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Sourcelines,
Sourceregions,
and Pathlinesfor Fluids in
HydrothermalSystemsBelated to CoolingPlutons
DENIS 2*ORTON
Abstract
ponemsor to 1)redictthe occurrenceof subsurface where T is the temperature; q, the scalar stream-
ore depositson the basis of limited surfaceor drill function; q the fluid flux; 1t, p, and v are the en-
hole data. thalpy, density, and viscosity of the fluid; k is the
The purposeof this communicationis to describe permeabilityof the rock; the therlnal conductivity
and y the volumetricheat capacityof the fluid satu-
the conceptsthat perufit quantitativedescriptionof
rated media; R the Rayleigh number; t the time;
the sourcesand flow pathsof inert fluidswhich cir-
culate in the vicinity of coolingplutons. These the gradientoperator;and y the horizontaldistance
perufit the quantitativedescriptionof the in the tvo-dimensional
concepts sectionto which theseequa-
initial positionsof all fluidswhichultimatelycircu- tionsapply. The conservation of massis explicitly
latethroughrocksin the vicinityof an igneousintru- includedin equations(1) and (2). Equations(1)
sionand the pathsalongwhichthe fluidsflow (in- and (2) are approximatedby finite differencenu-
cludingthe temperature, pressure,and compositionalmericalequationswhich permit the computationof
variationsof the path) from the fluid sourceto any the values of the dependentvariables at discrete
positionof interestin the system. Quantitative pointsin the domainfrom the initial and boundary
description of reactivecirculation
andmineralzoning valuesspecifiedfor the system.
in hydrothermal systemsfollowssimplyfrom the The physicalmeaningof equations(1) and (2) is
concepts presented below,whenthey are coupled apparentif oneconsiders that the fluiddensitygradi-
with those of irreversible mass transfer between ents,on the right-handsideof equation(2), result-
fluidsandrocks(Helgeson, 1970). Thesources and ing from a thermalanomalycausefluid circulation;
redistributionof the chemicalcomponents in reactive e.g.,theydefinegradientvaluesof the streamfunction
fluids will form the basisof a future communication. and, therefore,fluid flux sinceq =-0/0y and
q.= 0/0z. The fluid flux, , in turn transports
Fluid Circulation around Cooling Plutons heatawayfromthethermalanomaly, i.e.,the second
term on the left of equation(1); at the sametime,
Hydrothermalfluid flow is causedby lateral
density perturbations in the fluidsconfined within thermal
anomaly,
energyis conducted
the right-hand side
awayfromthe thermal
in equation(1). Both
the flowporosity of rocks. Fluiddensityanomalies
resultingfromtheruralandconcentration effectsare of these processes give rise to a decrease in tem-
relatively common perature with respect to time and, therefore,
in uppercrustalrocks,especiallythe horizontalfluid densitygradients;and, conse-decrease
thelargethermalperturbations whichoccurin plu-
ton enviromnents. Therefore, it is reasonableto ex- quently,the thermalanomaly is decreased by the
combined convective and conductive heat transfer.
pectfluidcirculation to bea characteristic
featureof The coupled solution of (1) and (2) is achieved by
theseenvironments, if the rock permeability
is suf-
ficiently large.
a series of steady-state computations at explicitly
Fluid circulationin naturalsystemsis not easily stabletime steps,therebydefiningthe temperature
and fluid flux as a functionof time. The pressureis
studiedby directobservation sinceeventhe most in turn computed at eachsteady-state stepby inte-
thoroughly exploredgeothermal systemsarea small
sampleof the total systemand the durationof grationof the Darcy equation,
fieldstudiesrepresents onlya smallfractionof the k
time duration of the thermal anomalies. The lack of q = -- -[VP + og], (3)
a quantitative understanding of fluidcirculation
is,
therefore,not surprising. in whichthefluidproperties,
v andp, areexpressed
However,the fluid flow in plutonenvironmentsas a functionof temperature and pressure,
P, and
canbe effectivelyscaled andrepresented
by partial thegravitational forcevector,g, is constant.Fluid
differentialequations
whichdescribethe conserva- velocities are then determined from
tion of mass,momentum, andenergyfor the fluid-
rocksystem (NortonandKnight,1977): g = q/.. (4)
0T Numericalshnulation
of the equationsquantita-
v + = v.vT tivelypredictsthenatnreof hydrothermal fluidflow
andprovides theoredeposit geologistwitha keyto
(conservation
of energy) (1) understanding howtheseprocesses operated in the
and past.Thereliabilityof thesecomputations andtheir
Op
applicability
to specific
locations
is a directfunction
of the degreeto whichthoseparameters thataffect
F<v.F< = R-- heatandmasstransportin the hydrothermal
system
of momentum) (2)
(conservation (e.g.,permeability,
flowporosity,
heatsource
geome-
FLUID SOURCEL[NES,
SOURCEREGIO.VS,
AND P.4THL[NES' 23
I
try, and transportpropertiesof the fluid and rock)
are known. The permeabilityof fossilhydrothermal 2
VOLCANIC k = Io-Ilcm2
ROCKS
h = g?i(t)dt, (8) VzTo = 20oC/km
i
20 Vapor)
respective pathsraingefroman averageof 10 scm/sec
for packet2 to < 10-s cm/secfor packet3. 200
.....
the pluton. Fluid sources within the host rocks,
however, occur as far as 2 km above and 5 km
laterally away from the pluton (Fig. 6A, sourceline
1, sourcepoint M) but are dominantlyfrom within
,! , the 2.7-kin-thick permeablelayer. The inflectionsin
sourceline1 betweenposition(1) and the tic mark at
--
i
CONDUCTIVE:
i
NO FLOW
i i 1
circulatesback through 4 in 4 x l0 ' years. This
recirculationis characteristicof horizontallystrati-
fied host rocks within confined permeable units.
M
-- I00%-- Positionsdirectly abovethe pluton, 5, 6, and 8, have
sourcelineswhich indicate a portion of the fluids
were derived from sourceswithin the pluton; how-
50% ever, a predominanceof these fluids is from sources
i iI
I 1, ' within host rocks. Becauseof the thorough redis-
- .... 4 -- -- --/ 1 tribution of fluids from host rocks adjacent to the
_ / pluton to regionsabovethe pluton,the effectof fluids
//
from magmaticsourcesis probably obscured.
i/
Sources for hydrothermal fluids in natural sys-
o
i
INSULATING: NO FLOW
are predictedto be predominantlyfrom the hostrocks
REGIONS adjacent to and above the pluton. These source-
Fxc. 6. Sourcelines and sourceregionsfor fluids which
regionsencompass rocksup to 5.5 km awayfrom the
flow through the pluton. A. Sourcelinesfor positions 1 sideof the pluton. A portionof the fluidsis derived
and 2 for the system in Figure 2, for all fluids which flow from within the pluton, but it only accountsfor less
through these positions in 2 X 105 years elapsed time. Tic
marks on the sourcelinesare at 2.5 X 10*-yearintervals,start-
than a few weight percentof the total fluid massthat
ing at the end of the line marked with the position number. ultimatelycirculatesthrough the pluton. The com
Position 3 representsa region of effectively zero perme- positionsof thesefluidsare a functionof conditions
ability and therefore cools predominautly by conductive heat
transfer for comparisonwith 1 and 2. The box, {. repre- at their sourcesprior to pluton eraplacement,as well
sents the fluid source farthest from position 1 and coincidesas temperature-pressure variationsand the composi-
with M in Figure 4 on pathline 1. Note the difference be- tions of fluids and rocksalong their pathlines.
tween the sourcelines and the actual pathlines that fluids
flow along. The regions around the positions (indicated by The nature of fluid sourcelinesin other types of
dashed lines) denote the effective volume (1.25 kma and systems,such as those with uniformly permeable
1 cm deep) used in computingmassflux in the vicinity of a host rocks, vertical fracture zones over the pluton,
respective position. B. Sourceregions for all fluids flowing
through the pluton. Regions are delimited by contours impermeable plutons,and boundaryconditions open
depicting100 and 50 percentof those fluids whose sourceare to flow, have been examined. The sourcelinesin
in the host rocks and were defined by 25 independentsource-
lines. thesesystems are similarto the modelsystems dis-
cussed. However,in systems with imperlneableplu-
6B). During the initial 5 X 104-yearcoolingperiod tons,k < 10- cm2, a minor amountof fluidscircu-
the fluid mass that circulatesthrough the pluton late throughthe hot plutons. Variationsin bound-
from host rock sourcesis derived entirely from ary conditions, permeabilities(for values:> 10-
betweenthe 50 percentcontourand the pluton mar- cm2), andplutongeometry resultin variations
in the
gins, Figure 6B. The fluid from these sources shape
of thesourcelinesandpathlines,
butthe over-
amountsto approximately95 percent of the fluid
flowingthroughthe upper2 km of the pluton during CONDUCTIVE: NO FLOW
the 5 X 104-yeartime interval; the other 5 percent ' 2KM' ' '
of the fluid flowing through the upper 2 km of the
pluton was derived from sourceswithin the pluton.
At an elapsedtime of 2 X 10 years, only 2 per-
cent of the fluid was derived from sources within the
pluton, and 98 percent was derived from between
the 100 percenthost rock contourvalue and the
plutonmargins. Also, more than 75 percentof the
fluid flowing through the upper 2 km of the pluton
was derivedfrom the permeablestratigraphicunit in z
--
differentfor othersystems.
The natureof fluid-rockreactionsmaybepredicted 800
TIME (YEARS)
position1, Fignre 6A, temperatures decrease rapidly
to 250C at -'6 x 102 years, coincidentvith a
15
secondfracture event. At position2 temperatures
decrease to < 400Cat > 3 x 104years,suggesting
that relativelylow temperaturesare commonfor the
major portionof the coolingtime in relativelyperme-
able plutons (Fig. 8A). [In general,the increasein
pluton permeability to >_ 10-xz cm2 results in the
rapid coolingof the upperportionof the pluton to a
few tens of degreesabovethe regionaltemperature
at the corresponding depth. Pressuredoesnot vary
significantlyduring the cooling event and tends to
remainat abouthydrostaticpressure. However, the
2'--''''__
fluid velocity increasesrapidly in responseto the x tO-7
o I I I i I I I
initial conditionsandthepermeabilitychanges. Darcy o 5 I0 15 20 x 104
B
velocitymaximumsof 5 x 10- cm/secand 5 X 10- TIME (YEARS)
and equationsof state for salinefluids. There ap- Cooper, John R., 1957, Metamorphism and volume lossesin
carbonate rocks near Johnson Camp, Cochise County,
pears to be ample qualitative evidenceto suggest Arizona: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, p. 577-610.
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Jour. Geophys.Research,v. 67, p. 28-48.
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Geophys. Mon. Set. No. 8, Baltimore, Am. Geophys.
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may be expected,but theseeffectsare highly de- Grindley, G. W., 1965, The geology, structure, and exploita-
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manynotionsregardingthe sourceof fluidin hydro- eralog. Soc. America Spec. Paper 3, p. 155-186.
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Acknowledgments Inc.
Norton, D., and Knapp, R., 1977, Transport phenomenain
This researchwas supportedby NSF-GA41136 hydrothermalsystems: Nature of porosity: Am. Jour.
and its continuation, Sci., v. 277, p. 913-936.
EAR74-03515A01. The topic Norton, D., and Knight, J., 1977, Transport phenomenain
of thismanuscripthasenjoyedthe critiqueof several hydrothermalsystems: Coolingplutons: Am. Jour. Sci.,
colleagues,
particularly
R. Beane,S. R. Titley,and v. 277, p. 937-981.
Ribando,R. J., Torrance, K. B., and Turcotte, D. L., 1976,
R. Capuano.I am gratefulto J. Knight,R. Knapp, Numerical models for hydrothermal circulation in the
and B. Moskowitzfor their thoroughdiscussions
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numerons contributions and to L. McLean for her 3012.
Taylor, Hugh P., Jr., 1974,The applicationof oxygen and
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