LiDAR

10.3 Laser Scanning

10.3.1 Basic Principle
10.3.2 ALS components and processes
10.3.3 LiDAR data and products/system characteristics
10.3.4 Variants of Laser Scanning
 What is LiDAR?
Acronym for Light Detection And Ranging

=f
n
(

,)

Basic laser ranging

technology has been
available for 20 years e.g.
Distance measuring devices
for surveying
Can operate in the
ultraviolet,
visible or infrared regions
of the electromagnetic
spectrum
Combines information from
Physics, Engineering,
Geodesy and GIS
 LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging)

Active airborne sensor emits several

thousand infrared laser pulses per
second
Operates on principle that if location
and orientation of laser scanner is
known, we can calculate a range
measurement for each recorded echo
from a laser pulse
Components of system include INS
(inertial navigation system), airborne
differential GPS, and laser scanner
Range measurements are post-
processed and delivered as XYZ
coordinates
Courtesy: Spencer Gross
 LiDAR: How?
Each time the laser is pulsed:
Laser generates an optical pulse
Pulse is reflected off an object and returns
to the system receiver
High-speed counter measures the time of
flight from the start pulse to the return pulse
Time measurement is converted to a
distance (the distance to the target and the
position of the airplane is then used to determine
the elevation and location; D=1/2*C*t)
Multiple returns can be measured for each
pulse
Up to 200,000+ pulses/second
Everything that can be seen from the aircraft
is measured
 LiDAR Accuracy

Absolute Vertical Accuracy - RMSE:

+/- Can be as good as 210 cm on Hard Surfaces
+/- 1015 cm on Soft/Vegetated Surfaces (rolling terrain)
+/- 1550 cm on Soft/Vegetated Surfaces (hilly terrain)

Absolute Horizontal Accuracy - RMSE:

+/- 1540 cm on all but extremely hilly terrain
 Verifying LiDAR Accuracy
10 pts / sq. m LiDAR hill-shade image with cross sections
 General Lidar Requirements
High Accuracy (2-10 cm vertical)
Transportation Survey and Engineering support
Land Development
Corridor Utilities
Small block Mining

Medium Accuracy (better than 40 cm vertical)

Oil & Gas Exploration and Production (E&P)
Large block Mining
Environmental/Flood Mapping
 What Makes LiDAR Unique?
High resolution 3D surface
Point Cloud of Data
Millions of points / square kilometer

Fast & accurate

10s of square kilometers / hour
< 5 cm RMSEz in many areas

Flexible collection
Maps through canopy
Independent of sun angle
Day or night

Diverse data products

Full-feature, Bare Earth
Contours, Building Footprints
Land Usage, Environmental
Transportation/Utility Corridors etc.
 Sources of Error

Acquisition
Processing
Interpolation
Analysis/Visualization
 Acquisition Scan Angle

LiDAR data should be

acquired within 18 of
nadir as above this angle
the LiDAR footprint can
become highly distorted
Complex terrain can
exascerbate the problem
 Lidar Observations and Trends

Data availability ahead of applications

Waveform just beginning to emerge commercially
Additional research needed on QA/QC, waveform
exploitation and feature extraction
Very large data volumes, a persistent challenge
Structural information enhanced with multi/hyperspectral
imagery
Rapid evolution challenges standards process
Fast growing mobile mapping driven by industry

11
 LiDAR

10.3 Laser Scanning

10.3.1 Basic Principle
10.3.2 ALS components and processes
10.3.3 LiDAR data and Products/ System Characteristics
10.3.4 Variants of Laser Scanning
 Aerial LiDAR System Components*
Aircraft
Scanning laser emitter-receiver unit
Differentially-corrected GPS
Inertial measurement unit (IMU)
Computer
LiDAR point data colored by height

*components can be sources of error

Figures from McMcGaughey
USDA Forest Service--PNW Research Station
 Determinants of LiDAR Data
Characteristic
The combination of:
Scanner system
(relates to beam pattern)
Flight altitude
(if flight limitations exist)
Pulse rates
Scan frequencies
Scan angle
possible max around 30
scan swath
 LiDAR Data Characteristics

Raw return data are XYZ points

High spatial resolution

Laser footprint on ground 0.50 meters
Typical density is 0.5 to 20+ pulses/m2
2 to3 returns/pulse in forest areas
Surface/canopy models typically 1 to 5m grid

Large volume of data

5,000 to 60,000+ pulses/hectare
10 to100+ thousands of returns/hectare
0.4 to 5.4+ MB/hectare
 Quiz

What is the height of a tower on a terrain if the time difference between the
first and last return is 1*10-6s?

* 3 108m/s * 1 10-6s = 150m

 Return Density
In LiDAR the footprint size decreases with increasing
post-spacing and importantly the last return from a
discrete return system is not always the ground

LiDAR sensor systems vary in the number of returns from

a surface

Figure Source: http://www.cnrhome.uidaho.edu/

 Reflectivity
Highly reflective objects may
saturate some laser detectors,
while the return signal from
low-reflectivity objects may
occasionally be too weak to
register as valid

Minimum detectable object

size depends on reflectivity

A strong sunlight reflection off

a highly reflective target may
"saturate" a receiver,
producing an invalid or less
accurate reading*

*most acquisition is done in a preferred range of angles to avoid this issue

Small and large footprint lidar systems. The large footprint (right) encodes all the hits of
the laser pulse generating a waveform of height distribution

20 m

10 m

0m
Pulse frequency
LIDAR for forest structure analysis
Multiple Return LIDAR
LIDAR data represent direct measurements of three-dimensional
forest structure
- Small-footprint vs. large-footprint systems
- Continuous waveform vs. discrete return systems
EarthData Aeroscan Multiple Return LIDAR
- Many small footprint, discrete return LIDAR systems can acquire
multiple measurements from a single laser pulse
nanosec meters

0 0
Pulse emission

20 50% 100% 6

0 0
50% 100%
first return
20 6
no return
40 12
50% 100%

60 18
second return

80 50% 100% 24

100 50% 100% 30

third return

120 36
fourth return
Courtesy: Spencer Gross

140 50% 100% 42

 Waveform-digitizing vs. Discrete-return

21
Discrete return lidar
LiDAR Data Points
 LIDAR for forest structure analysis

High-density LIDAR data within Capitol Forest study Same area in 1 ft orthophoto
area
 LIDAR for forest structure analysis

Forest structure is above ground organization of plant materials

(Spurr and Barnes, 1980)

Forest structural patterns are three-dimensional

- Growth at scale of individual tree crowns
- Competition for limited resources (light, water, nutrients)
 Leaf-on vs. leaf-off

(A) (B)

Cross section of LIDAR data through a single deciduous tree (A) and coniferous tree (B)
including bare-earth returns. The green dots represent leaf-on returns and the brown dots
represent leaf-off returns
 Lidar Capabilities Vegetation Structure
Lidar Cloud Actual Tree

Underestimation

Modeled
Volume

Length of Live Crown

Canopy Height
Height to
Live Crown

Crown Width

27
 Quiz

What are the two forms of LiDAR? What are the differences
between the two forms?
The two forms of LiDAR are discrete and waveform. Discrete
LiDAR is collected as x,y,z points, while waveform is collected as
a continuous height line at a location.

What can LiDAR tell us about vegetation structure?

LiDAR can be used to measure canopy height and width. LiDAR
can also be used to model tree canopy volume.
What is the distance between the sensor and terrain if it took 2*10-6s before a
pulse returns to the sensor?
* 3 108m/s * 2 10-6s = 300m
 LiDAR

10.3 Laser Scanning

10.3.1 Basic Principle
10.3.2 ALS components and processes
10.3.3 LiDAR data and Products/System Characteristics
10.3.4 Variants of Laser Scanning
 What are some of the LIDAR data products available?
Digital Ortho-Rectified Imagery
Some LiDAR providers collect digital color or black-and-white ortho-rectified imagery
simultaneously with the collection of point data. Imagery is collected either from
digital cameras or digital video cameras and can be mosaiced. Resolution is typically
1m.
Distance and Intensity Return Images
Images may be derived from elevation and intensity values returned by each laser
pulse. The intensity values can be displayed as a gray scale image.
LIDAR Derived Products
Topographic LiDAR systems produce surface elevation x, y, z coordinate data
points. There are many products that can be derived from raw point data. Most
LiDAR providers can derive these products upon request:
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs; grid)
Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) (bald-earth elevation data; irregular point
spacing)
Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs)
Breaklines - a line representing a feature that you wish to preserve in a TIN
(example: stream or ridge)
Contours
Shaded Relief
Slope & Aspect
http://gis.tn.gov/lidar_docs/Frequently%20Asked%20Questions%5B1%5D.pdf
 Lidar Supports Many National
Applications

Volcano Vegetation /
monitoring Biomass

Earthquake faults Land Cover

Hydrologic
Urban / Suburban
Studies Carbon /
Response Coastal Studies
Disturbance
31 studies
 Mapping Applications from Lidar

Orthoimagery
Land Cover

Lidar Contours
Bare Earth
Elevation

Structures
Hydrology
Bare Earth Surface

DTM product of last return, Finger Rock Trail, Mile 5

Full Feature Hillshade
Bare Earth Hillshade
10 cm Ortho Photo
50 cm LiDAR Contours
Ortho Photo & 50 cm Contours
Geomorphology
Geological Structures
 Detection of Obscured Features

Fault Scarp
is 0.5 m at
highest
point
Landslide Hazard Identification
Slope Map, Streams and
Contours
DEM

DTM
Watersheds, Dams and Reservoirs
 Flood Modeling

Red River
(Manitoba)

230m Water
Level
 Flood Modeling
Red River
(Manitoba)

233m Water
Level
 DEM & Canopy Models 10m USGS DEM

LiDAR

Streams

Landslide
LiDAR

IFSAR IFSAR
 Volumetric Analysis
Volume of understory
= (z2-z3) understory area in m2

Understory, z2

Bare Earth, z3

Canopy, z1

Volume of canopy = Canopy Height model CHM *area

= (z1 z3) canopy area in m2
 Forest Structure Analysis
Overall Forest Analysis
Full Feature Data Bare Earth Individual Trees Area: 4 km2
Total trees: 29,806

Height statistics:
Mean: 26.3 m
Max: 53.9 m
Min: 5.0 m

Height distribution:
5-15m: 2,655
15-30m: 15,981
> 30m: 11,160

Individual Tree
Analysis
Individual Trees (expanded) Trees Classified by Height
Tree Location

Height classification:

5 15m
15 30m
> 30m
Minimum tree height
set to 5m.
 Lidar Capabilities - Intensity

Trees Roof types

Grass

Water

50
 Urban landscapes

Manheim

www.toposys.com/
 How Many Applications ?
Mapping confined urban channels vs natural stream Delineation of canopy surface and forest metrics

In the creation of seamless topo/bathy products Determination of watershed characteristics

Integration of elevation data into the National Elevation Dataset Delineation of building structures

Derivation of stream channel characteristics Characterization of urban settings

Mapping and monitoring coastal hazards Monitoring long-term shoreline change

Identification of small hydrologic features (ditches, tile drain studies) Mapping land cover and land use

Mapping fish habitat Measuring earthquake deformation

Characterizing wildlife habitat Delineation of volcanic structure

Identification of canopy gaps Monitoring volcano hazards

Flood inundation modeling Urban mapping

Derivative hydrologic profiling Powerline mapping

Disaster response Hydrologic Modeling

Fire science Bare earth products

High-resolution floodplain mapping Monitoring debris flows

Characterization of canopy structure Wave height surveys

Defining drainage basins Sedimentation into rivers

Jokulhaup monitoring Monitoring geomorphic processes

Fault-rupture mapping Identification of ponding areas

Monitoring sea level rise Mapping wetland drainage

Natural Hazards Creation of synthetic drainage networks

Identifying landslide-prone areas Identifying culverts

Creating topographic maps Transportation mapping

Glacier changes 3-D visualization of buildings

Carbon
53 sequestration assessments Volume visualization

Homeland security scenarios Identifying bird habitats

 Quiz

How do you compute a Canopy Height Model (CHM)?

Subtract your bare earth layer from your first return data to
product a CHM.

What are some LiDAR applications in the natural environment?

Urban environment?
LiDAR can be used to model floodplains, forest structure,
streams, and geomorphology. Within the urban environment
LiDAR can be used to perform route planning, plan for disasters,
and map building structures.
 Data Ordering Details (dated)
Data Acquisition There are a number of private companies, academic institutions, and government agencies that
produce and provide LiDAR data.

Timing There are a number of time constraints associated with LiDAR collection and delivery:
Flight schedules can be delayed due to weather and environmental factors
Project areas may be large enough that multiple flights are needed
Post processing of millions of raw data points can be time consuming
Producing additional deliverables can delay the delivery schedule
Leaf-on or leaf-off? (Example)

Costs Cost can vary depending on size of project, horizontal postings (point density), and project location.
Cost may also increase based on additional product requests (i.e., DEMs, DTMs, contours, etc.),
specific accuracy requirements, or licensing restrictions.

Most current estimated:

LiDAR: $1-$4/hectare (1 hectare = ~2.5 acres) (640 acres = 1mi2)
Aerial photography: pennies/ hectare (slight difference in cost for non stereo vs. stereo)

Formats Common LiDAR Data Exchange Format - .LAS Industry Initiative (ASPRS). The LAS file format is
a public file format for the interchange of LiDAR data between vendors and customers. This binary
file format is an alternative to proprietary systems or a generic ASCII file interchange system used
by many companies.
Know & understand the flight acquisition parameters
Always get the raw data (it can be reprocessed later with newer techniques/algorithms)
Get an intensity image

Projections LiDAR data can be delivered in many different projections and datums. The national standard for
vertical datum is the North American Vertical Datum (NAVD 88), and the national standard for
horizontal datum is the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Licensing Licensing restrictions vary for each LiDAR service provider. Many providers do not have restrictions
on their data products, but some companies do require licensing.
 LiDAR

10.3 Laser Scanning

10.3.1 Basic Principle
10.3.2 ALS components and processes
10.3.3 LiDAR Data and Products/System Characteristics
10.3.4 Variants of Laser Scanning
Airborne Laser Spaceborne Terrestrial Laser
Altimetry Lidar Altimetry
LIDAR image of our neighborhood
(data provided by Pima County)
Poplar trees B2
Transportation Solutions with
Mobile Terrestrial LiDAR
TITAN

 TITAN Highlights

20-40 points per square meter

Scans 10,000-20,000 points/second
Collected at highway speeds
Accurate data in obstructed areas
Easily moved and mounted on vans, trucks
360degree scan angle
150m range
Open to run trials this year!
 Mobile 5-wavelength
Ozone/aerosol lidar
Supplied by elight,
Germany
Uses 266, 289, 299,
316 and 355 nm
Ozone and aerosol
profiles 100 m 4 km
Used on field
campaigns
 Ozone
measurements,

June 5 2000

Above: tropospheric
measurements from 289/299
nm pair.
Below: stratospheric
measurements from 299 alone.
(We now do DIAL- Differential
Absorption Lidar with 299/316
for stratosphere)
http://icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.php
 Lidar remote sensing for forestry and forest ecology
Michael Lefsky, Center for Ecological Applications of Lidar, Colorado State University

Mean Canopy
Height (m)

January 28, 2008 Center for the Ecological Applications of Lidar http://ceal.cnr.colostate.edu
 GLAS estimate of aboveground biomass
Field Estimate of Aboveground Biomass (Mgha-1)

400
R2=0.73 RMSE=51.6
350

300

250

200

150

100
Manaus
50 Santarem
Tanguro
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
GLAS Estimate of Biomass (Mgha-1)
 Quiz

What is the common LiDAR data format?

The common format is LAS.

How are satellite, airborne and terrestrial LiDAR collected?

Vehicle-Laser scanner-INS-DGPS-Computer
A terrestrial LiDAR system can be mounted on a moving
automobile or perform a 360 scan from a tripod.
 LiDAR videos
https://youtu.be/eBUCGxZq_xg (intro - 2 minutes)

https://www.uvm.edu/~joneildu/Video/LiDAR_101
_NYC/LiDAR_101.html (New York LiDAR 101 - 9
minutes)

https://youtu.be/EYbhNSUnIdU (NEON- 7minutes)

https://youtu.be/bfvjfCNmwgE (Advanced LiDAR

technology Geiger LiDAR- 52 minutes)
http://www.apsg.info/Resources/Documents/Presentations/APSG33/APSG_PUG_HARRIS.pdf