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told
and asked. These include:-
accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologised, begged, boasted, complained, denied,
explained, implied, invited, offered, ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.
Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the
party:-He invited me to the party.
He begged me to come to the party.
He ordered me to come to the party.
He advised me to come to the party.
He suggested I should come to the party.
Use of That in reported speech
In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example: He told me that he lived in Germany
However, that is optional.
For example: He told me he lived in Germany
!Note - That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example: He asked me if I would come to the party.
Exercise
Rewrite the following in the Reported Speech.
1. He said, I have eaten my lunch.
2. She said, I am doing a degree at the university
3. The teacher said to the class, Pay attention.
4. My mother said to me, Buy some bananas for
me.
5. My father said to me, Dont waste your money.
6. She said to me, Where is the hospital?.
7. My friend said to me. Dont be late tomorrow.
8. He asked me, When will the train arrive?
9. His teacher said to him, Try to do it by your
self.
10. She asked me, What are your favorite
online games?
Answers
1. He said that he had eaten his lunch.
2. She said that she was doing a degree
at the university.
3. The teacher told the class to pay attention.
4. My mother told/asked me to buy some bananas.
5. My father told me not to waste my money. .
6. She asked me where the hospital is.
7. My friend asked me not to be late tomorrow.
8. He asked me when the train will arrive.
9. His teacher told him to try to do it by himself. .
10. She asked me what my favorite online games
are.

Auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs
because they are needed to form many of the
tenses. The most used auxiliary verbs are the
verbs to be, to do and to have. For example: the
auxiliary to do is needed to ask questions in the
present and past simple tenses. To be is needed
for the present and past continuous, and all the
passive forms. The auxiliary to have is used in the
present and past perfect tenses. Here are some
examples of the common auxiliary verbs in action:
Do you like German food?
Does your mother speak English?
Did you come to school
yesterday? Why are you talking?
You should be listening to me!
I was having a bath when you called!
A new road is being built behind the
school. Have you done your homework?
My father has never visited the USA.
How long have you been living in
Germany? By this time next year I will have
been learning English for 35 years!
Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will
when they are followed by another verb (the full
verb) in order to form a question, a negative
sentence, a compound tense or the passive.
The verb be
The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a
full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for
compound tenses and the passive voice. Note
that be is an irregular verb:
Simple Present:
I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are
Simple Past:
I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were
Past Participle:
been
You can tell that in the following sentences be is
an auxiliary because it is followed by another
verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use
the -ing form of the full verb; for passive voice,
use the past participle of the full verb.)
Progressive Forms
Present Progressive:
He is playing football.
Past Progressive:
He was playing football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Passive
Simple Present/Past:
The house is/was built.
Present/Past Perfect:
The house has/had been built.
Future I: The
house will be built.
be as a full verb
The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, its not
followed by another verb. If be is used as a full verb, we do
not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions.
positive sentence: They are fifteen years old.
negative sentence: They are not fifteen years
old. question: Are they fifteen years old?
The verb have
The verb have, too, can be used both as an auxiliary
and as a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb to
form compound tenses in active and passive voice.
(Use the past participle of the full verb.)
Compound Tenses - Active Voice
Present Perfect Simple: He has played football.
Past Perfect Simple: He had played football.
Present Perfect Progressive:
He has been playing football.
Past Perfect Progressive:
He had been playing football.
Compound Tenses - Passive
Voice Present/Past Perfect:
The house has/had been built.
Note that have is an irregular verb, too:
Simple Present: I/we/you/they have, he/she/it
has Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had
Past Participle: had
have in positive sentences
As a full verb have indicates possession. In British
English, however, we usually use have got (have
being the auxiliary, got the full verb).
full verb:
I have a car.
auxiliary verb:
I have got a car.
have in negative sentences and questions
When we use have as a full verb, we must use the
auxiliary do in negative sentences and questions. If we use
have got, however, we do not need another auxiliary.
have as a full verb:
I do not have a car.
Do I have a car?
have as an auxiliary verb:
I have not got a car.
Have I got a car?
The verb will
The verb will can only be used as an auxiliary. We
use it to form the future tenses.
The auxiliary verb
will Future I:
He will not play football.
Future II:
He will have played football.
The verb will remains the same for all forms (no s for 3rd
person singular). The short form for negative sentences is
wont. would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say
eg; I will, he will I sorry.
will not = I wont Modal verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not
The verb do change their form (spelling) and they have no infinitive
The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As or participle (past/present). The modals must and can
an auxiliary we use do in negative sentences and need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in
questions for most verbs (except not for be, will, have the different tenses. Here are some examples:
got and modal verbs) in Simple Present and Simple Past simple Sorry Im late. I had to finish my
Past. (Use the infinitive of the full verb.) math test.
The auxiliary do in negative sentences Present perfect Shes had to return to Korea at short
Simple Present: He does not play football. Simple notice.
Past: He did not play football. Future Youll have to work hard if you want
The auxiliary do in questions to pass the exams.
Simple Present: Does he play Infinitive I dont want to have to go.
football? Simple Past: Did he play Past simple I couldnt/wasnt able to walk until I
football? The verb do is irregular: was 3 years old.
Simple Present: I/we/you/they do, he/she/it
Present perfect I havent been able to solve this
does Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they did
problem. Can you help?
The full verb do
Future Im not sure if I will be able to come
As a full verb we use do in certain expressions. If we
to your party.
want to form negative sentences or questions using do
Infinitive I would love to be able to play the
as a full verb, we need another do as an auxiliary.
positive sentence: She does her homework every day. piano.
negative sentence:She doesnt do her homework Modals are auxiliary verbs. They do not need an
every day. additional auxiliary in negatives or questions.
question: Does she do her homework every day? For example:
Sentences without the auxiliary do Must I come? , or: He shouldnt smoke
In the following cases, the auxiliary do is not used in Contracted auxiliaries
The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For
negative sentences/questions:
example, you can say Im playing tennis tomorrow,
the full verb is be
instead of I am playing tennis tomorrow. The
eg; I am not angry. / Are you okay?
contracted form (which needs an apostrophe) is
the sentence already contains another auxiliary
more likely to be used in spoken language.
(e.g. have, be, will)
eg; They are not sleeping. / Have you heard that? The short form itself often has two alternatives,
the sentence contains a modal verb (can, may, which are equally usual and correct.
must, need, ought to, shall, should) For example:
Shes not going to the dance.
eg; We need not wait. / Can you repeat that,
She isnt going to the dance.
please? the question asks for the subject of
I havent seen him for ages.
the sentence eg; Who sings that song?
Ive not seen him for ages.
Other common auxiliary verbs are: will, should, would,
* The full form is common in spoken language
can, must, might, may, could (These verbs are often
when the speaker wants to emphasize what she
called modal verbs).
is saying. For example:
Modal verbs Why dont you call him?
The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would,
I have called him.
should. They are used with other verbs to express ability,
I do not want to see him again.
obligation, possibility, and so on. Below is a list showing the
most useful modals and their most common meanings:
ModalMeaning Example
can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may be home late.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years
old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
 The future clause can also contain other modal
Conditional Clauses verbs such as can and must.
Zero conditional
When we talk about things that are generally or
always true, we can use:
If/When/Unless plus a present form PLUS
present simple or imperative
Eg. If he gets there before me, ask him to wait.
When you fly budget airline, you have to
pay for your drinks and snacks.
Unless you need more space, a small car is
big enough for one person.
Note that we are not talking about a specific
event but something which is generally true.
In the condition clause, we can use a variety of
present forms. In the result clause, there can
only be the present simple or imperative.
Eg. If you visit London, go on the London Eye.
If unemployment is rising, people tend to stay
in their present jobs.
If youve done that, go and have a coffee.
When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun
cream. Itll be very hot.
When Im concentrating, please dont make
so much noise.
When Ive finished an article, I always ask
Kate to read it through.
Notice that unless means the same as if not.
Eg. Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any
more work on the project.
Unless prices are rising, its not a
good investment.
Unless youve been there yourself, you
dont really understand how fantastic it is.
The first conditional
We use the First Conditional to talk about future
events that are likely to happen.
Eg. If we take John, hell be really pleased.
If you give me some money, Ill pay you
back tomorrow.
If they tell us they want it, well have to
give it to them.
If Mary comes, shell want to drive.
The if clause can be used with different present

If I go to New York again, Ill buy you a

souvenir from the Empire ate Building.
If she hasnt heard the bad news yet, Ill tell

forms.
Eg.
her.
The future clause can contain going to or the
future perfect as well as will.
Eg. If I see him, Im going to tell him exactly
how angry I am.
If we dont get the contract, well have wasted
a lot of time and money.
Eg. If you go to New York, you must have Note that the If clause can contain the past simple
the cheesecake in Lindys. or the past continuous.
If he comes, you can get a lift home Eg. If I was still working in Delhi, I would commute
with him. by train.
Second conditional If she were coming, she would be here by
The Second Conditional is used to talk about now.
impossible situations. If they were thinking of selling, I would
Eg. If we were in London today, we would be want to buy.
able Note that the main clause can contain would could
to go to the concert Hyde Park. or might.
If I had millions dollars, Id give a lot to
charity.
If there were no hungry people in this
world,
it would be a much better place.
If everyone had clean water to drink,
there
would be a lot less disease.
Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the
subjunctive form were and not was. (Some
people think that were is the only correct form
but other people think was is equally correct .)
Eg. If she were happy in her job, she
wouldnt be
looking for another one.
If I lived in Japan, Id have sushi every
day.
If they were to enter our market, wed
have
big problems.
Note the form If I were you which is often used to
give
advice.
Eg. If I were you, Id look for a new place to
live.
If I were you, Id go back to school and
get
more qualifications.
The Second Conditional is also used to talk
about unlikely situations.
Eg. If I went to China, Id visit the Great
Wall.
If I was the President, Id reduce taxes.
If you were in my position, youd
understand.
Note that the choice between the first and the
second conditional is often a question of the
speakers attitude rather than of facts.
Compare these examples.
Joy thinks these things are possible, Peter
doesnt. Joy If I win the lottery, Ill buy a big
house. Peter If I won the lottery, Id buy a
big house. Joy If I get promoted, Ill throw a
big party. Peter If I got promoted, Id throw
a big party.
Joy If my team win the Cup, Ill buy
champagne for everybody.
Peter If my team won the Cup, Id buy
champagne for everybody.
Eg. If I had the chance to do it again, I would Exercise
do it differently. Give suitable words to fill in:
If we met up for lunch, we could go to 1) If you like, you ----- for two days.
that new restaurant. 2) If I ------ the film in the cinema, I wouldnt
If I spoke to him directly, I might be able have watched it on TV again.
to persuade him. 3) If the parents bought the cat, their children ---
Also note that sometimes the if clause is implied - very happy.
rather than spoken. 4) Metal ------- if you heat it.
Eg. What would I do without you? (if you 5) He ------- my e-mail if hed been online
werent here) yesterday evening.
Where would I get one at this time of 6) Theyd have been able to return the
night? (if I wanted one) bottle if they------- the labels.
He wouldnt agree. (if I asked him) 7) If she -------- up her room, she must find
Third conditional the receipt.
8) What ------- if you had a million dollars.
We can use the Third Conditional to talk about
9) Where would you live if you------ younger.
impossible conditions, impossible because they are in
10) If you ------ for a little moment, Ill tell the
the past and we cannot change what has happened.
doctor you are here.
Eg. If I had worked harder at school, I would
Answers
have got better grades.
1.can stay 2. had seen 3. would be
If I had had time, I would have gone to
4.expands 5. should have received
see him. But I didnt have time.
6.hadnt torn off 7. tidies up 8.would you do
If we had bought that house, we would
9. were 10.will wait
have had to rebuild the kitchen.
If we had caught the earlier train, we
would have got there on time but we were late.
Notice that the main clause can contain would,
could or might.
Eg. If I had seen him at the meeting, I would
have asked him. (But he hasnt there so I
didnt.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I
could have asked him. ( But he wasnt
there so it wasnt possible.)
If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have
asked him. (But Im not sure. Perhaps if the
opportunity had arisen.)
If I had paid more attention in class, I
would have understood the lesson.
 PRONOUNS Exercise
Fill in the blanks with which, who, whom and
A Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. It whose.
refers to a person or thing without giving the name. 1. The boy, _____ father is a doctor, is my best friend.
There are two types of Personal Pronouns: 2. This is not something _____ we like to do.
(1) those used as subjects; and 3. That man, _____ left leg was amputated,
(2) those used as objects. suffers from diabetes.
Personal Pronouns 4. The thief, _____ they caught, was sent to the prison.
Singular Plural 5. Our friends, _____ we invited to the party,
Subject Object Subject Object arrived rather early.
Ist Person I Me We Us 6. The girl, _____ broke the mirror, was scolded
IInd Person You You You You by her mother.
IIIrd Person He Him They Them 7. That is my uncle, _____ car was stolen.
She Her They Them 8. That woman, _____ you saw, was my auntie.
It It They Them 9. Kangaroos, _____ use their pouch to carry
their ba-bies, are found in Australia.
Reflexive Pronouns 10. The policeman, ______ caught the thief, is a
We use the Reflexive Pronoun when the action of very brave man.
the doer goes back to himself so that the Subject Answer
of the sentence is the same person as the object. 1.whose 2.which 3.whose 4.whom 5.whom
Example: He has hurt himself. 6.who 7.whose 8.whom 9.which 10.who
Pronouns like himself are called Reflexive
Pronouns. They always end in self .
Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
Ist Person Myself Ourselves
Ist Person Yourself Yourselves
Third Person Himself Themselves
Herself Themselves
Itself Themselves
Relative Pronouns
The Relative Pronouns take the place of Nouns
or Pro-nouns; and they are used to join two
sentences about the same person or thing.
Examples of relative pronouns: who, which,
that, whom and whose.
In most cases, we use who, whose and whom
to make statements about people.
We use who to join two sentences.
Example: The man is an artist. He drew that
picture. The man is an artist who drew that picture.
We use whose to show possession or rela-
tionship.
Example: That is my uncle whose son is my
cousin. We use which or that in almost the
same way as we use who but it refers to things,
not human beings. There is one other difference
in the way we use who and which.

After who we put a verb. After which we can put

a verb, a pronoun or a noun.
Example: That is the camera which costs fifty
dollars. That is the camera which he bought.
That is the cam-era which John likes.
We use whom to make a statement about human be-
ings. It is used in place of who (a) when it is the object of
a verb or (b) when it comes after a preposition.
Example: (a) The man whom they caught was
sent to prison. (b) The man to whom you should
speak is my uncle.
 Fill in the blanks with these words: against, at, by,
PREPOSITIONS for, from, in, like, near, of, on, to, up, with.
Prepositions are words placed before Nouns 1. She is doing a degree course _____ a university.
and Pro-nouns. They are used to show time, 2. His trousers were washed _____ the washing machine.
position and di-rection. 3. We had to climb slowly _____ the hill.
Examples of Prepositions showing time: My 4. His house looks _____ a temple.
birthday falls in September. Most 5. How many _____ the members will join the trip?
shops are closed on Sunday. I 6. Dont lean that ladder _____ the wall.
have an appointment at 9 oclock. 7. I dont usually feel tired _____ the morning.
Examples of Prepositions showing position: 8. Have you heard anything _____ him yet?
He is standing at the door. 9. My house is quite _____ to your school.
The glass is on the table. 10. Put this _____ your drawer and do not let anyone see it.
The cat is sleeping under the chair. Answer
Examples of Prepositions showing 1.at 2.by 3.up 4.like 5.of 6.against
direction: She got into the taxi. 7.in 8.from 9.near 10.in
The girl is walking towards her
mother. I have to go to town.
Other examples of expressions using prepositions:
The picture was drawn by his brother.
She likes to go out with her friends.
They say I walk like my father.
Her parents give her a box of sweets.
Expressions using Prepositions:
good at get up fall off interested in
clever at wake up get off involved in
bad at look up set off send in
point at clean up break off work in
stare at add up finish off fill in
fight against get into turn on made of
speak against cash into switch on built of
vote against jump into get on a box of
hit against turn into carry on half of
lean against dive into put it on many of
Exercise
 Table of English Tenses

Examples Examples Examples

Tense Signal words Use Form
affirmative negative interrogative

something happens I work. I don't work. Do I work?

every day repeatedly
Does he
He works. He doesn't work.
sometimes how often something work?
happens I go. I don't go. Do I go?
always
one action follows
Simple another
often
Present infinitive he/she/it
or things in general + -s
usually
Present Simple
after the following
seldom He goes. He doesn't go. Does he go?
verbs (to love, to
never hate, to think, etc.)

first ... then future meaning:

timetables,
programmes
something is Am I
I'm working. I'm not working.
now happening at the working?
same time of speaking
Is he
or around it He's working. He isn't working.
Present at the moment to be (am/are/is) + working?
infinitive + -ing
Progressive or

Present Continuous Look! future meaning: when I'm going. I'm not going. Am I going?
you have already

Listen! decided and

arranged to do it (a He's going. He isn't going. Is he going?
fixed plan, date)
last ... action took place in I worked. I didn't work. Did I work?
Simple regular:
Past ... ago the past, mostly infinitive + -ed He worked. He didn't work. Did he work?
connected with an

or expression of time (no irregular: I went. I didn't go. Did I go?

connection to the
Past in 1990 2nd column of table

Simple of irregular verbs

present) He went. He didn't go. Did he go?
yesterday
an action happened in Was I
I was working. I wasn't working.
the middle of another working?
action
Past Was he
He was working. He wasn't working.
Progressive or while someone was doing was/were + working?
Past Continuous
infinitive + -ing

sth. at a certain time I was going. I wasn't going. Was I going?

(in the past) - you do

not know whether it Was he

He was going. He wasn't going.
was finished or not going?
just Have I
I have worked. I haven't worked.
worked?
yet
Has he
He has worked. He hasn't worked.
never you say that sth. has worked?

ever happened or is have/has + past I have gone. I haven't gone. Have I gone?
Simple finished in the past
participle*
Present and it has a
Perfect already connection to the
*(infinitive + -ed) or
or present
so far, (3rd column of
Present
table of irregular
Perfect action started in the
up to now, verbs)
past and continues up He has gone. He hasn't gone. Has he gone?
to the present
since

for

recently
all day action began in the I have been I haven't been Have I been
past and has just working. working. working?
Present Perfect the whole day stopped He has been He hasn't been Has he been
Progressive or have/has + been + working. working. working?
infinitive + -ing
Present how long how long the action

Perfect has been happening I haven't been Have I been

I have been going.
Continuous since going. going?
emphasis: length of
He hasn't been Has he been
for time of an action He has been going.
going. going?
mostly when two Had I
I had worked. I hadn't worked.
actions in a story are worked?
Simple related to each other: had + past
Past already the action which had participle* He had worked. He hadn't worked. Had he
Perfect already happened is worked?

or just put into Past Perfect, *(infinitive + -ed) or I had gone. I hadn't gone. Had I gone?
Past the othe r actio n in to (3rd column of

Perfect never Simple Past table of irregular

(Simple) verbs)
He had gone. He hadn't gone. Had he gone?
the past of the
Present Perfect
 I had been working. I hadn't been Had I been
working. working?
Past Perfect how long how long something He had been He hadn't been Had he been
Progressive or since had been happening had + been + working. working. working?
Past Perfect before something else infinitive + ing
Had I been
Continuous happened I had been going. I hadn't been going.
for going?
He hadn't been Had he been
He had been going.
going. going?

predictions about the I'll work. I won't work. Will I work?

future (you think that
sth. will happen) He'll work. He won't work. Will he work?

I'll go. I won't go. Will I go?

you decide to do sth.
will - future spontaneously at the will + infinitive
time of speaking, you
haven't made a
decision before He'll go. He won't go. Will he go?

main clause in type I

of the if clauses
I'm not going to Am I going to
I'm going to work.
when you have work. work?
already decided to do He's not going to Is he going
He's going to work.
sth. in the future be (am/are/is) + work. to work?
going to - future
going to + infinitive
Am I going to
what you think what I'm going to go. I'm not going to go. go?
will happen
He's not going to Is he going
He's going to go.
go. to go?

An action will be in I'll be working. I won't be working. Will I be

progress at a certain working?
time in the future.
This action has begun He'll be working. He won't be Will he be
Future Progressive or before the certain will + be + infinitive working. working?
Future Continuous time. + ing Will I be
I'll be going. I won't be going.
going?
Something happens
because it normally Will he be
He'll be going. He won't be going.
happens. going?
I won't have Will I have
I'll have worked.
Simple will + have + past worked. worked?
participle*
Future sth. will already have He won't have Will he have
He'll have worked.
Perfect happened before a *(infinitive + -ed) or worked. worked?
or certain time in the
(3rd column of Will I have
Future Perfect future I'll have gone. I won't have gone.
Simple table of irregular gone?
verbs)
He'll have gone. He won't have gone. Will he have
gone?
Will I have
I'll have been I won't have been
been
working. working.
sth. will already have working?

Future happened before a He'll have been He won't have been Will he have
Perfect certain time in the been
working. working.
Progressive or future will + have + been working?
Future + infinitive + ing
Will I have
Perfect I'll have been going. I won't have been been
Continuous emphasis: length of going.
time of an action working?

He'll have been He won't have been Will he have

been
going. going.
working?
I wouldn't Would I
I would work.
sth. that might work. work?
happen Would he
He would work. He wouldn't work.
Conditional Simple would + infinitive work?
main clause in type II
of the if-clauses I would go. I wouldn't go. Would I go?
He wouldn't Would he
He would go.
go. go?

I would be working. I wouldn't be Would I be

working. working?
Conditional sth. that might He would be He wouldn't be Would he be
Progressive happen
would + be + working. working. working?
or
infinitive + ing
Conditional emphasis: length of I would be going. I wouldn't be going. Would I be
Continuous time of an action going?
He wouldn't be Would he be
He would be going.
going. going?

Conditional Perfect sth. that might have would + have + I would have I wouldn't have Would I have
happened in the past past participle* worked. worked. worked?
(It's too late now.)
*(infinitive + -ed) or He would have He wouldn't have Would he
main clause in type III (3rd column of worked. worked. have
of the if clauses table of irregular worked?

verbs)
 gone. gone?
He would have He wouldn't have Would I have
gone. gone. gone?
Would I have
I would have been I wouldn't have
been
working. been working.
working?
Conditional Perfect sth. that might have
Would he
Progressive happened in the past He would He wouldn't have
would + have + have been
or (It's too late now.) have been going. been going.
been + infinitive + working?
Conditional
ing
Perfect emphasis: length of I would have been I wouldn't have Would I have
Continuous time of an action going. been going. been going?
Would he
He would have been He wouldn't have
have been
going. been going.
going?
General English
ON E WOR D SUBSTITUTION

For every competitive examination a few questions can be expected from One Word Substitution.
Moreover this section will certainly help you to increase your English vocabulary. The words included
here will help you to write and speak English precisely and effectively. Learning them will be a great asset in
life. In order to keep these words in your mind complement your study with extensive reading. One of the
practical methods is to study ten to fifteen words each day. If you make it a practice, with each passing day
there will be steady improvement in your knowledge.
In the first part of this section we have given you a list of over 600 words which are commonly asked in
One Word Substitution. In the second part we have collected some objective type questions for you to
practice with. They are followed by their answers. All these questions were asked for various examinations.
Learn all these words carefully. After learning each word try to use it in a sentence of your own. This method
will help you to stamp the word in your mind.

LIST - I
ABATTOIR : A place where animals are ARTISTE : Professional singer, dancer etc.
slaughtered. ATHEIST : A person who does not
ACCOMPLICE : A partner in crime. believe in the existence of God.
AESTHETE : A person with a highly AUTOCRACY : A government where the
developed sense of beauty. power is concentrated
AFFLUENT : Wealthy; having abundance of in the hands of one person.
money. AUTOPSY : Medical examination of a
AGORAPHOBIA : Unreasonable fear of open dead body.
spaces. BANKRUPT : A person who cannot pay
ALLEVIATE : To lessen, make less his debts.
severe. BARBARIAN : An uncivilised person.
ALTRUIST : One who does good work BARRICADE : Hastily erected barrier
for others without thought of across a street.
personal gain. BELLIGERENT : One who is engaged in
AMBIDEXTROUS : Able to use the left hand as fighting a battle or war.
well as the right. BIBLIOGRAPHY : A list of writings on a subject.
AMBIGUOUS : A word or statement which BIBLIOPHILE : One who loves books.
can be interpreted in two BIOGRAPHY : The story of a persons life.
ways. BLASPHEMOUS : One who is irreverent
ANACHRONISM : That which appears to be in towards God.
the wrong period. BREVITY : Briefness; shortness of
ANGLOPHILE : An admirer of the English time.
people, language, manners BREWERY : A place where beer is made.
or way of life. BUREAUCRACY : A government run by civil
ANGLOPHOBE : One who dislikes the servants.
English and England. CALLIGRAPHY : The art of beautiful hand
ARMISTICE : An agreement to stop writing.
fighting in a war. CARDIOLOGIST : A doctor specialising in
ARISTOCRACY : A government run by the rich matters relating to the heart.
and the elite people; a class CATHOLICITY : Broad outlook, free from
of well-born people. prejudice.
CELIBACY : The state of being DEBACLE : A sudden complete failure.
unmarried. DENOUEMENT : The last part of a play, book
CHARLATAN : One who deceives others etc. where all the
by claiming to be an expert. complications of the plot are
CIRCUMLOCUTION : A roundabout way of solved.
expression. DETERGENT : A cleaning agent, especially
CLAUSTROPHOBIA : A morbid fear of confined a synthetic substance.
spaces. DETERRENT : Something to discourage
COAGULATE : Change from liquid into people from doing wrong.
solid by chemical reaction. DILETTANTE : An admirer of the fine arts.
COLLOQUIAL : Suitable for ordinary DISARMAMENT : Reduction of weapons by
informal conversation. governments.
COMBUSTIBLE : That which can catch fire DISINFORMATION : False information spread
and burn easily. intentionally to spread
COMEDIAN : One who plays funny parts propaganda.
in plays or films. DOMICILE : A place where one lives
COMMODITY : An article of trade or permanently.
commerce. DRAGNET : A system of connected
COMPATRIOT : A person belonging to ones actions and methods for
own country. catching criminals.
COMPLEXION : The natural colour and DRUDGERY : Hard, uninteresting work.
appear- ance of skin. DUET : Song sung by two people
COMPULSORY : That which must be done. together.
CONDUCTOR : That which acts as a path for EBULLIENT : High-spirited, exuberant.
electricity, heat etc. EFFEMINATE : A man who has the qualities
CONNOISSEUR : A person who is competent of a woman.
to pass critical judgement ENCYCLOPAEDIA : A book giving information on
upon anything. all branches of knowledge.
CONSCRIPT : A person who is compelled ENTOMOLOGY : The scientific study of
by law to serve in the armed insects.
forces. EPIC : A long narrative poem.
CONSORTIUM : A combination of several EPILOGUE : Concluding part of a literary
businesses for a common work.
purpose. ERGONOMICS : The study of the efficiency of
CONTAGIOUS : That which spreads easily, people in their working
especially a disease. environment.
CONTRETEMPS : An unlucky event, an ERR : Make a mistake, do wrong.
unexpected set-back. ESTUARY : The wide mouth of a river.
CONTROVERSIAL : That which causes debate EVOLUTION : Gradual development from
or argument. simple life forms to complex
CONVENTION (2) : A formal assembly or ones.
conference of people of the EXCISE : Tax on goods produced and
same business to discuss
used in a country.
practices.
EXERTION : Making an effort; trying very
CORRIGENDUM : Something to be corrected
hard to do something.
in a printed book.
EXTEMPORE : A speech made without any
COUNTERFEIT : Copy something exactly in
previous thought or
order to deceive.
preparation.
COUP DTAT : Sudden overthrow of a
EXTERMINATE : To put an end to something by
government, especially by force.
killing.
CRUISE : A sea voyage for pleasure.
EXTROVERT : A person who is active, lively
CYGNET : A young swan.
and enjoys the company of
CYNIC : One who has little faith in
others.
human sincerity or honesty.
EXUBERANT : Lively, high-spirited. GERMICIDE : A medicine that kills germs.
FALLACY : A false idea or belief. GLACIER : A mass of ice moving very
FARCE : A light-hearted humorous slowly down a mountain
play with silly action. valley.
FASTIDIOUS : One who cannot be easily GLUT : A larger supply than
pleased. necessary.
FAVOURITISM : The practice of giving GRAFFITI : Rough drawing or writing on
favoured treatment to public walls.
certain people. GRAMINIVORE : An animal that eats grain.
FEBRILE : Of or caused by fever. GRATIS : Without payment, free of cost.
FEMINIST : A supporter of the cause of GUBERNATORIAL : Of a governor.
women. HALLUCINATION : Seeing something which is
FIANCE : A girl to whom a man is not actually present.
engaged to be married. HAVEN : A place of calm and safety.
FISSION : Splitting of the nucleus of an HEDONIST : One who lives for pleasure.
atom. HERBIVORE : A plant-eating animal.
FLOGGING : Severe beating with a whip. HISTRIONICS : Overreacting in a theatrical
FLUVIAL : Of, found in, or produced by manner.
rivers. HOLOCAUST : Great destruction and the
FOOLSCAP : A size of paper, also called loss of many lives; the mass
legal format. killing of Jews in World War
FOREMAN : A skilled worker in charge II.
of other workmen. HOLSTER : A leather holder for a pistol.
FOURTH ESTATE : Influential newspapers and HOMICIDE : The killing of one man by
journalists. another man.
FRANCOPHILE : An admirer of the French HOMONYM : A word which agrees with
people, language, manners another in pronun-ciation and
or way of life. perhaps also in spelling but is
FRANCOPHOBE : One who dislikes the different in meaning.
French and France. HONORARY : An office for which no salary
FRATRICIDE : The murder of ones brother. is paid.
FREIGHT : Goods carried by train, ship HOOLIGAN : A noisy rough person who
etc. causes trouble.
FUDDY-DUDDY : An elderly person who does HORTICULTURE : The art of garden cultivation.
not understand or approve HUB : The central part of a wheel.
of modern ideas. HYPERCRITICAL : Excessively critical.
FUMIGATE : To clear of disease, bacteria HYPOCHONDRIAC : One who has exaggerated
etc., by means of chemical anxiety about his health.
smoke. HYPOCRITICAL : Pretence of virtue or goodness;
GARAGE : A building in which saying one thing while thinking
motorcars are parked. another.
GARRULOUS : One who talks too much HYPOTHESIS : Supposition made as basis
about uninteresting things. for reasoning.
GASTRONOMY : The art and science of IDEALISM : Practice of forming and
following ideals.
cooking and eating good
IDEOLOGY : Set of ideas at the basis of
food.
certain economic or political
GENOCIDE : Elimination or killing of a
systems.
whole race.
IDOLATRY : Worship of idols.
GERMANOPHILE : An admirer of the German
IGNORAMUS : A thoroughly ignorant person.
people, language, manners
ILLEGAL : That which is contrary to law.
or way of life.
ILLEGIBLE : Handwriting which cannot
GERMANOPHOBE : One who dislikes the
be read.
Germans and Germany.
ILLITERATE : One who is unable to read or IRREPARABLE : That which cannot be
write. repaired.
IMMEMORIAL : Too old to be remembered, IRREPROACHABLE : So good that no criticism can
ancient beyond memory. be made.
IMMINENT : About to happen. JAYWALK : To cross streets on foot in a
IMMORTAL : That which never dies. careless and dangerous
IMPASSABLE : That which cannot be passed way.
through. JOEY : A young kangaroo.
IMPLACABLE : Impossible to satisfy, change JUDICIOUS : Wise, sound in judgement.
KIMONO : A loose gown of silk as worn
or make less angry.
in Japan.
IMPREGNABLE : That which cannot be attacked
KNIGHTHOOD : The right to put Sir in front of
or taken by force.
ones name.
INACCESSIBLE : That cannot be approached
LACKEY : One who behaves like a
or reached. servant by always obeying.
INAUSPICIOUS : Not of good omen. LAMINATE : To cover with thin sheets of
INCORPOREAL : Without a body. metal or plastic.
INCREDIBLE : That cannot be believed. LEGIBLE : Capable of being read
INDEFATIGABLE : One who is incapable of clearly.
being tired. LEONINE : Of or like a lion.
INDELIBLE : Incapable of being effaced or LEXICOGRAPHER : One who compiles diction-
cancelled or obliterated. aries.
INDIGENOUS : Belonging naturally to a place. LIBERTARIAN : One who believes that one
INDOPHILE : An admirer of the Indian should have freedom of
people, its culture, manners or expression.
way of life. LIMERICK : A humorous short poem with
INDOPHOBE : One who dislikes the Indians five lines.
and India. LITERATI : People with knowledge of
INEDIBLE : Something which cannot be literature.
eaten. LOQUACIOUS : One who talks a lot.
INEVITABLE : That which is bound to LOWBROW : One who has no interest in
happen. literature, art etc.
INEXPLICABLE : That which cannot be LULLABY : A pleasant song sung to
explained. send children to sleep.
INFLAMMABLE : Capable of catching fire. MACHETE : A knife with a broad heavy
blade.
INFLATE : To fill with air or gas.
MAGNUM OPUS : A great work of art, particularly
INGENIOUS : Very clever.
literary.
INIMITABLE : That which cannot be imitated.
MALEDICTION : Evil, vicious speech.
INNATE : That which one is born with. MANUAL : A book giving information about
INNOCUOUS : That which is quite harmless. how to work something.
INTANGIBLE : That cannot be mentally MANUSCRIPT : Handwritten script of a book.
grasped. MARTINET : A strict disciplinarian.
INTELLIGENTSIA : The class of people who MASCOT : Something chosen as a
think independently. symbol to bring good luck.
INTOLERABLE : That which cannot be MASOCHIST : One who enjoys pain or
endured. humiliation.
INTROSPECTION : Examination of ones own MEDIOCRE : One who is neither intelligent nor
mental processes. dull.
INTUITION : Immediate apprehension by MEGALOMANIA : The belief that one is
mind reasoning. extremely important.
INVINCIBLE : That cannot be conquered or MELODIOUS : Sweet sounding.
defeated. MERCANTILE : Of trade and business.
INVULNERABLE : That which cannot be METEOROLOGY : The scientific study of
wounded. weather conditions.
METICULOUS : A person who is very careful PAUNCH : A mans fat stomach.
about details. PEDANT : One who exhibits his book
MILITIA : Those trained as soldiers learning.
but not belonging to a regular PENULTIMATE : Last but one.
army. PERQUISITE : Gain over and above ones
MISANTHROPE : One who hates mankind. salary.
MISOGAMIST : One who hates marriage. PETROLOGY : The scientific study of rocks.
MISOGYNIST : One who hates women. PHILISTINE : Person of material outlook
MONOMANIAC : One who keeps thinking of who is indifferent to culture.
one particular thing only. PHILOLOGIST : One who is well versed in the
MONOTHEISM : The practice of worshipping science of languages.
only one god. PIGMENT : The natural colouring matter of
MULTINATIONAL : A company having branches plants and animals.
in many countries. PLAINTIFF : One who bring a charge
MYCOLOGY : The scientific study of fungi. against someone in court.
NAUSEA : Strong feeling of wanting to PLATONIC : A very close, non-sexual
vomit. friendship between two
NAUTICAL : Of sailors, ships or sailing. people.
NEMESIS : Downfall that satisfies PLEBEIAN : Of the lower social classes.
natural justice. POLYANDRY : The practice of having more
NEOLOGISM : A new word. than one husband at the same
NEPOTISM : Undue favour shown by a time.
person in power to his POLYGAMY : The practise of having more
relatives. than one husband or wife at
NOTARY : A public official who makes
the same time.
written statements official.
POLYGLOT : One who speaks many
NUMISMATIC : One who collects coins.
languages.
OBITUARY : Notice of a persons death
POLYGRAPH : A lie-detector.
in a newspaper.
POSTHUMOUS : A child born after the death of
OBLIGATORY : That which is required to be
its father.
done by law.
OBSOLETE : That which is out of use, or POSTSCRIPT : A note added at the end of a
replaced by a newer letter, after the signature.
model. PRAGMATIST : One who uses common
OMNIPOTENT : One who is all powerful. sense.
OMNISCIENT : One who knows everything. PRESCIENT : Able to foretell what will happen
OMNIVOROUS : One who eats anything. in the future.
ONTOLOGY : Philosophy concerned with PROFILE (1) : A side view of someones
the nature of existence. head.
OPTHALMOLOGIST : An eye-doctor. PROPELLANT : An explosive for firing a bullet
OPTOMETRIST : A technician who measures or a rocket.
your eyesight. PSEUDONYM : A pen-name assumed by a
PACHYDERM : A thick-skinned animal, writer.
especially an elephant or PULMONARY : Of or having an effect on the
rhinoceros. lungs.
PACIFIST : One who believes in the QUIXOTIC : Trying to do the impossible,
abolition of war. usually to help others, while
PALAEOGRAPHY : The study of ancient writing. putting oneself into danger.
PALAEONTOLOGY : The study of fossils. RACONTEUR : One who is good at telling
PANACEA : A remedy which can cure all stories in an interesting way.
diseases. RAPPORT : A good relationship between
PARADOX : Contradictory statement. two people.
PARASITE : One that lives on another. RECEPTIVE : Capable of receiving new
PARIAH : One who is not accepted by ideas.
society. RED TAPISM : Excessive use of official
PATENT : Sole right to make and sell formalities which causes
ones own invention. unnecessary delay.
REFLATION : A government policy of SPINSTER : An unmarried woman.
increasing the amount of STALE : Something which is not fresh.
money in circulation. STAMPEDE : A sudden rush of a large
REINFORCE : Strengthen by additional men number of frightened people
or material. or animals.
RENAISSANCE : A renewal of interest in art, STELLAR : Of the stars.
literature etc. STOCKBROKER : One who buys and sell shares
REQUISITION : An official demand or request. for others.
RETRIBUTION : A severe deserved punish- STOIC : One who is indifferent to pain
ment. and pleasure.
RINGLEADER : One who leads others to do STRATAGEM : A trick to deceive an enemy.
wrong or make trouble. STRINGENT : Very strict.
RODENT : A small herbivore usually SUBCUTANEOUS : Beneath the skin.
considered a pest.. SUB JUDICE : A subject which cannot be
RUSSOPHILE : An admirer of the Russian publicly discussed because it
people, language, manners or is being considered by a court
way of life. of law.
RUSSOPHOBE : One who dislikes the SUBSIDY : Money paid by a government to
Russians and Russia. make prices lower.
SABOTAGE : Wanton destruction especially SUBVERSIVE : Attempting to weaken or
of a factory, etc. b y
overthrow authority.
dissatis- fied workers.
SUPERANNUATED : Too old for work.
SACRILEGE : The violation or profaning of
SURREAL : Having a strange, dreamlike
sacred things.
unreal quality.
SANATORIUM : A place for invalids and
TABLEAU : A lifelike representation of a
convalescents.
famous scene by a group of
SANCTIMONIOUS : Making a show of piety.
SCAFFOLD : A structure on which criminals people who do not move or
used to be hanged. speak.
SCEPTIC : Person who doubts the truth TAXIDERMY : The art of stuffing animals and
of what he is told. setting them in life-like poses.
SCUBA : An instrument used for TECHNOCRAT : A specialist in technology.
breathing when swimming TEETOTALLER : One who abstains from all kinds
under water. of alcoholic drinks.
SEDENTARY : Done while sitting down. TERMINATE : Come or bring to an end.
SEER : One who can see into the THEIST : One who believes in the
future. existence of God.
SENSATIONALISM : The intentional producing of THEOCRACY : Government by priests.
excitement or shock. TIMBER : Wood cut down for building etc.
SEPTUAGENARIAN : One in his seventies. TOPIARY : The art of trimming trees and
SILHOUETTE : Black shadow-like picture on bushes to decorative shapes.
white background. TRAITOR : One who is disloyal to his
SIMULTANEOUSLY : Taking place or happening at country.
the same time. TYRANT : A ruler with complete power
SINECURE : Any office with good salary but who rules cruelly.
no work. UNISEX : Of one type, used by both
SINOPHILE : An admirer of the Chinese males and females.
people, language, manners or UNANIMOUS : A decision taken by the votes
way of life. of all.
SINOPHOBE : One who dislikes the Chinese UPSTART : A person who has suddenly
and China. risen from low rank to wealth
SMALL FRY : Unimportant people. and importance.
SNIPPET : A small piece from something UXORICIDE : The killing of ones wife.
spoken or written. UXORIOUS : Greatly or excessively fond of
SOJOURN : A short stay at a place. ones wife.
 LIST - II

CREDULOUS : Ready to believe without HOMICIDE : The act of killing a human

sufficient evidence being
ARISTOCRACY : Government by the nobility HAWKER : One who travels from place
to place selling
PLUTOCRACY : Government by the wealthy
miscellaneous articles
people
HEDONIST : One who believes that
DEMAGOGUE : A person who can sway his
pleasure is the highest tool.
followers by his oratory
HORTICULTURE : The art of cultivating and
DESPERADO : One ready to do any
managing gardens
reckless or criminal act
HYPERBOLE : Exaggerated statement
EDIBLE : Fit for food
made for the sake of effect
EPICURIAN : One who devoted to the
HOSTAGE : Person given to an enemy as
pleasures of eating and
a pledge
drinking
INVALID : A person who is sick
ELECTROCUTE : Killing by means of an
electric current INCENDIARY : One who maliciously sets
fire to building
ENDEMIC : A disease confined to a
particular district or place INSOLVENT : One who cannot pay ones
debts
EXTROVERT : One whose interest are
directed outward IGNORAMUS : An ignorant person

EPHEMERAL : Existing only for a day. IMMIGRANT : One who comes into a
foreign country to settle there
EMBALM : To preserve a dead body
INVINCIBLE : That which cannot be
from decaying
conqured
EPITOME : A brief summary of a book
INCOMBUSTIBLE : Incapable of being burnt
ENIGMA : A person, thing or
INVISIBLE : That which cannot be seen
circumstance that is
puzzling IMMORTAL : Living for ever
EMBARGO : An order prohibiting ships to INIMITABLE : That which cannot be
leave the port imitated
ENTOMOLOGY : The study of insects INDEFATIGABLE : Persons that cannot be
wearied
FIANCEE : One engaged to be married
INTERNECINE : Causing destruction to both
FARRIES : One who shoes horses
sides
FUGITIVE : One who runs away from
INTERPOLATE : make (spurious &
justice or the law misleading) additions to a
FANATIC : a person filled with book
excessive entusiasm, JUXTAPOSE : To place side by side
especially in religion
LETHAL : causing death
GEOLOGIST : One who studies about
rocks and soils LACONIC : Expressing in a few words

GARRISON : Military force stationed in a LAUNDRY : A place where clothes are

fortress washed and ironed
LIMNOLOGY : The study of lakes and ORNITHOLOGY : The study of birds
other fresh water bodies OBITUARY : An account, in the
MANIFESTO : A declaration of plans and newspaper, of the funeral of
promises put forward by a one deceased
political party OSTLER : One who attends to horses
MIGRATE : To move from one country at an inn
to another OPTICIAN : One who makes or sells
METEOROLOGIST : One who studies the eye-glasses
elements of weather. OOLOGY : The study of eggs
MISANTHROPE : One who hates mankind OCCIDENTAL : Belonging to the west
METALLURGY : The science dealing with OSTRACIZE : Expel from society
the production of metals POSTHUMOUS : Occurring after death
MONOLOGUE : A long speech by one PLAGIARISM : Literary theft, or passing off
person an authors original work as
MOBILIZE : To collect together for ones own.
service in war PYROTECHNICS : The art of making fireworks
MAUSOLEUM : A magnificent tomb PARASITE : A plant or animal growing on
MACHIAVELLIAN : Unscrupulous in gaining another
what is wanted PANACEA : A cure for all diseases
MEMENTO : Something kept or given as PHILATELIST : One who collects postage
a reminder stamps
MIVIPAROUS : Producing young that are PHILANTHROPIST : One who devotes his
fully developed . service or wealth for the love
of mankind.
MEGALOMANIAC : A person with a false
impression that he is great PEDANT : One who makes a display
and powerful. of his learning
NUMISMATICS : The study of coins PEDLAR : One who goes from house
to house selling small
NICHE : A hollow place in wall articles.
NEOLOGISM : A new word coined by an PAEDIATRICIAN : Doctors who treat childrens
author diseases
NEPOTISM : Special favour shown by a PALAEOGRAPHY : The study of ancient modes
person in high position to of writing
his relatives.
PHONETICS : The science of speech,
ORCHARD : A place where fruit trees are sounds and their production
grown
PYROTECHNICS : The art of making fireworks
OPTIMIST : One who looks on the bright
PROTAGONIST : Chief person in a drama,
side of things.
story etc.
OMNISCIENT : One who knows everything PSEUDONYM : A fictitious name used by an
OMNIPRESENT : One who is present author
everywhere QUACK : One who dishonestly
OCULIST : One who attends to the claims to have knowledge
diseases of the eye and skill, esp. in medicine.
QUARANTINE : Confinement to one place to TRANSMIGRATION : Belief that the soul passes at
prevent spread of infection. death into another body.
RUMINANT : A cud-chewing animal UTOPIAN : Ideally perfect but
REFUGEE : One who takes refuge in a impracticable
foreign country. UNDERTAKER : A tradesman who manages
REINSTATE : Put back in a former station funerals
or condition. UPHOLSTERER : One who makes or deals in
RACONTEUR : One who tells anecdotes or carpets, curtains, beds,
stories cushioned seats, etc.

SOMNAMBULIST : One who walk in his sleep USURER : One who lends money at an
excessive rate of interest
SPENDTHRIFT : One who spends too much
UPSTART : One who has suddenly
SCULPTOR : One who carves in stone, risen to wealth and
metal, wood, etc. importance
SURGEON : One who treats diseases by ULTIMATUM : final proposal of terms given
operations by one party to another
SANATORIUM : A hospital esp, for UNANIMOUS : Of the same opinion
tuberculosis patients and
convalescents. VETERINARIAN : One skilled in the treatment
of diseases of animals
SYMPOSIUM : Collection of views of
several persons on a topic VAGABOND : One who wanders without
settled home
SYNONYM : A word with the same
VALETUDINARIAN : One who is overanxious
meaning as another
about ones health
SABOTAGE : Wanton destruction of a
plant by workmen VOLUNTEER : One who takes part in an
enterprise of his own free
SIMULTANEOUS : happening or done at the will
same time
VERBATIM : Word for word
SUPERFLUOUS : More than is needed
VERSATILE : Of many sided ability
TEETOTALLER : One who doesnt consume
alchoholic drinks VICARIOUS : Done for another

TRAITOR : One who betrays his WARREN : A place for breeding or

friends, ruler, country, etc. preserving rabbits

TAXIDERMY : The art of preparing, stuffing WINNOW : To separate the husks from
and mounting the skins of the grain
animals, birds and fish. WANTON : Recklessly inconsiderate
TOPOGRAPHY : The art of representing the WIDOWER : A man whose wife is dead
physical features of a place XENOMANIAC : A person having an
on a map. excessive attachment to
THESAURUS : Lexicon, esp, a collection of foreign living
words ZOO : A place where many kinds
TABOO : An act which religion or of animals are kept for show
custon regards as
ZOOLOGY : The science of animal life
forbidden.