Calculus without

Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Calculus without Limits: Trigonometry

The derivative
the Theory Fundamental
theorem of calculus
A Critique of the History of Mathematics
Functions
The New Pedagogy
Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
C. K. Raju of an experiment

The experiment
Inmantec, Ghaziabad Results
and
Centre for Studies in Civilizations, New Delhi
 Calculus without
Limits
Trigonometry
C. K. Raju

Outline
The derivative
Trigonometry

The derivative
Fundamental theorem of calculus Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions
Functions
Zeroism

Conclusions
Zeroism Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment
Conclusions Results

Appendix: report of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Introduction Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I The Indian way to do the calculus is ideally adapted to Functions
numerical computing on present-day computers. Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Introduction Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I The Indian way to do the calculus is ideally adapted to Functions
numerical computing on present-day computers. Zeroism

I Thus, the key idea is to resolve calculus difficulties by Conclusions

marrying the traditional approach Appendix: report

of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Introduction Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I The Indian way to do the calculus is ideally adapted to Functions
numerical computing on present-day computers. Zeroism

I Thus, the key idea is to resolve calculus difficulties by Conclusions

marrying the traditional approach Appendix: report

of an experiment
I to modern computing technology. The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Circular functions Limits

also called trigonometry C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I Angle is the length of an arc (of a circle). Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Circular functions Limits

also called trigonometry C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I Angle is the length of an arc (of a circle). Functions

Zeroism
I This length can be measured with a string, finger Conclusions
measurements, a kamal, a quadrant etc. Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Circular functions Limits

also called trigonometry C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I Angle is the length of an arc (of a circle). Functions

Zeroism
I This length can be measured with a string, finger Conclusions
measurements, a kamal, a quadrant etc. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I It can be measured in degrees (units of circumference)
The experiment
or radians (units of radius).
Results
 Calculus without
Measuring angles with the kamal Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results

Figure: Measuring angles with the kamal

 Calculus without
Quadrant Limits

C. K. Raju

I If you insist on using a protractor to measure angles, Outline

Trigonometry
you can do so.
The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Quadrant Limits

C. K. Raju

I If you insist on using a protractor to measure angles, Outline

Trigonometry
you can do so.
The derivative
I Punch a hole in the centre and pass a plumb line Fundamental
through it. theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Quadrant Limits

C. K. Raju

I If you insist on using a protractor to measure angles, Outline

Trigonometry
you can do so.
The derivative
I Punch a hole in the centre and pass a plumb line Fundamental
through it. theorem of calculus

Functions
I You can then measure angles with the vertical with it.
Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Formal definition uses set theory Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Formal definition uses set theory Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I f A B is called a function if Functions
(1) a A, b B such that (a, b) f , and Zeroism
(2) (a, b) f , and (a, b 0 ) f = b = b 0 . Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Formal definition uses set theory Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I f A B is called a function if Functions
(1) a A, b B such that (a, b) f , and Zeroism
(2) (a, b) f , and (a, b 0 ) f = b = b 0 . Conclusions

I New definition initially regards a function as a stored Appendix: report

of an experiment
table of values. The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Formal definition uses set theory Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I f A B is called a function if Functions
(1) a A, b B such that (a, b) f , and Zeroism
(2) (a, b) f , and (a, b 0 ) f = b = b 0 . Conclusions

I New definition initially regards a function as a stored Appendix: report

of an experiment
table of values. The experiment
I (together with an interpolation procedure; this is always Results

available as we will see).

 Calculus without
Stock sine table Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Here is the usual table of sine values. The derivative

Fundamental

x sin(x) theorem of calculus

Functions
0
0
Zeroism
6 2
15 4 Conclusions
1
30 2 Appendix: report
45 1 of an experiment
2 The experiment
3
60 2 Results
6+ 2
75 4
90 1
 Calculus without
Modified sine table Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I let us first rewrite the sine table as follows Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

x sin(x) Zeroism

0 0 Conclusions

0.2617 0.2588 Appendix: report

of an experiment
0.5235 0.5 The experiment
0.7853 0.7071 Results
1.0471 0.8660
1.3089 0.9659
1.5707 1
 Calculus without
Modified sine table Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I let us first rewrite the sine table as follows Trigonometry

I converting degrees to radians, and The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

x sin(x) Zeroism

0 0 Conclusions

0.2617 0.2588 Appendix: report

of an experiment
0.5235 0.5 The experiment
0.7853 0.7071 Results
1.0471 0.8660
1.3089 0.9659
1.5707 1
 Calculus without
Modified sine table Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I let us first rewrite the sine table as follows Trigonometry

I converting degrees to radians, and The derivative

I evaluating the square roots. Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

x sin(x) Zeroism

0 0 Conclusions

0.2617 0.2588 Appendix: report

of an experiment
0.5235 0.5 The experiment
0.7853 0.7071 Results
1.0471 0.8660
1.3089 0.9659
1.5707 1
 Calculus without
Linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I To get sine of intermediate values Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I To get sine of intermediate values Trigonometry
I Simply join the points with straight lines. The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus
1

Functions
0.8
Zeroism

0.6
Conclusions

Appendix: report
0.4 of an experiment

The experiment
0.2

Results
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Linear interpolation

 Calculus without
Interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I The next idea is that in the process of linear theorem of calculus
interpolation Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I The next idea is that in the process of linear theorem of calculus
interpolation Functions

I we naturally run into the derivative = difference Zeroism

quotient = slope of a chord Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I The next idea is that in the process of linear theorem of calculus
interpolation Functions

I we naturally run into the derivative = difference Zeroism

quotient = slope of a chord Conclusions

Appendix: report
I We also run into this if we use the elementary of an experiment

arithmetic rule of 3 The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I The next idea is that in the process of linear theorem of calculus
interpolation Functions

I we naturally run into the derivative = difference Zeroism

quotient = slope of a chord Conclusions

Appendix: report
I We also run into this if we use the elementary of an experiment

arithmetic rule of 3 The experiment

Results
I or similar triangles.
 Calculus without
Linear interpolation: continued Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I From the graph for any x value Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1 Zeroism

0.8 Conclusions

0.6
Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.4
The experiment
0.2
Results
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Interpolating sine values graphically

 Calculus without
Linear interpolation: continued Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I From the graph for any x value Trigonometry

I we can read off the corresponding y value. The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1 Zeroism

0.8 Conclusions

0.6
Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.4
The experiment
0.2
Results
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Interpolating sine values graphically

 Calculus without
Method 2: Linear interpolation using similar Limits

C. K. Raju
triangles
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I The process of reading off from the graph may involve Functions

errors. Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 2: Linear interpolation using similar Limits

C. K. Raju
triangles
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I The process of reading off from the graph may involve Functions

errors. Zeroism

Conclusions
I We can instead work numerically.
Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 2: Linear interpolation using similar Limits

C. K. Raju
triangles
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I The process of reading off from the graph may involve Functions

errors. Zeroism

Conclusions
I We can instead work numerically.
Appendix: report
I Method 2: To calculate sin(x) for a given x. of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 2: Linear interpolation using similar Limits

C. K. Raju
triangles
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

I The process of reading off from the graph may involve Functions

errors. Zeroism

Conclusions
I We can instead work numerically.
Appendix: report
I Method 2: To calculate sin(x) for a given x. of an experiment

The experiment
I In the table we first locate x1 and x2 between which x
Results
lies.
 Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I To refer to the entries in the table, let us rewrite the
Trigonometry
table as follows.
The derivative

Fundamental
x sin(x) theorem of calculus

Functions
x1 0 0 y1
Zeroism
x2 0.2617 0.2588 y2
Conclusions
x3 0.5235 0.5 y3
Appendix: report
x4 0.7853 0.7071 y4 of an experiment

x5 1.0471 0.8660 y5 The experiment

x6 1.3089 0.9659 y6 Results

x7 1.5707 1 y7
 Calculus without
Slope Limits

C. K. Raju
I If x lies between x1 and x2 , say.
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1 Zeroism

Conclusions
0.8

Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.6 y2 - y1
a The experiment
x2 - x1
0.4
Results

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Derivative and slope

 Calculus without
Slope Limits

C. K. Raju
I If x lies between x1 and x2 , say.
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1 Zeroism

Conclusions
0.8

Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.6 y2 - y1
a The experiment
x2 - x1
0.4
Results

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Derivative and slope

 Calculus without
Slope Limits

C. K. Raju
I If x lies between x1 and x2 , say.
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Outline

Trigonometry
I Let
The derivative
y = y2 y1 , x = x2 x1
Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1 Zeroism

Conclusions
0.8

Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.6 y2 - y1
a The experiment
x2 - x1
0.4
Results

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Derivative and slope

 Calculus without
Slope (continued) Limits

C. K. Raju
I The quantity
y y2 y1 Outline
= = tan a Trigonometry
x x2 x1
The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

1
Zeroism

Conclusions
0.8
Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.6 y2 - y1
a The experiment
x2 - x1
0.4 Results

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Derivative and slope

 Calculus without
Slope (continued) Limits

C. K. Raju
I The quantity
y y2 y1 Outline
= = tan a Trigonometry
x x2 x1
The derivative
I is just the slope of the chord joining the point (x1 , y1 ) Fundamental
theorem of calculus
to (x2 , y2 ).
Functions

1
Zeroism

Conclusions
0.8
Appendix: report
of an experiment
0.6 y2 - y1
a The experiment
x2 - x1
0.4 Results

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Figure: Derivative and slope

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju
I From the figure it is clear that
Outline
y y1
= tan a = slope Trigonometry
x x1 The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions
(x2, y2)

Appendix: report
of an experiment
(x, y)

y2 - y1
The experiment
y - y1
Results
a x - x1
(x1, y1)

x2 - x1

Figure: Using the slope to interpolate

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju
I From the figure it is clear that
Outline
y y1
= tan a = slope Trigonometry
x x1 The derivative
I or Fundamental
y y1 = (x x1 ) slope theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions
(x2, y2)

Appendix: report
of an experiment
(x, y)

y2 - y1
The experiment
y - y1
Results
a x - x1
(x1, y1)

x2 - x1

Figure: Using the slope to interpolate

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation (contd) Limits

C. K. Raju
I Since x lies between x1 and x2 .
Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

(x2, y2)
Conclusions

Appendix: report
(x, y) of an experiment

y2 - y1 The experiment
y - y1

Results
a x - x1
(x1, y1)

x2 - x1

Figure: Using the slope to interpolate

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation (contd) Limits

C. K. Raju
I Since x lies between x1 and x2 .
Outline
I we already know the slope = yx , so Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

(x2, y2)
Conclusions

Appendix: report
(x, y) of an experiment

y2 - y1 The experiment
y - y1

Results
a x - x1
(x1, y1)

x2 - x1

Figure: Using the slope to interpolate

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation (contd) Limits

C. K. Raju
I Since x lies between x1 and x2 .
Outline
I we already know the slope = yx , so Trigonometry
I The derivative
y
y y1 = (x x1 ) Fundamental
x theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

(x2, y2)
Conclusions

Appendix: report
(x, y) of an experiment

y2 - y1 The experiment
y - y1

Results
a x - x1
(x1, y1)

x2 - x1

Figure: Using the slope to interpolate

 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I From theorem of calculus
y
y y1 = (x x1 ) Functions
x Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Using slope for linear interpolation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I From theorem of calculus
y
y y1 = (x x1 ) Functions
x Zeroism
I we can immediately calculate the desired y value: Conclusions

Appendix: report
y of an experiment
y = y1 + (x x1 )
x The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 3: Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I x lies between x1 and x2 . Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 3: Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I x lies between x1 and x2 . Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 3: Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I x lies between x1 and x2 . Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Functions

I Change in sine value = y2 y1 = y Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 3: Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I x lies between x1 and x2 . Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Functions

I Change in sine value = y2 y1 = y Zeroism

Conclusions
I This change takes place over a distance x2 x1 = x.
Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Method 3: Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I x lies between x1 and x2 . Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Let y1 = sin(x1 ), and y2 = sin(x2 ) Functions

I Change in sine value = y2 y1 = y Zeroism

Conclusions
I This change takes place over a distance x2 x1 = x.
Appendix: report
I of an experiment
y2 y1 y The experiment
unit rate of change = =
x2 x1 x Results
 Calculus without
Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
y2 y1 y Fundamental
I unit rate of change = x2 x1 = x theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Linear interpolation by rule of 3 Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
y2 y1 y Fundamental
I unit rate of change = x2 x1 = x theorem of calculus

I change y y1 over the distance x x1 , is Functions

Zeroism
y Conclusions
y y1 = (x x1 )
x Appendix: report
of an experiment

change = unit rate of change distance The experiment

Results
Example: calculating sin 1
Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

I 1 =
= 0.01745 radians. Trigonometry
180
The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
Example: calculating sin 1
Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

I 1 =
= 0.01745 radians. Trigonometry
180
The derivative
I We can calculate sin 1 as follows
Fundamental
theorem of calculus
sin 15 sin 0
sin 0.01745 = sin 0+ (10.017450) Functions
15 0.01745 0 Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
Example: calculating sin 1
Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

I 1 =
= 0.01745 radians. Trigonometry
180
The derivative
I We can calculate sin 1 as follows
Fundamental
theorem of calculus
sin 15 sin 0
sin 0.01745 = sin 0+ (10.017450) Functions
15 0.01745 0 Zeroism

Conclusions
I From the table, we read off:
15 = 15 0.01745 = 0.2617 radians, and Appendix: report
of an experiment
sin 15 = 0.2588. The experiment

Results
Example: calculating sin 1
Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

I 1 =
= 0.01745 radians. Trigonometry
180
The derivative
I We can calculate sin 1 as follows
Fundamental
theorem of calculus
sin 15 sin 0
sin 0.01745 = sin 0+ (10.017450) Functions
15 0.01745 0 Zeroism

Conclusions
I From the table, we read off:
15 = 15 0.01745 = 0.2617 radians, and Appendix: report
of an experiment
sin 15 = 0.2588. The experiment

I Hence, Results

sin 1 = sin 0.01745 = 0.2588

0.2617 0.01745 = 0.01725
Example: calculating sin 1
Calculus without
Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

I 1 =
= 0.01745 radians. Trigonometry
180
The derivative
I We can calculate sin 1 as follows
Fundamental
theorem of calculus
sin 15 sin 0
sin 0.01745 = sin 0+ (10.017450) Functions
15 0.01745 0 Zeroism

Conclusions
I From the table, we read off:
15 = 15 0.01745 = 0.2617 radians, and Appendix: report
of an experiment
sin 15 = 0.2588. The experiment

I Hence, Results

sin 1 = sin 0.01745 = 0.2588

0.2617 0.01745 = 0.01725
I We can compare this with the value of sin 1 from a
calculator, which comes out to be 0.01745.
 Calculus without
More accurate sine values Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I We have approximated a curved line by a straight line.
Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
More accurate sine values Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I We have approximated a curved line by a straight line.
Fundamental
I Smaller parts of a curved line are better approximated theorem of calculus

by a straight line. Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
More accurate sine values Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I We have approximated a curved line by a straight line.
Fundamental
I Smaller parts of a curved line are better approximated theorem of calculus

by a straight line. Functions

Zeroism
I So, to get more accurate sine values, we must have
Conclusions
more values in our table. Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
More accurate sine values Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I We have approximated a curved line by a straight line.
Fundamental
I Smaller parts of a curved line are better approximated theorem of calculus

by a straight line. Functions

Zeroism
I So, to get more accurate sine values, we must have
Conclusions
more values in our table. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I The earth is round, but because we see only a small
The experiment
part of it, it appears flat.
Results
 Calculus without
More accurate sine values Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I We have approximated a curved line by a straight line.
Fundamental
I Smaller parts of a curved line are better approximated theorem of calculus

by a straight line. Functions

Zeroism
I So, to get more accurate sine values, we must have
Conclusions
more values in our table. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I The earth is round, but because we see only a small
The experiment
part of it, it appears flat.
Results
1
I 8th c. mathematician Lalla: Mathematicians say 100 th
part of the earth is flat.
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

y The derivative
I The quantity x = slope = unit rate of change is
Fundamental
usually called the difference quotient. theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

y The derivative
I The quantity x = slope = unit rate of change is
Fundamental
usually called the difference quotient. theorem of calculus

dy Functions
I and is distinguished from the derivative dx which
Zeroism
involves limits.
Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

y The derivative
I The quantity x = slope = unit rate of change is
Fundamental
usually called the difference quotient. theorem of calculus

dy Functions
I and is distinguished from the derivative dx which
Zeroism
involves limits.
Conclusions
I If we take an infinite number of values in our table, Appendix: report
which are all only an infinitesimal distance apart the of an experiment

The experiment
difference quotient will agree with the derivative.
Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

y The derivative
I The quantity x = slope = unit rate of change is
Fundamental
usually called the difference quotient. theorem of calculus

dy Functions
I and is distinguished from the derivative dx which
Zeroism
involves limits.
Conclusions
I If we take an infinite number of values in our table, Appendix: report
which are all only an infinitesimal distance apart the of an experiment

The experiment
difference quotient will agree with the derivative.
Results
I However, there is no way to build a table with an
infinite number of entries.
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

I The understanding is that, like the number , we may Fundamental

theorem of calculus
not be able to write down an exact value for dy
dx . Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

I The understanding is that, like the number , we may Fundamental

theorem of calculus
not be able to write down an exact value for dy
dx . Functions

I We use different values for , such as 22 355

7 , 113 3.1415
Zeroism

etc. depending upon the exact accuracy we want. Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

I The understanding is that, like the number , we may Fundamental

theorem of calculus
not be able to write down an exact value for dy
dx . Functions

I We use different values for , such as 22 355

7 , 113 3.1415
Zeroism

etc. depending upon the exact accuracy we want. Conclusions

dy Appendix: report
I Likewise, for dxwe have a value to a certain accuracy of an experiment

as estimated by y
x .
The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

I The understanding is that, like the number , we may Fundamental

theorem of calculus
not be able to write down an exact value for dy
dx . Functions

I We use different values for , such as 22 355

7 , 113 3.1415
Zeroism

etc. depending upon the exact accuracy we want. Conclusions

dy Appendix: report
I Likewise, for dxwe have a value to a certain accuracy of an experiment

as estimated by y
x .
The experiment

Results
I A more accurate value of dy
dx can usually be obtained by
taking the points x1 and x2 closer to each other.
 Calculus without
Difference quotient vs derivative Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I Therefore, in calculus without limits we will treat the Trigonometry
difference quotient y
x as the same as the derivative dx
dy
The derivative

I The understanding is that, like the number , we may Fundamental

theorem of calculus
not be able to write down an exact value for dy
dx . Functions

I We use different values for , such as 22 355

7 , 113 3.1415
Zeroism

etc. depending upon the exact accuracy we want. Conclusions

dy Appendix: report
I Likewise, for dxwe have a value to a certain accuracy of an experiment

as estimated by y
x .
The experiment

Results
I A more accurate value of dy
dx can usually be obtained by
taking the points x1 and x2 closer to each other.
I (However, a more accurate interpolation is usually
obtained by taking higher derivatives.)
 Calculus without
Summing successive differences Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I If successive differences are summed, theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Summing successive differences Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I If successive differences are summed, theorem of calculus

Functions
I the result is the difference between the first and last Zeroism
value. . Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Summing successive differences Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I If successive differences are summed, theorem of calculus

Functions
I the result is the difference between the first and last Zeroism
value. . Conclusions
I (y3 y2 ) + (y2 y1 ) = y3 y1 , or Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Summing successive differences Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I If successive differences are summed, theorem of calculus

Functions
I the result is the difference between the first and last Zeroism
value. . Conclusions
I (y3 y2 ) + (y2 y1 ) = y3 y1 , or Appendix: report
of an experiment
I Similarly, (y4 y3 ) + (y3 y2 ) + (y2 y1 ) = y4 y1 , The experiment
and so on Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I This process extends to any number of terms. The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I This process extends to any number of terms. The derivative

Fundamental
I (yn yn1 ) + (yn1 yn2 ) + . . . + (y2 y1 ) = yn y1 . theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I This process extends to any number of terms. The derivative

Fundamental
I (yn yn1 ) + (yn1 yn2 ) + . . . + (y2 y1 ) = yn y1 . theorem of calculus

Functions
I This is written as
Zeroism
n
X Conclusions
yi = yn y1 Appendix: report
i=1 of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I This process extends to any number of terms. The derivative

Fundamental
I (yn yn1 ) + (yn1 yn2 ) + . . . + (y2 y1 ) = yn y1 . theorem of calculus

Functions
I This is written as
Zeroism
n
X Conclusions
yi = yn y1 Appendix: report
i=1 of an experiment

The experiment
I Here is a Greek letter used for the S of Sum Results
(just as the Greek letter was used for the D of
Difference).
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Historically, instead ofR, some people used an The derivative

elongated S, like this . Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Historically, instead ofR, some people used an The derivative

elongated S, like this . Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This has now come to be known as the integral sign. Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Historically, instead ofR, some people used an The derivative

elongated S, like this . Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This has now come to be known as the integral sign. Functions

I If we use just d for difference we can rewrite the Zeroism

above Z xn Conclusions

Appendix: report
dy (x) = y (xn ) y (x1 ) of an experiment
x1
The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Historically, instead ofR, some people used an The derivative

elongated S, like this . Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This has now come to be known as the integral sign. Functions

I If we use just d for difference we can rewrite the Zeroism

above Z xn Conclusions

Appendix: report
dy (x) = y (xn ) y (x1 ) of an experiment
x1
The experiment
I a statement often called the fundamental theorem of Results

calculus,
 Calculus without
The fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Historically, instead ofR, some people used an The derivative

elongated S, like this . Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This has now come to be known as the integral sign. Functions

I If we use just d for difference we can rewrite the Zeroism

above Z xn Conclusions

Appendix: report
dy (x) = y (xn ) y (x1 ) of an experiment
x1
The experiment
I a statement often called the fundamental theorem of Results

calculus,
R
I that summation ( ) is the inverse of the difference (d).
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This leads naturally to the problem of numerical
Fundamental
solution of ODE. theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This leads naturally to the problem of numerical
Fundamental
solution of ODE. theorem of calculus

I Given the initial value y (0), and the value of the Functions

derivative/difference quotient at any point y 0 (x) = f (x) Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This leads naturally to the problem of numerical
Fundamental
solution of ODE. theorem of calculus

I Given the initial value y (0), and the value of the Functions

derivative/difference quotient at any point y 0 (x) = f (x) Zeroism

Conclusions
I How to determine the value of the function? Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This leads naturally to the problem of numerical
Fundamental
solution of ODE. theorem of calculus

I Given the initial value y (0), and the value of the Functions

derivative/difference quotient at any point y 0 (x) = f (x) Zeroism

Conclusions
I How to determine the value of the function? Appendix: report
of an experiment
I If we are dealing with finite differences, it is very easy to
The experiment
calculate the answer by summing successive differences.
Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This leads naturally to the problem of numerical
Fundamental
solution of ODE. theorem of calculus

I Given the initial value y (0), and the value of the Functions

derivative/difference quotient at any point y 0 (x) = f (x) Zeroism

Conclusions
I How to determine the value of the function? Appendix: report
of an experiment
I If we are dealing with finite differences, it is very easy to
The experiment
calculate the answer by summing successive differences.
Results
I In the implicit case, y 0 (x) = f (x, y ) we use the
elementary technique today called an Euler solver.
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative
I if we want to teach calculus for purposes of calculations Fundamental
in physics and engineering theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative
I if we want to teach calculus for purposes of calculations Fundamental
in physics and engineering theorem of calculus

Functions
I students should learn how to apply Newtons laws of
Zeroism
motion. Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative
I if we want to teach calculus for purposes of calculations Fundamental
in physics and engineering theorem of calculus

Functions
I students should learn how to apply Newtons laws of
Zeroism
motion. Conclusions
I This requires the ability to calculate the solution of Appendix: report
of an experiment
ordinary differential equations.
The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative
I if we want to teach calculus for purposes of calculations Fundamental
in physics and engineering theorem of calculus

Functions
I students should learn how to apply Newtons laws of
Zeroism
motion. Conclusions
I This requires the ability to calculate the solution of Appendix: report
of an experiment
ordinary differential equations.
The experiment
I Note: the operative term is calculate not prove. Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theorem of calculus Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I To look at matters in way.
The derivative
I if we want to teach calculus for purposes of calculations Fundamental
in physics and engineering theorem of calculus

Functions
I students should learn how to apply Newtons laws of
Zeroism
motion. Conclusions
I This requires the ability to calculate the solution of Appendix: report
of an experiment
ordinary differential equations.
The experiment
I Note: the operative term is calculate not prove. Results

I If the object to send a rocket to the moon, what is

required is the ability to calculate the solution, and not
prove its existence and uniqueness.
 Calculus without
Fundamental theory of calculus Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I An Euler solver simply uses the above interpolation The derivative

procedure to extrapolate. Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theory of calculus Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I An Euler solver simply uses the above interpolation The derivative

procedure to extrapolate. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This is a good way to solve ODEs, though higher Functions

precision can be obtained by taking higher derivatives Zeroism

(i.e., higher-order difference quotients), as in my Conclusions

package calcode (which also visualises the solution). Appendix: report

of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fundamental theory of calculus Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I An Euler solver simply uses the above interpolation The derivative

procedure to extrapolate. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This is a good way to solve ODEs, though higher Functions

precision can be obtained by taking higher derivatives Zeroism

(i.e., higher-order difference quotients), as in my Conclusions

package calcode (which also visualises the solution). Appendix: report

of an experiment
I Numerical solution of an ODE is a superior substitute The experiment

for the fundamental theorem of calculus. Results

 Calculus without
Fundamental theory of calculus Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

I An Euler solver simply uses the above interpolation The derivative

procedure to extrapolate. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I This is a good way to solve ODEs, though higher Functions

precision can be obtained by taking higher derivatives Zeroism

(i.e., higher-order difference quotients), as in my Conclusions

package calcode (which also visualises the solution). Appendix: report

of an experiment
I Numerical solution of an ODE is a superior substitute The experiment

for the fundamental theorem of calculus. Results

I From a practical point of view there is no doubt that

this is a better approach, and it also allows the solution
(and visualisation) of a wide variety of problems.
 Calculus without
Revised Definition of function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Once ODEs are introduced, it is easy to define a very The derivative

wide variety of functions. Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Revised Definition of function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Once ODEs are introduced, it is easy to define a very The derivative

wide variety of functions. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I For example, the function ex can be readily defined as Functions
0
the solution of f (x) = f (x), with initial condition Zeroism

f (0) = 1 Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Revised Definition of function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Once ODEs are introduced, it is easy to define a very The derivative

wide variety of functions. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I For example, the function ex can be readily defined as Functions
0
the solution of f (x) = f (x), with initial condition Zeroism

f (0) = 1 Conclusions

Appendix: report
I This approach gives a rigorous account of not only of an experiment
sin(x) and cos(x) The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Revised Definition of function Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Once ODEs are introduced, it is easy to define a very The derivative

wide variety of functions. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I For example, the function ex can be readily defined as Functions
0
the solution of f (x) = f (x), with initial condition Zeroism

f (0) = 1 Conclusions

Appendix: report
I This approach gives a rigorous account of not only of an experiment
sin(x) and cos(x) The experiment

I but also extends to various non-elementary functions, Results

such as a the Jacobian elliptic functions which arise in

applications (to simple pendulum).
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I And that numerical computation is something incorrect
Functions
and forever erroneous.
Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I And that numerical computation is something incorrect
Functions
and forever erroneous.
Zeroism
I This is where a quick recap of the previous lectures is in Conclusions
order. Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I And that numerical computation is something incorrect
Functions
and forever erroneous.
Zeroism
I This is where a quick recap of the previous lectures is in Conclusions
order. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I The only value offered by proofs is a wrong claim of The experiment
rigor. Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I And that numerical computation is something incorrect
Functions
and forever erroneous.
Zeroism
I This is where a quick recap of the previous lectures is in Conclusions
order. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I The only value offered by proofs is a wrong claim of The experiment
rigor. Results

I Historically, limits are nothing but the European way to

do infinite sums
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline
I However, the mathematician is trained to believe that
Trigonometry
limits and the derivative are the correct way to do The derivative
things. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I And that numerical computation is something incorrect
Functions
and forever erroneous.
Zeroism
I This is where a quick recap of the previous lectures is in Conclusions
order. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I The only value offered by proofs is a wrong claim of The experiment
rigor. Results

I Historically, limits are nothing but the European way to

do infinite sums
I which are influenced by European theological beliefs
about infinity.
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I The alternative approach to limits is called zeroism. Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I The alternative approach to limits is called zeroism. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Just as formally infinitesimals can be discarded (e.g. in Functions
a non-Archimedean field) Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I The alternative approach to limits is called zeroism. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Just as formally infinitesimals can be discarded (e.g. in Functions
a non-Archimedean field) Zeroism

I So also, from a realistic perspective, insignificant Conclusions

quantities can be discarded Appendix: report

of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I The alternative approach to limits is called zeroism. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Just as formally infinitesimals can be discarded (e.g. in Functions
a non-Archimedean field) Zeroism

I So also, from a realistic perspective, insignificant Conclusions

quantities can be discarded Appendix: report

of an experiment
I as they are discarded in any numerical calculation done The experiment

on a computer. Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I The alternative approach to limits is called zeroism. Fundamental
theorem of calculus
I Just as formally infinitesimals can be discarded (e.g. in Functions
a non-Archimedean field) Zeroism

I So also, from a realistic perspective, insignificant Conclusions

quantities can be discarded Appendix: report

of an experiment
I as they are discarded in any numerical calculation done The experiment

on a computer. Results

I In fact, this is true for any representation of anything in

the real.
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
I When I say When I was a boy what does it mean? theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
I When I say When I was a boy what does it mean? theorem of calculus

Functions
I I have changed since then, so to whom does the I
Zeroism
refer to? Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
I When I say When I was a boy what does it mean? theorem of calculus

Functions
I I have changed since then, so to whom does the I
Zeroism
refer to? Conclusions
I The everyday attitude is to neglect the differences and Appendix: report
of an experiment
treat them as inconsequential.
The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
I When I say When I was a boy what does it mean? theorem of calculus

Functions
I I have changed since then, so to whom does the I
Zeroism
refer to? Conclusions
I The everyday attitude is to neglect the differences and Appendix: report
of an experiment
treat them as inconsequential.
The experiment
I Western answer is not universal. Different answers are Results
possible. We use a different answer in everyday life.
 Calculus without
Zeroism Limits

contd C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I This involves deep philosophical questions
Fundamental
I When I say When I was a boy what does it mean? theorem of calculus

Functions
I I have changed since then, so to whom does the I
Zeroism
refer to? Conclusions
I The everyday attitude is to neglect the differences and Appendix: report
of an experiment
treat them as inconsequential.
The experiment
I Western answer is not universal. Different answers are Results
possible. We use a different answer in everyday life.
I Buddhists, for example, reject the Western answer as
erroneous.
 Calculus without
Fallibility Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I What happens if we our technique gives a (physically) Fundamental
theorem of calculus
wrong answer?
Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fallibility Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I What happens if we our technique gives a (physically) Fundamental
theorem of calculus
wrong answer?
Functions
I Simple: correct it, and find a better answer. Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fallibility Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I What happens if we our technique gives a (physically) Fundamental
theorem of calculus
wrong answer?
Functions
I Simple: correct it, and find a better answer. Zeroism
I The  definition of derivative was not good enough, it Conclusions

had to be corrected. Appendix: report

of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Fallibility Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I What happens if we our technique gives a (physically) Fundamental
theorem of calculus
wrong answer?
Functions
I Simple: correct it, and find a better answer. Zeroism
I The  definition of derivative was not good enough, it Conclusions

had to be corrected. Appendix: report

of an experiment
I Likewise instead of seeking fake guarantees of certainty, The experiment
let us look at practical value (at least at the level of Results

school and undergraduate math which is compulsory).

 Calculus without
Number Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I No need of R for calculus.
Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Number Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I No need of R for calculus.
Fundamental
I Only approximate real numbers adequate, as in theorem of calculus

floating point numbers on a computer. (Any other Functions

representation involves supertasks). Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Number Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I No need of R for calculus.
Fundamental
I Only approximate real numbers adequate, as in theorem of calculus

floating point numbers on a computer. (Any other Functions

representation involves supertasks). Zeroism

Conclusions
I One can use whatever level of approximation is required Appendix: report
for the practical task at hand. of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Number Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I No need of R for calculus.
Fundamental
I Only approximate real numbers adequate, as in theorem of calculus

floating point numbers on a computer. (Any other Functions

representation involves supertasks). Zeroism

Conclusions
I One can use whatever level of approximation is required Appendix: report
for the practical task at hand. of an experiment

The experiment
I Main difference is in method of rounding/truncation.
Results
 Calculus without
Number Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I No need of R for calculus.
Fundamental
I Only approximate real numbers adequate, as in theorem of calculus

floating point numbers on a computer. (Any other Functions

representation involves supertasks). Zeroism

Conclusions
I One can use whatever level of approximation is required Appendix: report
for the practical task at hand. of an experiment

The experiment
I Main difference is in method of rounding/truncation.
Results
I Mechanical or general rule for it to be avoided, as in
philosophy of zeroism.
 Calculus without
Symbolic computation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

I What about symbolic computation. Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Symbolic computation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

I What about symbolic computation. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Hasnt there been some loss of ability to write down Functions

calculus formulae. Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Symbolic computation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

I What about symbolic computation. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Hasnt there been some loss of ability to write down Functions

calculus formulae. Zeroism

Conclusions
I and evaluate integrals by hand?
Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Symbolic computation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

I What about symbolic computation. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Hasnt there been some loss of ability to write down Functions

calculus formulae. Zeroism

Conclusions
I and evaluate integrals by hand?
Appendix: report
I No, since this task can be easily done by open-source of an experiment

programs like macsyma, or maxima. The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Symbolic computation Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

I What about symbolic computation. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Hasnt there been some loss of ability to write down Functions

calculus formulae. Zeroism

Conclusions
I and evaluate integrals by hand?
Appendix: report
I No, since this task can be easily done by open-source of an experiment

programs like macsyma, or maxima. The experiment

Results
I A student takes two days to learn how to use it.
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

I It enables the student to focus on practical applications, Functions

and also solve problems earlier regarded as too difficult Zeroism

Conclusions
to do.
Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

I It enables the student to focus on practical applications, Functions

and also solve problems earlier regarded as too difficult Zeroism

Conclusions
to do.
Appendix: report
I It enables clarity of concepts of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

I It enables the student to focus on practical applications, Functions

and also solve problems earlier regarded as too difficult Zeroism

Conclusions
to do.
Appendix: report
I It enables clarity of concepts of an experiment
I Difference quotient arises naturally by rule of 3. The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

I It enables the student to focus on practical applications, Functions

and also solve problems earlier regarded as too difficult Zeroism

Conclusions
to do.
Appendix: report
I It enables clarity of concepts of an experiment
I Difference quotient arises naturally by rule of 3. The experiment
I Fundamental theorem of calculus is obvious. Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Working with finite differences and zeroism makes the
Fundamental
calculus very easy. theorem of calculus

I It enables the student to focus on practical applications, Functions

and also solve problems earlier regarded as too difficult Zeroism

Conclusions
to do.
Appendix: report
I It enables clarity of concepts of an experiment
I Difference quotient arises naturally by rule of 3. The experiment
I Fundamental theorem of calculus is obvious. Results
I All elementary, and many non-elementary functions are
easily defined.
 Calculus without
The experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Course initially tried on teacher trainees at Inmantec The derivative

School of Education. Fundamental

theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Course initially tried on teacher trainees at Inmantec The derivative

School of Education. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Then on 27 students at Central University of Tibetan Functions
Studies. Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Course initially tried on teacher trainees at Inmantec The derivative

School of Education. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Then on 27 students at Central University of Tibetan Functions
Studies. Zeroism

I Age group 22-55 years. Included faculty and head of Conclusions

Appendix: report
department. of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
The experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Course initially tried on teacher trainees at Inmantec The derivative

School of Education. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Then on 27 students at Central University of Tibetan Functions
Studies. Zeroism

I Age group 22-55 years. Included faculty and head of Conclusions

Appendix: report
department. of an experiment
I Background: Students admitted after 8th std. Some The experiment

have monastic education. Results

 Calculus without
The experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry
I Course initially tried on teacher trainees at Inmantec The derivative

School of Education. Fundamental

theorem of calculus
I Then on 27 students at Central University of Tibetan Functions
Studies. Zeroism

I Age group 22-55 years. Included faculty and head of Conclusions

Appendix: report
department. of an experiment
I Background: Students admitted after 8th std. Some The experiment

have monastic education. Results

I Very poor performance in pre-test even on elementary

arithmetic.
 Pre-test
Calculus without Limits

Notes:
1. This is NOT a competitition. The aim of this test is only to provide
feedback regarding your current knowledge of mathematics.

2. Some questions may be beyond your current knowledge. Please dont be

anxious about it. It is expected that you do not know the answers to
all questions, and those questions are there only to establish the limits of
your knowledge.

I : Arithmetic
1. Find 124 + 568.
2. Find 532 319.

3. Calculate 3542 213.

4. If 2184 is divided by 17 what is the quotient and what is the remainder?
5 2 3 4
5. Which is the greatest among the following four numbers: 8 , 3 . 7 , 10 ?
3
6. Write 4 as a decimal.

7. Write 0.4352 as a proper fraction.

8. What is the square of 23?
9. A trader bought an item for Rs 26 and sold it for Rs 38. What percentage
profit did he make?

10. The Rajdhani express travels from Delhi to Mumbai in 18 hours and 30
minutes with stops of 10 minutes each at Kota, Ratlam and Baroda. If
its average speed is 81 km, what is the distance from Delhi to Mumbai?
11. If 3 kg of flour sells for Rs 32 how much does 5 kg of flour sell for?

1
 II : Alegbera
12. If x = 5 what is the value of x2 ?

13. If 2x + 3 = 10 what is the value of x?

14. If 2x + 3y = 40 and x = 7 what is the value of y ?
15. If x2 x 6 = 0 what are the possible values of x?

III : Geometry
16. If one angle of a right-angled triangle is 30 write the other two angles in
degrees.

17. A rectangle has length 1 and width 2. What is the length of it diagonal?
18. Give an approximate figure for the circumference of a circle whose radius
is 1.
19. Plot a straight line through the points (2, 3) and (2, 3).

IV : Elementary Calculus
d
20. What is dx sin(x) ?

x2 dx ?
R
21. What is

V: Calculus questions from question bank

q
sec x1
22. Differentiate sec x+1 with respect to x.

2
23. Differentiate log 1+x x with respect to x.
1+x2 +x

x2 +1
R
24. Evaluate the integral x4 +1 dx.

x2 tan1 x dx.
R
25. Evaluate the integral

2
 Calculus without
Objective of experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I Challenge: to teach them calculus within 5 lectures, theorem of calculus

using the new philosophy. Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Objective of experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I Challenge: to teach them calculus within 5 lectures, theorem of calculus

using the new philosophy. Functions

Zeroism
I Test of learning: they should be able to solve questions Conclusions
drawn at random from a calculus question bank. Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Objective of experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I Challenge: to teach them calculus within 5 lectures, theorem of calculus

using the new philosophy. Functions

Zeroism
I Test of learning: they should be able to solve questions Conclusions
drawn at random from a calculus question bank. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I (seed supplied by Vice Chancellor).
The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Objective of experiment Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
I Challenge: to teach them calculus within 5 lectures, theorem of calculus

using the new philosophy. Functions

Zeroism
I Test of learning: they should be able to solve questions Conclusions
drawn at random from a calculus question bank. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I (seed supplied by Vice Chancellor).
The experiment
I And also solve ordinary differential equations. Results
 Post-test
Calculus without Limits

I : Elementary computations
1. Convert 30 deg to radians.
2. Convert 2 radians into degrees.

II : Elementary Calculus
d
3. What is dx sec(x) ?
R
4. Evaluate cos(3x + 1)dx
5. Find the second derivative of x sin x.
6. Find Z 1
xex dx
0

7. Numerically integrate
Z 0.5
1
dx
0 1 x2 1 x
.

III: Questions from question bank (differentia-

tion)
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

8. 1 x2 .

9. x2 e x
.
10. x2 sin3 x cos4 x

1
 (continued from page 1: differentiate the following with respect to x)
11. r
1 + x cos x
log
1 x cos x
12.
e2x + 1
 

tan 1
e2x 1

IV: Questions from question bank (integration)

Evaluate the following integrals.
13. Z
1
dx
1 x2
14. Z
1
dx
x3 + x2 + x + 1
15. Z
2 x
dx
1 2x
16.

Z
sec1 x dx

17. Z
cot5 x dx

V : Ordinary differential equations

18. Solve the differential equation y 0 = 2y, with y(0) = 1 and hence find y(4).
19. Solve the differential equation y 0 = x sin(x) with y(0) = 1 and find the
value of y(10).
20. Solve the differential equation y 00 = 3y with y(0) = 1 and y 0 (0) = 0, and
find the value of y(20).

2
 Calculus without
Results Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions
I Above 60% 4 Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Results Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions
I Above 60% 4 Zeroism
I Between 35-60% 8 Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Results Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative

Fundamental
theorem of calculus

Functions
I Above 60% 4 Zeroism
I Between 35-60% 8 Conclusions

I Below 35% -15 Appendix: report

of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Test was moderately successful. In the pre-test only 1
Fundamental
student attempted any of the question-bank questions. theorem of calculus

Functions

Zeroism

Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Test was moderately successful. In the pre-test only 1
Fundamental
student attempted any of the question-bank questions. theorem of calculus

Functions
I In the post-test this student got nearly 100%. About
Zeroism
half the class managed to clear the test.
Conclusions

Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Test was moderately successful. In the pre-test only 1
Fundamental
student attempted any of the question-bank questions. theorem of calculus

Functions
I In the post-test this student got nearly 100%. About
Zeroism
half the class managed to clear the test.
Conclusions
I The bottom half of the class performed poorly. Appendix: report
of an experiment

The experiment

Results
 Calculus without
Conclusions Limits

C. K. Raju

Outline

Trigonometry

The derivative
I Test was moderately successful. In the pre-test only 1
Fundamental
student attempted any of the question-bank questions. theorem of calculus

Functions
I In the post-test this student got nearly 100%. About
Zeroism
half the class managed to clear the test.
Conclusions
I The bottom half of the class performed poorly. Appendix: report
of an experiment
I As clear from the pre-test some of the students (and
The experiment
faculty) did not fulfil the starting criterion of knowing
Results
school math at 8th std. level. They are being given
remedial coaching in school math.