EARTH 201

Spring 2017

Lecture 1:
Earth Structure and
Plate Tectonics

Andrew D. Jacobson, 2017

Last Time
1. Course Mechanics
Expectations
Lab
Exams
Grading
Field Trip
Read the Syllabus!
2. Unifying Themes of 201
The Earth is very old
The Earth is an integrated system that
continuously evolves
Past = Present = Future

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 Outline
1. Formation and Early Evolution of
Earth
2. Earth Structure
Compositional layers
Physical layers
3. Plate Tectonics
Evidence for it
How it works
Plate boundaries

Early Evolution of Earth

Origin of Earth
Nebular Hypothesis
Big Bang ~12 - 15
billion years ago
Assumes a flat, disk
shape with the
protosun (pre-Sun) at
the center
Inner planets begin to
form from metallic and
rocky substances
Larger outer planets
began forming from
fragments of ice (H2O,
CO2, and others)

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 Early Evolution of Earth

Formation of Earths layered structure

Metals sank to the center
Heat important
Molten rock rose to produce a primitive
crust
Primitive atmosphere evolved from
gases in Earths interior
Chemical segregation established the
three basic divisions of Earths interior

Earths Internal Structure

Layers defined by compositional properties
Crust
Mantle
Core
Layers defined by physical properties
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere
Outer Core
Inner Core

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 Compositional Layers Physical Layers

Compositional Layers
Crust
Outermost compositional layer
Definite change in composition at
the base of the crust
Crust may be divided into 2 types
Continental crust
Oceanic crust

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 Compositional Layers
Crust
Continental crust is:
~30 - 45 km thick
Less dense than oceanic crust
Highly deformed
Relatively old
up to billions of years old
Composed of granite
high Si, Al
Granite is a felsic rock

Compositional Layers
Crust
Oceanic crust is
~7 km thick
Denser than continental crust
Relatively undeformed
Young
~200 million years old
Composed of basalt
high Fe, Mg
Basalt is a mafic rock

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 Compositional Layers
Mantle
Largest layer in the Earth
2900 km thick
82% by volume
68% by mass
Composed of silicate rocks with
abundant Fe and Mg
Dense
Fragments found in some volcanic rocks

Compositional Layers
Core
~7000 km in diameter
Average density of 10.8 g/cm3
16% by volume
32% of mass
Indirect evidence of composition
Metallic iron

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 Physical Layers

Concept based on how Earth

materials (rocks) behave in
response to the temperature
(heat) and pressure conditions of
the Earths interior

Earths interior

Heat in the Earths interior has two

sources:
Radioactive decay
Heat leftover from planetary formation

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 Physical Layers
Lithosphere
Crust plus upper portion of the
mantle
Solid and rigid

Physical Layers
Asthenosphere
Upper layer in the mantle
Temperature and pressure combine to
allow rock to partially melt
Rocks are soft and plastic
Flow slowly, easily deformed
Boundary with lithosphere is defined by
mechanical properties, not composition

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 Physical Layers

Very
Lithosphere
weak
(rigid, brittle)
here b/
some
melting
Asthenosphere may
(plastic, soft) occur

Physical Layers
Mesosphere
The region between the
asthenosphere and the core
Higher pressure offsets higher
temperatures
Rocks gain rigidity and mechanical
strength

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 Physical Layers
Outer Core
Liquid Fe, flows
Flow creates magnetic field
Inner Core
Solid

How do we know these things?

Deepest drill hole ~12 km
Seismic data (future lecture)
Samples and high P-T experiments
Meteorites

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 Continental Drift: An idea
before its time
Alfred Wegener
First proposed his continental drift
hypothesis in 1915
Published The Origin of
Continents and Oceans

Continental Drift: An idea

before its time
Continental drift hypothesis
Continents "drifted" to present
positions
Evidence used in support of continental
drift hypothesis
Fit of the continents
Rock type and structural similarities
Fossil evidence
Paleoclimate evidence

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 Matching
Mountain
Ranges

Fossil Evidence

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Paleoclimatic
Evidence

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 The Great Debate

Objections to the continental drift

hypothesis
Lack of a mechanism for moving
continents
Wegener incorrectly suggested that
continents broke through the ocean crust,
much like ice breakers cut through ice
Strong opposition to the hypothesis
from all areas of the scientific
community

Continental Drift and

Paleomagnetism

Renewed interest (~1950) in continental

drift initially came from rock magnetism
Magnetized minerals in rocks
Show the direction to Earths
magnetic poles
Provide a means of determining their
latitude of origin

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A Scientific Revolution Begins

Apparent Polar Wander

The apparent movement of Earths
magnetic poles due to the
movement of the continents
Recorded in magnetized rocks

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 The magnetism of
numerous lava flows
through time traces the
apparent wandering of
the magnetic pole
This can be interpreted 3
ways:
1. Continent fixed,
pole moved
2. Continent moved,
pole fixed
3. Both moved

Problems:
1. Lava flows of the
same age on different
continents point to
different pole
locations
2. Lava flows on
different continents
yield different polar
wander paths (green
and red lines)

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 The best explanation is
that the continents
moved and the poles
remain fixed
When the continents are
reconfigured into their
ancient locations, the
poles and paths
converge (red and green
lines)
Reconfiguration is
consistent with fossil,
rock type, structural, and
paleoclimate evidence

A Scientific Revolution Begins

Geomagnetic Reversals
Earth's magnetic field periodically
reverses polarity the north
magnetic pole becomes the south
magnetic pole, and vice versa
Dates when the polarity of Earths
magnetism changed were
determined from lava flows

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A Scientific Revolution Begins

Geomagnetic Reversals
Geomagnetic reversals are
recorded in the ocean crust
In 1963 Vine and Matthews tied the
discovery of magnetic stripes in
the ocean crust near ridges to
Harry Hesss concept of seafloor
spreading

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 Paleomagnetic reversals
recorded in oceanic crust

A Scientific Revolution Begins

Geomagnetic Reversals
Continental Volcanic Deposits
Polarity Pattern
Age
Oceanic Crust
Polarity Pattern
Given correlation between pattern and
age of volcanic deposits, can calculate
age of oceanic crust given pattern

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Paleomagnetic reversals
recorded in oceanic crust

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 Plate Tectonics:
The New Paradigm
The Earths surface comprises several
structurally rigid plates
Lithosphere
crust plus mantle
A plate can include oceanic and continental
crust
Plates overlie the structurally weaker
asthenosphere
Plates are continually in motion (cm/yr),
changing shapes and sizes

Plate Tectonics:
The New Paradigm
Plate tectonics is the grand unifying
theory of geology
Plate tectonics is the underlying
basis for viewing most geologic
processes
Critical concept for all of EARTH 201

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Earths
Plates

Earths
Plates

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 What drives plate motions?

Convection

What drives plate motions?

Researchers agree that convective

flow (due to heat) in the mantle is the
basic driving force of plate tectonics
Other forces that drive plate motion
Slab-pull
Ridge-push

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 Plate Boundaries
Interactions among individual plates
occur along their boundaries
Types of plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries
(constructive margins)
Convergent plate boundaries
(destructive margins)
Transform plate boundaries
(conservative margins)

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Divergent plate boundary

Convergent Plate Boundary

(Ocean-Continent)

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Convergent Plate Boundary
(Ocean-Ocean)

Convergent Plate Boundary

(Continent-Continent)

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 Transform
Plate
Boundary

Transform
Plate
Boundary

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 Hot Spots
Not a plate boundary, but very important to recognize

EARTH 201
Spring 2017

Next Time
Minerals

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