Heat Exchanger

Operation, Inspection &

Maintenance
 INSPECTING HEAT EXCHANGERS
TEMA
sections
1.Nomenclature (names of heat exchanger components)
2.Manufacturing tolerances
3.General fabrication information
4.Performance and operation
5.Design information Most useful parts
6.Flow induced vibration for inspectors
7.Thermodynamics
8.Properties of fluids
9/10: Recommended good practice
 INSPECTING HEAT
EXCHANGERS
TEMA classes : R, C and B High risk

R: Severe applications : Petrochemical industry

C: Moderate applications:General process uses
B: Chemical process service Low risk

RCB= Differences in : Minimum corrosion allowance

Tube pitch,shell thickness and other design parameters
 First letter Second letter Third letter
:Front end :Shell flow path :Back end
arrangement arrangement

TEMA EXCHANGERS
ARE CLASSIFIED BY
TYPE :USING A 3-
LETTER ACRONYM
 TEMA EXCHANGER TYPES

E
A Exchanger type AES

S
 TEMA TYPES: ANOTHER
EXAMPLE
A: Channel and removable cover

K: Reboiler configuration

T:Pull-through floating head

Kettle reboiler type AKT

CONTACT TYPE EXCHANGER

9% Cr alloy for
high
temperature
steam
attemporator
 Operation, Maintenance, and
Inspection
This section is primarily concerned with operation, maintenance,
and inspection issues as they apply to heat exchangers.

These issues obviously vary with the type of heat exchanger under
consideration.

In effect, this material can be applied virtually to all heat exchangers

which for decades have been used in process operations shell and
tube, double pipe, air-cooled, flat plate, spiral plate, barometric jet,
spray, etc.

Section contents include: Installation Procedures, Operation,

Maintenance and Inspection Testing, Improving Operation and
Performance
OPERATION
 OPERATION
The maximum allowable working pressures and
temperatures are normally indicated on the heat
exchangers nameplate.

These values must not be exceeded.

Special precautions should be taken if any individual part of

the unit is designed for a maximum temperature lower
than the unit as a whole.

The most common example is some copper-alloy tubing

with a maximum allowable temperature lower than the
actual inlet gas temperature.
 OPERATION
This is done to compensate for the low
strength levels of some brasses or other
copper alloys at elevated temperatures.

In addition, an adequate flow of the cooling

medium must be maintained at all times.
 OPERATION
Condensers are designed for a particular fluid throughput.

Generally, a reasonable overload can be tolerated without

causing damage.

If operated at excessive flow rates, erosion or destructive

vibration could result.

Erosion could occur at normally acceptable flow rates if

other conditions, such as entrained liquids or particulates in
a gas stream or abrasive solids in a liquid stream, are
present.
 Evidence of erosion should be investigated to
determine the cause.

Vibration can be propagated by other than flow

overloads (e.g., improper design, fluid maldistribution,
or corrosion/erosion of internal flow-directing devices
such as baffles).

Considerable study and research have been conducted

in recent years to develop a reliable vibration analysis
procedure to predict or correct damaging vibration.
 At this point in time, the developed correlations
are considered state of the art, yet most
manufacturers have the capability of applying
some type of vibration check when designing an
exchanger.

Vibrations can produce severe mechanical

damage, and operation should not be continued
when an audible vibration disturbance is evident.
 Startup
Exchangers should be warmed up slowly and
uniformly.

the higher the temperature ranges, the slower

the warm-up should be.

This is generally accomplished by introducing the

coolant and bringing the flow rate to the design
level and gradually adding the vapor.
 Startup
For fixed-tube-sheet units with different shell-and-tube material,
consideration should be given to differential expansion of shell and tubes.

As fluids are added, the respective areas should be vented to ensure

complete distribution.

A procedure other than this could cause large differences in temperature

between adjacent parts of the unit and result in leaks or other damage.

It is recommended that gasketed joints be inspected after continuous full-

flow operation has been established.

Handling, temperature fluctuations, and yielding of gaskets or bolting may

necessitate retightening of the bolting.
1. Be sure entire system is clean before starting
operation to prevent plugging of tubes or shell
side passages with refuse. The use of strainers
or settling tanks in pipelines leading to the heat
exchanger is recommended.

2. Open vent connections before starting up.

3. Start operating gradually. See Table 1 for

suggested start-up and shut-down procedures
for most applications for specific instructions.
 Shut Down
Cooling down is generally accomplished by
shutting off the vapor stream first and then the
cooling stream.

Again, fixed-tube-sheet units require

consideration of differential expansion of the
shell and tubes.

Condensers containing flammable, corrosive, or

high-freezing-point fluids should be thoroughly
drained for prolonged outages.
1. After the system is completely filled with the operating
fluids and all air has been vented, close all manual vent
connections..

2. Re-tighten bolting on all gasketed or packed joints after

the heat exchanger has reached operating temperatures
to prevent leaks and gasket failures. Standard published
torque values do not apply to packed end joints.

3. Do not operate the heat exchanger under pressure and

temperature conditions in excess of those specified on the
nameplate.
 7. To guard against water hammer, drain
condensate from steam heat exchangers and
similar apparatus both when starting up and
shutting down.

8. Drain all fluids when shutting down to

eliminate possible freezing and corroding.

9. In all installations there should be no pulsation

of fluids, since this causes vibration and will result
in reduced operating life.
 10. Under no circumstances is the heat exchanger to be operated at a
flowrate greater than that shown on the design specifications. Excessive
flows can cause vibration and severely damage the heat exchanger tube
bundle.

11. Heat exchangers that are out of service for extended periods of time
should be protected against corrosion as described in the storage
requirements for new heat exchangers.

Heat exchangers that are out of service for short periods and use water as
the flowing medium should be thoroughly drained and blown dry with
warm air, if possible.

If this is not practical, the water should be circulated through the heat
exchanger on a daily basis to prevent stagnant water conditions that can
ultimately precipitate corrosion.
 Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale, sludge deposits,
etc.) periodically, depending on specific conditions.

A light sludge or scale coating on either side of the tube

greatly reduces its effectiveness.

A marked increase in pressure drop and/or reduction in

performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary.

Since the difficulty of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale

thickens or deposits increase, the intervals between
cleanings should not be excessive.
 2. Neglecting to keep tubes clean may result in random tube plugging.

Consequent overheating or cooling of the plugged tubes, as compared to

surrounding tubes, will cause physical damage and leaking tubes due to
differential thermal expansion of the metals.

To clean or inspect the inside of the tubes, remove only the necessary
tube side channel covers or bonnets, depending on type of exchanger
construction.

4. If the heat exchanger is equipped with sacrificial anodes or plates,

replace these as required.

5. To clean or inspect the outside of the tubes, it may be necessary to

remove the tube bundle.
 When removing tube bundles from heat exchangers for
inspection or cleaning, exercise care to see that they
are not damaged by improper handling.
The weight of the tube bundle should not be supported on
individual tubes but should be carried by the tubesheets,
support or baffle plates or on blocks contoured to the
periphery of the tube bundles.
Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or other tools
which might damage tubes. Move tube bundles on cradles
or skids.
To withdraw tube bundles, pass rods through two or
more of the tubes and take the load on the floating
tubesheet.
 Rods should be threaded at both ends, provided with nuts,
and should pass through a steel bearing plate at each end
of the bundle.
Insert a soft wood filler board between the bearing plate
and tubesheet face to prevent damage to the tube ends.
Screw forged steel eyebolts into both bearing plates for
pulling and lifting.
As an alternate to the rods, thread a steel cable through
one tube and return through another tube.
A hardwood spreader block must be inserted between the
cable and each tubesheet to prevent damage to the tube
ends.
 7. If the heat exchanger has been in service for a considerable
length of time without being removed, it may be necessary to use a
jack on the floating tubesheet to break the bundle free.
Use a good-sized steel bearing plate with a filler board between the
tubesheet face and bearing plate to protect the tube ends.

8. Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a cradle formed by

bending a light-gauge plate or plates into a U-shape. Make
attachments in the legs of the U for lifting.

9. Do not drag bundles, since baffles or support plates may become

easily bent. Avoid any damage to baffles so that the heat exchanger
will function properly.
 10. Some suggested methods of cleaning either
the shell side or tube side are listed below:
Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tube
side or shell side will usually effectively remove sludge
or similar soft deposits.
Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating
hot fresh water.
Some commercial cleaning compounds such as
Oakite or Dowell may be effective in removing
more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
 11. Some tubes have inserts or longitudinal fins and can be
damaged by cleaning when mechanical means are employed. Clean
these types of tubes chemically or consult the manufacturer
If the scale is hard and the above methods are not effective, use a
mechanical means.
Neither the inside nor the outside of the tube should be hammered
with a metallic tool.
If it is necessary to use scrapers, they should not be sharp enough to
cut the metal of the tubes.
Take extra care when employing scrapersto prevent tube damage.

Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam through individual

tubes. This overheats the individual tube and results in severe
expansion strains and leaking tube-to-tubesheet joints.
 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
Recommended maintenance of exchangers requires regular
inspection to ensure the mechanical soundness of the unit
and a level of performance consistent with the original
design criteria.

A brief general inspection should be performed on a

regular basis while the unit is operating.

Vibratory disturbance, leaking gasketed joints, excessive

pressure drop, decreased efficiency indicated by higher gas
outlet temperatures or lower condensate rates, and
intermixing of fluids are all signs that thorough inspection
and maintenance procedure are required.
 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
Complete inspection requires a shutdown of the
condenser for access to internals and pressure
testing and cleaning.

Scheduling can only be determined from

experience and general inspections.

Tube internals and exteriors, where accessible,

should be visually inspected for fouling,
corrosion, or damage.
 MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
The nature of any metal deterioration should
be investigated to properly determine the
anticipated life of the equipment or possible
corrective action.

Possible causes of deterioration include

general corrosion, intergranular corrosion,
stress cracking, galvanic corrosion,
impingement, or erosion attack.
 IN-SERVICE INSPECTION

In-service checks can be divided into 3 parts

Shell Tube bundle Nozzles and fittings

 SHELL INSPECTION

COMMON MECHANISMS ARE:

External CUI

Internal wastage
(impingement/erosion/corr
osion) Require a Code
assessment.
Creep damage (>400 (See inspection
exercise)
degC)

SCC in stainless steel

components

Flange face
imperfections (often SCC)
 Cleaning
Fouling of exchangers occurs because of the deposition
of foreign material on the interior or exterior of tubes.

Evidence of fouling during operation is increased

pressure drop and a general decrease in performance.

Fouling can be so severe that tubes are completely

plugged, resulting in thermal stresses and the
subsequent mechanical damage of equipment.
 IN-SERVICE INSPECTION
Water jet cleaning before inspection

Steam cleaning
can cause
distortions

Light distillate is
sometimes used

BUT
 IN-SERVICE INSPECTION

Corrosion
products should
be sampled
BEFORE water
washing
IN-SERVICE INSPECTION
Example of scale before water washing
**Cooling Water Service Tubeside -
Cooling water deposits are bad
Make them blast the channel clean
of deposits, but, if possible, without
disturbing the black oxide scale.
This black scale is a corrosion barrier,
and with a little luck on the part of the
client, more will form where the Micro-
biologicals in the deposits have been
blasted away.
Dont inspect a dirty channel,
especially if there are tubercles
/carbuncular deposits. There is
no way to predict how deep the
corrosion under deposits may be.
 Cleaning
The nature of the deposited fouling determines
the method of cleaning.

Soft deposits can be removed by steam, hot

water, various chemical solvents, or brushing.

Cooling water is sometimes treated with four

parts of chlorine per million to prevent algae
growth and the consequent reduction in the
overall heat transfer coefficient of the exchanger
 Cleaning
Plant experience usually determines the method to be
used.

Chemical cleaning should be performed by contractors

specialized in the field who will consider the deposit to be
removed and the materials of construction.

If the cleaning method involves elevated temperatures,

consideration should be given to thermal stresses induced
in the tubes

steaming-out individual tubes can loosen the tube-to-tube

sheet joints.
 Cleaning
Mechanical methods of cleaning are useful for both soft and hard
deposits.

There are numerous tools for cleaning tube interiors:

brushes,
scrapers, and
various rotating cutter-type devices.
The exchanger manufacturer or suppliers of tube tools can be
consulted in the selection of the correct tool for the particular
deposit.

When cutting or scraping deposits, care should be exercised to

avoid damaging tubes.
 Cleaning
Cleaning of tube exteriors is generally performed using chemicals,
steam, or other suitable fluids.

Mechanical cleaning is performed but requires that the tubes be

exposed, as in a typical air-cooled condenser, or capable of being
exposed, as in a removable bundle shell-and-tube condenser.

The layout pattern of the tubes must provide sufficient intersecting

empty lanes between the tubes, as in a square pitch.

Mechanical cleaning of tube bundles, if necessary, requires the

utmost care to avoid damaging tubes or fins.
 SHELL INSPECTION
SOME EXAMPLES:

External CUI

Internal wastage
(impingement/erosion/corr
osion)

Creep damage (>400

degC)

SCC in stainless steel

components

Flange face
imperfections (often SCC)
SHELL INSPECTION

MORE FLANGE FACE PROBLEMS:

 SHELL INSPECTION

TEMA gives limits on RF flange face imperfections

Measurement
in radial direction
 SHELL INSPECTION

Limits of imperfections in RF flange faces

Exchanger Inspection 101
Visual Inspection of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
The inspection of heat exchangers is the one area of equipment inspection where I firmly advocate the use
of a check list to make sure you got everything. The reason that I do so is that in my opinion, with the parts
scattered and the confusion endemic to the bundle slab, its easy to miss a part, or to only partially inspect a
part. Ill include sample checklists, as well as a sample Excel type sheet for those unfortunates that might be
tasked with multiple exchangers, and a typical wall chart for exchangers at the back of this book. On to the
inspection!!! **Hopefully, by this time you already know what to look for on a gasket surface, but just in
case, heres a list: Actual gasket seating surface cuts, dings or gouges that extend across greater than 25%
of the surface. Severity weighting should be given to those which start from the pressure side, are
particularly deep, or which have displaced, raised metal which might interfere with the gasket sealing. If the
defect doesnt go deeper than the serrations, it generally wont cause a leak, except in high pressure
steam service. Watch for nibbling away of the actual seating surface outward from the stagnant area and if
theres a nubbin, check that the nubbin is intact and square. The best way to do this is with your fingers as
well as your eyes.
 TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION

SOME EXAMPLES:

Tubeplate ligament
erosion/cracking
Some of these
Leaking tube-to-tubesheet require a Code
joints assessment.
(See inspection
Tubesheet distortion exercise)

Scaling/corrosion of tubes

Cracking/erosion of flow
baffles
 TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION
Tube pitch may be square or triangular
(different TEMA rules for each) Erosion

More difficult to
mechanically clean
outside

Ligament
 TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION
Some types suffer from intergranular corrosion

Ti tubes can suffer from

problems due to
incomplete annealing
TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION
Tube-to-tubesheet joints can suffer crevice corrosion
TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION

Common internal pitting

Process Tubeside - The inspection is usually a lot more boring, but any corrosion
found is usually taken much more seriously, for obvious reasons. Again, dont letem
talk you into inspecting it without cleaning, too many things can be masked by even a
thin coating of black nasties. **
Primary (Stationary) Tubesheet - Channel End Tubesheet on a removable bundle, or on a multi-pass fixed
tubesheet. Again, I look at the gasket seating surface(s), first and foremost, then the tubesheet itself.
Tubesheets are subject to a variety of corrosion, from simple corrosion under deposits, to service induced
cracking, surface checking and galvanic or turbulence induced corrosion at the tube perforation.
 They should not be thinning to knife
Tube ends - Tube ends should be intact edges, or corroded below the
and square, with no corrosion taking tubesheet surface. Any
little bites out mechanical damage should, of
course, be noted, as well as the
number of plugs installed.
Tube IDs -This is one of the few areas where I
use Weasel Wording on a regular basis. That
portion of the tube IDs visible, Cause you
cant see very much, and what you can see, you
cant quantify. Ive had old timers from Mobil Oil
tell me that they can tell how deep ID pitting is
with a Pit Picker, but I dont have the touch,
I guess, and thats still only a few feet down the
tube. As the following pictures show, the only
good way to survey the inside of a tube is with a
video boroscope. Flashlights are horrible.
Reflected sunlight is better, but still very limited,
and even a boroscope sucks if the conditions
arent just right. Be that as it may, when doing a
visual, try to use sunlight. Note any visible
pitting and scale. Note any damage at the tube
rolls, and any longitudinal die marks (these are a
prime spot for corrosion to start).
Bundle - Again, may not be the
best way, just the way I do it. I
try to find the angle that I can
look through the bundle, and
slowly walk around the bundle,
tapping tubes, tie rods and
baffles, but primarily looking
through the bundle, checking
for fouling and/or distorted
tubes.. If the baffles or tubes
sound at all loose (and they
almost always do), I stop and
look to see if theres hole
enlargement and/or fretting
damage to the tubes.
I then walk around the bundle
again, looking at the tube ODs.
I check closely at the tubesheet
to tube junction, and the U
bends, too., as well as the
length of the tube. I look at
the impingement plate, plate
attachment tacks and the
surface of the tubes around
the plate. If there isnt an
impingement plate, I try to find
indications of inlet/outlet
locations.
 TUBE BUNDLE INSPECTION

NDT of heat exchanger tubes

1. Borescope (90 head)

2. Eddy current testing

 ECT INSPECTION OF TUBES

ECT can locate:

Wall thinning (loss of material due to corrosion)
Surface breaking cracks (only)

Principle:

1. A probe induces eddy currents into the material

2.Cracks or lack of material affects the response and is

measured by an electric circuit
ECT INSPECTION OF TUBES

Probe traversed through each tube

ECT INSPECTION OF TUBES

Note defect categorisation

 FITTINGS:BAFFLE IMPINGEMENT
Maximum clearance (TEMA)
between baffles and shell
approx 5mm
Impingement
wear
Wear is worst around inlet nozzle
area
 INSPECTING HEAT EXCHANGERS
KEY POINT SUMMARY
1. Heat exchangers are PRESSURE EQUIPMENT

2. Hundreds of different designs(TEMA categories)

3. Specialised NDT techniques (ECT)

4. Heat exchangers are often (statutory) coded

equipment

5. Corrosion/damage requires an assessment against

code

WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

THESE?
 Reasons of Flange Leaks
Exchanger flange leaks are a major environmental, safety, and economic concern.
Flange leaks are generally caused by one or more of the following:

Wrong Gasket Selection

Gasket is too wide, there is not enough bolting to properly compress the gasket.

Gasket is too narrow, causing gasket alignment and seating problems.

Gasket seating surface is not compatible with the gasket.

It can be either too smooth for gaskets such as composition asbestos, or too rough
for gaskets such as solid metal or metal jacketed.

Gasket is the wrong material for the application (i.e., stock, temperature, and
pressure.)
 Reasons of Flange Leaks
Poor Flange Design
Flanges do not have enough thickness to withstand the operating and
hydro- static test pressures without leaking. (See Section 530 for more
information in this area.)

Bolts have been torqued past their maximum stress in trying to stop leaks.

Flanges were deformed or rotated in the process of trying to stop leaks.

This causes improper gasket seating and is indicated by a gasket that is

substantially thinner on the outside diameter than on the inside diameter.

Flanges do not mate up well initially.

 Reasons of Flange Leaks
Weather
Rain storms can deform uninsulated flanges and unseat
the gasket.

Mechanical Damage
Gasket was damaged during installation.
Flange surface was scratched or gouged during
maintenance.
Poor torquing procedure caused uneven compression
of the gasket around its circumference.
 Reasons of Flange Leaks
Corrosion
Flange is so extensively corroded there is not
enough gasket seating surface left.
Gasket material is not resistant to the process
fluid.

Process Upsets
Excessive temperatures or pressure surges can
unseat the gasket and stretch the bolts.
Analyzing Existing Flanges
The reasons for flange leakage and the decision to repair, insulate,
or replace the flanges can be determined by visual inspection of the
flange, by comparing the existing flange thickness against the ASME
and Company recommended thickness, and by relating the onset of
leakage to some significant event (i.e., startup, upset, or rain
storm).

Inspection: The following inspection techniques can be used to

analyze existing flanges:
Check for flange rotation. Are the flanges metal-to-metal around
any part of the circumference?

Inspect the gasket. See Figure 1000-2 for problems that

examination of the gasket can point out.
 Inspect the gasket seating surface for damage or
corrosion.

Measure the flange thickness to determine if it is

at or below ASME std

Measure the critical dimensions and compare

them with the original exchanger and TEMA
tolerances.
Observation
Gasket badly corroded
Gasket extruded excessively
Gasket grossly crushed
Gasket mechanically damaged due to overhang of
raised face or flange bore.
No apparent gasket compression achieved.
Gasket substantially thinner on O.D. than on I.D.
Gasket unevenly compressed around circumference
Gasket thickness varies periodically around
circumference
Causes and Possible Remedies
Select replacement material with improved corrosion resistance.
Select replacement material with better cold flow prop- erties; select
replacement material with better load carrying capacity, i.e., more dense.
This could also indi- cate excessive bolt load or insufficient gasket width.
Select replacement material with better load carrying capacity; provide
means to prevent crushing the gasket by use of a stop ring or re-design
of flanges. This could also indicate excessive bolt load or insuffi- cient
gasket width.
Review gasket dimensions to insure gaskets are proper size. Make
certain gaskets are property centered in joint.
Select softer gasket material. Select thicker gasket material. Reduce
gasket area to allow higher unit seating load.
This is indicative of excessive flange rotation or bending. Alter gasket
dimensions to move gasket reac- tion closer to bolts to minimize bending
movement. Provide stiffness to flange by means of back-up rings. Select
softer gasket material to lower required seating stresses. Reduce gasket
area to lower seating
stresses.
This results from improper bolting-up procedures. Make certain proper
sequential bolt-up procedures are followed. Non-uniform thermal
stresses may also be a problem.
This is indicative of flange bridging between bolts or warped flanges.
Provide reinforcing rings for flanges
to better distribute bolt load. Select gasket material with lower seating
stress. Provide additional bolts if possible to obtain better load
distribution. If flanges are warped, re-machine or use softer gasket
material.
 General Considerations for Opening
Up an Exchanger
It is very expensive to open an exchanger for inspection
and repairs.

Also, for exchangers that are operating well, opening them

unnecessarily may cause future problems.

Therefore, it is very important to have an organized

procedure for making decisions.

This is especially important going into a plant turnaround

where a large number of exchangers will need to be
investigated.
 General Considerations for Opening
Up an Exchanger
The following list of considerations can be used to
help determine when to open an exchanger.

Is the exchanger leaking internally or externally?

Does the unit need recertification?

This is usually a concern only for steam generators,

which require periodic state inspection and
certification.
 General Considerations for Opening
Up an Exchanger
Is the exchanger performance satisfactory?

In other words, does the U-value or DP

indicate fouling or internal damage.

Based on this bundles history and the history

of similar bundles in similar services, will the
bundle last until the next turnaround?
 General Considerations for Opening
Up an Exchanger
Can exchanger be cleaned on the run?
Isolating an exchanger and cleaning it with the surrounding
equipment operating entails significant safety and
operating problems.
This is usually done only if the exchanger and piping were
designed to allow for online cleaning.

Can the unit be chemically cleaned?

`Light uniform fouling may be chemically cleanable. Locally
plugged exchangers cannot be chemically cleaned.
Chemical cleaning is expensive and all of the
environmental and safety implications should be
considered first.
 Considerations for Retubing,
Repairing, or Replacing the Bundle
Assuming the bundle is leaking or, based on past
experience, that it will not last until the next
turnaround, then some repairs will need to be made.

Is bundle nearing its historical life?

If a bundle is leaking and it is not approaching its historical
life, then a failure analysis should be performed to
determine if design changes are required.
The best way to determine the cause of failure is to pull
the leaking tubes and inspect them.
 Considerations for Retubing,
Repairing, or Replacing the Bundle
Can tubesheet be reused?
Normally, a tubesheet can only be used two or
three times before it can no longer have a tube
rolled into it.

If a tubesheet cannot be reused, then a new

bundle will be necessary.
 Considerations for Retubing,
Repairing, or Replacing the Bundle
Can leaking tubes be plugged or replaced?
Individual leaking tubes can be the sign of a much larger problem.
Simply plugging or replacing leaking tubes may be setting yourself up
for another failure before the next shutdown.
The leaking tube should be pulled and inspected to determine the
cause of failure.
The position of the failed tube relative to baffles and nozzles should be
determined and recorded.
This can help identify the cause of the failure.
If it is not obvious that repairing or replacing the tube will ensure a
sound bundle, then the bundle should be retubed or replaced.
Sometimes, all of the leaks may be in one part of the bundle.
In this case, a design change (i.e., replacing tubes with solid rods,
changing inlet configura- tion, etc.) may eliminate the problem.
 Considerations for Retubing,
Repairing, or Replacing the Bundle
If a new bundle is required, should it be
redesigned?
Simple design changes may substantially improve
a bundles operation and service life.
If a bundle needs to be retubed or replaced, the
incremental cost for making these design changes
may not be very high.
However, the cause of the bundle deterioration
should always be identified and process changes
considered along with design changes.
 bundle configuration changes
Some examples of bundle configuration changes that may
improve the long term heat transfer or bundle life are
Change inlet impingement design to eliminate tube vibration
wear.
Plug tubes to increase tube velocity. (This improves heat
transfer if fouling is significant.)
Change shell side pass configuration and baffling to improve
heat transfer and decrease fouling.
Use different materials that will increase the bundle reliability
and life. (As a general rule, even in corrosive services such as sea
water, a bundle should last at least two operating runs
Change from floating head to U-tube design
 TESTING
Proper maintenance requires testing of a condenser to
check the integrity of the following: tubes, tube-to-
tube sheet joints, welds, and gasketed joints.

The normal procedure consists of pressuring the shell

with water or air at the nameplate-specified test
pressure and viewing the shell welds and the face of
the tube sheet for leaks in the tube sheet joints or
tubes.

Water should be at ambient temperature to avoid false

indications due to condensation.
 TESTING
Pneumatic testing requires extra care because of the
destructive nature of a rupture or explosion, or fire
hazards when residual flammable materials are
present.

Condensers of the straight-tube floating-head

construction require a test gland to perform the test.

Tube bundles without shells are tested by pressuring

the tubes and viewing the length of the tubes and back
face of the tube sheets.
 TESTING
Corrective action for leaking tube-to-tube sheet
joints requires expanding the tube end with a
suitable roller-type tube expander.

Good practice calls for an approximate 8%

reduction in wall thickness after metal-to-metal
contact between the tube and tube hole.

Tube expanding should not extend beyond 1 8

inch of the inner tube-sheet face to avoid cutting
the tube.
 TESTING
Care should be exercised to avoid over-rolling the tube,
can cause work-hardening of the material, an insecure
seal, and/or stress-corrosion cracking of the tube.

Defective tubes can either be replaced or plugged.

Replacing tubes requires special tools and equipment.

The user should contact the manufacturer or a

qualified repair contractor.
 TESTING
Plugging of tubes, although a temporary solution,
is acceptable provided that the percentage of the
total number of tubes per tube pass to be
plugged is not excessive.

The type of plug to be used is a tapered one-

piece or two-piece metal plug suitable for the
tube material and inside diameter.

Care should be exercised in seating plugs to avoid

damaging the tube sheets.
 TESTING
If a significant number of tube or tube joint
failures are clustered in a given area of the
tube layout, their location should be noted
and reported to the manufacturer.

A concentration of failures is usually caused

by something other than corrosion (e.g.,
impingement, erosion, or vibration).
 Operation
Be sure entire system is clean before starting operation to prevent plugging of
tubes or shell side passages with refuse.

The use of strainers or settling tanks in pipelines leading to the heat exchanger is
recommended.

Open vent connections before starting up.

Start operating gradually.

After the system is completely filled with the operating fluids and all air has been
vented, close all manual vent connections.

Re-tighten bolting on all gasketed or packed joints after the heat exchanger has
reached operating temperatures to prevent leaks and gasket failures.
 Operation
Do not operate the heat exchanger under pressure and temperature
conditions in excess of those specified on the nameplate.

To guard against water hammer, drain condensate from steam heat

exchangers and similar apparatus both when starting up and shutting
down.

Drain all fluids when shutting down to eliminate possible freezing and
corroding.

In all installations there should be no pulsation of fluids, since this causes

vibration and will result in reduced operating life.

Under no circumstances is the heat exchanger to be operated at a flowrate

greater than that shown on the design specifications. Excessive flows can
cause vibration and severely damage the heat exchanger tube bundle.
 Operation
Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale, sludge deposits,
etc.) periodically, depending on specific conditions.

A light sludge or scale coating on either side of the tube

greatly reduces its effectiveness.

A marked increase in pressure drop and/or reduction in

performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary.

Since the difficulty of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale

thickens or deposits increase, the intervals between
cleanings should not be excessive.
 Operation
Neglecting to keep tubes clean may result in random tube plugging.

Consequent overheating or cooling of the plugged tubes, as compared to

surrounding tubes, will cause physical damage and leaking tubes due to
differential thermal expansion of the metals.

To clean or inspect the inside of the tubes, remove only the necessary
tube side channel covers or bonnets, depending on type of exchanger
construction.

If the heat exchanger is equipped with sacrificial anodes or plates, replace

these as required.

To clean or inspect the outside of the tubes, it may be necessary to

remove the tube bundle. (Fixed tubesheet exchanger bundles are non-
removable).
 Operation
If the heat exchanger has been in service for a
considerable length of time without being removed, it
may be necessary to use a jack on the floating
tubesheet to break the bundle free.

Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a cradle

formed by bending a light-gauge plate or plates into a
U-shape.

Do not drag bundles, since baffles or support plates

may become easily bent. Avoid any damage to baffles
so that the heat exchanger will function properly.
 Operation
Some suggested methods of cleaning either the shell side or tube
side are listed below:
Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tube side or shell
side will usually effectively remove sludge or similar soft deposits.
Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot fresh water.
Some commercial cleaning compounds such as Oakite or Dowell
may be effective in removing more stubborn deposits.

Some tubes have inserts or longitudinal fins and can be damaged by

cleaning when mechanical means are employed.

Clean these types of tubes chemically or consult the nearest

manufacturer representative for the recommended method of
cleaning
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Within the constraints of the existing system, improving operation
and performance refers to maintaining operation and original or
consistent performance.

There are several factors previously mentioned which are critical to

the design and performance of a condenser: operating pressure,
amount of non-condensable gases in the vapor stream, coolant
temperature and flow rate, fouling resistance, and mechanical
soundness.

Any pressure drop in the vapor line upstream of the condenser

should ordinarily be minimized.

Deaerators or similar devices should be operational where

necessary to remove gases in solution with liquids.
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Proper and regular venting of equipment and leakproof
gasketed joints in vacuum systems are all necessary to
prevent gas binding and alteration of the condensing
equilibrium.

Coolant flow rate and temperatures should be checked

regularly to ensure that they are in accordance with
the original design criteria.

The importance of this can be illustrated merely by

comparing the winter and summer performance of a
condenser using cooling-tower or river water.
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Decreased performance due to fouling will
generally be exhibited by a gradual decrease in
efficiency and should be corrected as soon as
possible.

Mechanical malfunctions can also be gradual, but

will eventually be evidenced by a near total lack
of performance.

Fouling and mechanical soundness can only be

controlled by regular and complete maintenance.
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
In some cases, fouling is much worse than predicted
and requires frequent cleaning regardless of the
precautions taken in the original design.

These cases require special designs to alleviate the

problems associated with fouling.

For example, a leading PVC manufacturer found that

carryover of polymer reduced the efficiency of its
monomer condenser and caused frequent downtime.
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
The solution was providing polished internals and high
condensate loading in a vertical down flow shell-and-tube
condenser.

In an another example, a major pharmaceutical

intermediate manufacturer had catalyst carryover to a
vertical downflow shell-and-tube condenser which
accumulated on the tube internals.

The solution was to recirculate condensate to the top of the

unit and spray it over the tube-sheet face to create a film
descending down the tubes to rinse the tubes clean.
 IMPROVING OPERATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Most condenser manufacturers will provide
designs for alternate conditions as a guide to
estimating the cost of improving efficiency via
other coolant flow rates and temperatures as
well as alternate configurations (i.e., vertical,
horizontal, shell side, or tube side).
TROUBLESHOOTING
 Heat exchangers problems
The problem that should be anticipated by
the design to avoid high maintenance or
cleaning and costly shut down production
include:
1. Fouling
2. Leakage
3. Corrosion
 To anticipate maintenance problems the designer
should need to be familiar with the plant location,
process flow sheet, plant operation. Some of the
questions that must be considered are:
1. will the heat exchanger need cleaning? how often?
what cleaning method will be used?
2. what penalty will the plant pay for leakages between the
tubeside and shell side?
3. what kind of production upsets can occur that could
affect the heat exchanger?
4. how will heat exchanger be started up and shut down?
5. will the heat exchanger be likely to require repairs? if
so, will the repairs present any special problem?
 Fouling
Costs of fouling
Increased maintenance costs
Over-sizing and/or redundant (stand-by)equipment
Special materials and/or design considerations
Added cost of cleaning equipment ,chemicals
Hazardous cleaning solution disposal
Reduced service life and added energy costs
Increased costs of environmental regulations
Loss of plant capacity and/or efficiency Loss of waste
heat recovery options
 Facts about fouling

25 YEARS AGO heat exchanger fouling was referred to as

the major unresolved problem in heat transfer ?

the total cost of fouling - in highly industrialized nations -

has been projected at 0.25% of the GNP ?

the total annual cost of fouling in the U.S. is now estimated

at 18 billion ?

the total annual cost of fouling specifically focused on shell

and tube exchangers in the process industries is now
estimated at 6 billion ?
 Types of Fouling

Precipitation / Crystallization - dissolved inorganic salts with inverse

solubility characteristics

Particulate / Sedimentation - suspended solids, insoluble corrosion

products, sand, silt

Chemical Reaction - common in petroleum refining and polymer

production

Corrosion - material reacts with fluid to form corrosion products, which

attach to the heat transfer surface to form nucleation sites

Biological - initially micro-fouling, usually followed by macro-fouling

Solidification - ice formation, paraffin waxes

 Fouling Mechanisms

Initiation - most critical period - when temperature, concentration and

velocity gradients, oxygen depletion zones and crystal nucleation sites are
established - a few minutes to a few weeks

Migration - most widely studied phenomenon - involving transport of

foulant to surface and various diffusion transport mechanisms

Attachment - begins the formation of the deposit

Transformation or Aging - another critical period when physical or

chemical changes can increase deposit strength and tenacity Removal or

Re-entrainment - dependent upon deposit strength - removal of fouling

layers by dissolution, erosion or spalling - or by randomly distributed
turbulent bursts
 Conditions Influencing Fouling
Operating Parameters
Velocity
surface temperature
bulk fluid temperature

Heat Exchanger Parameters

exchanger configuration
surface material
surface structure

Fluid Properties
suspended solids
dissolved solids
dissolved gases
trace elements
 Fouling control
(a)Forced circulation heat exchanger.
Forced circulation is better than natural
circulation.
This is to obtain a velocity of 10-15ft/sec.
Although the cost of pumps and power added
considerably to the cost of the equipment.
This would be compared to the cost of production
losses and cost for cleaning in order to arrive to at
an economical design for a particular process
application.
 Fouling control
(b) Good shell side avoids eddies and dead zones
where solid can accumulate.
Inlet and outlet connections should be located at the
bottom and top of the shell side and tube side to
avoid creating dead zones and unvented areas.

(c) The use of metal that will not foul due to

accumulation of corrosion products is important,
especially with cooling waters.
Copper, copper alloy and stainless steels are
satisfactory for most cooling waters
 Fouling control
The fouling fluid should be inside tube.

Hence easily removable flat cover plates would be installed

on the channel to facilitate cleaning if frequent physical
cleaning is necessary.

Horizontal installation would probably be chosen to avoid

the cost of scaffold usually required for physically cleaning a
vertical exchanger

3. Increasing tube velocity to 10-15ft/s lengthen the

cleaning intervals
 Fouling cleaning methods
1. Chemical cleaning: Various chemicals (acids,
chlorine) have been used to reduce fouling
and restore tube cleanliness.
Acid may either be strong (which damage the
equipment) or week (citric, formic, sulfamic) these
are less effective.
Acid cleaning is limited to once a year or less.
The use of chlorine is being cutback or eliminated
in many regions by government regulations.
 Fouling cleaning methods
2. Manual cleaning: Method include periodic cleaning with
rubber plugs, nylon brushes, metal scrapers or turbining
tools. This method is expensive, intermittent (between
cleaning fouling builds up rapidly)

3. Rubber - ball cleaning: Automatic cleaning by means

sponge -rubber balls is eco-nomical in areas where
deposition, pollutants, chlorides and other corrodents
exists.
These ball distribute themselfs at random through the
condenser, passing through a tube at an average of one every
five minutes.
slightly larger in diameter than the tube, they wipe the surface
clean of fouling and deposits
Leakage/Rupture of the Heat Transfer
Surface
Leaks may develop at the tube-to-tubesheet joints of fixed
tube sheet exchanger due

(a) to differential thermal expansion between the tube and shell

causes overstress- ing of the rolled joints, or

(b) thermal cycling caused by frequent shutdowns or batch

operation of the process may cause the tubes to loosen in the
tube holes.

2. Leaks may occur due to tube failure cause by vibration or

differential thermal ex-pansion or dryout (for boilers and
evaporators)
 Cost of leakage
1. Large production losses or maintenance cost

2. Contamination of product: The leak/rupture of

tubes leads to contamination or overpressure of
the low-pressure side.
Failure to maintain separation between heat transfer
and process fluids may lead to violent reaction in the
heat transfer equipment or in the downstream
processing equipment.
 Cause of differential thermal
expansion
1. Unusual situation: that lead to unexpected differential thermal
expansion, for example, the tube side of a fixed-tube sheet condenser
may be subjected to steam temperature, with no coolant in the shell
whenever a distillation column is steamed out in preparation for
maintenance.
Or an upset in the chemical process may subject the tubes to high
temperatures

2. Start up at high temperature

3. Vibration (if the velocity at the inlet exceeded the critical velocity for
two phase flow)

4. Dryout of the tube cause by insufficient coolant or local overheating

 Remedy of thermal expansion

Use of U tube or floating head instead of fixed

tube sheet
Welding the tube to the tube sheet
Double tube sheet
 Corrosion
The heat transfer surface reacts chemically with elements of the
fluid stream producing a less conductive, corrosion layer on all or
part of the surface.

Corrosion effects
Premature metal failures
the deposit of corrosion products reduce both heat transfer and flow
rate.

Causes of corrosion
High content of total dissolved solids (TDS), the dissimilarity of the
metal, dissolved oxygen, penetrating ions like chlorides and sulphates,
the low pH and presence of various other impurities are the prime
cause of corrosion in the heat exchanger.
 Type of corrosion

stress corrosion
galvanic corrosion
uniform corrosion
Pitting
Crevice Corrosion
 Stress corrosion

Differential expansion between tubes and shell

in fixed-tube-sheet exchangers can develop
stresses, which lead to stress corrosion.

Overthinning: Expanding the tube into the tube

sheet reduces the tube wall thick- ness and work-
hardens the metal.

The induced stresses can lead to stress corrosion.

Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking
Proper selection of the appropriate material.
Remove the chemical species that promotes
cracking.
Change the manufacturing process or design
to reduce the tensile stresses.
 Galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion is frequently referred to as

dissimilar metal corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion can occur when two

dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive
electrolyte
 Pitting
Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting
corrosion is typified by the formation of holes or pits on the
tube surface.

Causes:
dissolved oxygen content
deposition of corrosion products

Methods for reducing the effects of pitting corrosion:

Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment (pH, O2)
Use more pitting resistant materials Improve the design
of the system
 Uniform or rust corrosion
Some common methods used to prevent or
reduce general corrosion are listed below:
Coatings
Inhibitors
Cathodic protection
Proper materials selection
 Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosive attack.

Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow openings or spaces between two

metal surfaces or between metals and nonmetal surfaces.

Some examples of crevices are listed below:

Flanges
Deposits
Washers
Rolled tube ends
Threaded joints
O-rings
Gaskets
Lap joints
Sediment
 Some methods for reducing the effects of
crevice corrosion :
Eliminate the crevice from the design.
For example close fit. A 3-mm- long gap is thus
created between the tube and the tube hole at
this tube-sheet face. The tube is allowed to
protrude 3 mm of the tube sheet.
Select materials more resistant to crevice
corrosion
Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment
TROUBLESHOOTING
 Steam heat exchanger flooded

When a heat exchanger stalls, condensate

floods the steam space and causes a variety of
problems within the exchanger:
 Control hunting:
As condensate backs up in the exchanger, the heat
transfer rate to the process is greatly reduced.
The control valve opens wide enough to allow
flow into the exchanger.
As condensate drains out, the steam space is now
greater and the steam pressure increases.
The process overheats, the control valve closes
down, and the cycle repeats.
 Temperature shock:
Condensate backed up inside the steam space
cools the tubes that carry the process fluid.
When this sub-cooled condensate is suddenly
replaced by hot steam due to poor steam trap
operations, the expansion and contraction of the
tubes stress the tube joints.
Constantly repeating this cycle causes premature
failure.