Graduate Education: Past, Present, and Future

Andrea Angel, Rachael Klunder, Scott Mauro, and Krystal Vielman

Team 2, EDH 6065 History of Higher Education

University of Central Florida

RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Table of Contents

Abstract II

Introduction 1

Literature Review 1

Past: the Foundation of Graduate Education 1

Present: Here and Now 4

Future: Where It Is Headed 6

Conclusion and Recommendation 9

References 11

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Abstract

This essay examines the importance of graduate education in America. Graduate education built its

foundations in the United States dating back to the early 19th century after expanding on European

models, particularly those of British and German university influences. This report outlines the

important role graduate students play in the 21st century in innovative research and providing skilled

members of the workforce to fuel the economy. The findings of Luna and Prieto suggest access to

graduate education gives students of different socio-economic backgrounds an opportunity to give

back to their own communities. Further investigation into Garces study on recruitment and Borrego,

Boden and Newswanders look at sustainable programs suggest administrators, faculty and staff must

collaborate for the foreseeable future to create opportunities for generations of graduate students.

Finally, a deeper look at current day legislative action paints a challenging picture for how graduate

students pay for their degrees and why taxpayers have shared part of the burden.

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Introduction

Post graduate education is an important aspect in furthering an individuals education as well

as attaining a higher level of success. The emphasis on postgraduate education has become

increasingly important since its inception. This paper aims to provide a timeline of graduate

education, including policies impacting it. In discussing the past of graduate education, knowledge is

gained in how American education was heavily influenced by Great Britain and Germany, the

adaptation of the aforementioned models to fit the American needs, the impact of research-based

learning and the national impact, and the progression of practices and teaching methods. In the

present, the development in enrollment and diversity, the importance of continuing ones education,

and the benefits to individuals and society are explored. Various factors that impact the future of

graduate education are displayed, such as accessibility, first generation students, global competition,

various models, and current policies. Graduate education has made significant strides in accessibility

and inclusion since its creation, as well as changed and adapted to who the audience is and what

students should be attending. While graduate education has continuously transitioned and worked

towards becoming inclusive and accessible, there is still work to be done. These changes come with

various theories, policies, and procedures that impacts these efforts.

Literature Review

Past: The Foundation of Graduate Education

The concept of graduate education came to fruition during the early nineteenth century when

German education began to slowly shift from teaching to more innovative research. This process was

accelerated after the founding of University of Berlin in 1810, an institution that would be used as a

model for research based education. Over the next decade, institutions with an emphasis on training

and research would transition to focus more on instructional techniques. Because of their

overwhelming success in research, training, and producing high performing professionals, these

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

faculties would gain recognition as independent faculties equal to those of their superiors (Brubacher

& Rudy, 1999).

While colleges during the colonial era were established using the British model, during the

early 1800s Americans followed suite in pursuit of research driven education, which was heavily

influenced by German universities teaching methods with an emphasis on scientific research. Since

the United States was lacking an establishment on domestic soil that could provide them the same

educational opportunities that the German educational system could, between 1815 and the start of

World War I in 1914, there were more than 10,000 American students attending German universities.

Of these students, more than half had a focus on philosophy, while other students pursued law,

theology, and medicine. The exchange of ideas that took place in the halls of University of Berlin and

other German universities was the basis for a greater interest in the sciences and research, thus

establishing a foundation for the creation of graduate education (Brubacher & Rudy, 1999).

Post-1840, the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, marked major change within American

higher education. Universities became more secular and there was a larger emphasis on specialized

training in professional skills and scientific methods. This led to the return of American faculty

members now having PhDs from the research-based, German institutions. From this group, men like

Richard T. Ely, G. Stanley Hall, Thomas C. Chamberlin, and John M. Coulter led a progressive

movement in the United States to create change in education and society as a whole (Brubacher &

Rudy, 1999). This movement made strides in the way classes were taught in America. German-

educated Americans brought back the practices of laboratory work, seminar, and lecture, all

techniques that have withstood the tests of time.

Though multiple attempts were made to replicate graduate education on American soil,

including an attempt made by Ezra Stiles in 1777 to make Yale into a university that could possibly

be comparable to German institutions like Leyden and Edinburgh, these attempts often fell short due

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to the lacking of funding (Brubacher & Rudy, 1999). It was not until 1876 that the first graduate

institution in the United States was founded by Daniel C. Gilman, a German educated American.

Johns Hopkins University marked the establishment of higher education in America and thus became

the model and catalyst of research as a major functional aspect of university (Bastedo, Albach, &

Gumport, 2016).

The birth of institutions like Johns Hopkins allowed for teaching and research methods to

come together in the classroom and create an entirely new experience for American students. With a

foundation was being set in place, other graduate schools linked with larger, undergraduate

universities began to emerge in the 1890s. Additionally, brand new universities, such as Stanford in

1891 and University of Chicago in 1892 were founded as both undergraduate and graduate

institutions (Kennedy, 1995). With universities serving students on both an undergraduate and

graduate level, the opportunity for departmentalization was afforded. Departmentalization allowed

graduate programs to maintain a sense of continuity and cohesion, as well as gave students the

chance to participate in apprenticeships related to their specified fields of interest. (Bastedo, et. al.,

2016).

During the turn of the twentieth century, sponsored research was integral to the expansion of

graduate education. By the 1930s, rather than donate money to university to focus on academics,

philanthropists were donating to fund project grants and postdoctoral fellowships. Because of this

massive financial shift in allocation, universities adapted and used the resources to have graduate

education and scientific research functioning as two, interdependent factors. Additionally, after World

War II ended, the federal government began to show greater support for doctoral education. Although

funding was already given for basic research that took place between 1958 and 1968, the main

priority was training science and engineering personnel to meet national needs. Recruitment for

talented students was the norm during this time period. Opportunities of fellowships, traineeships,

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

and being able to work as graduate student research assistants for grant funded projects were

common offers larger, research institutions would use to attract the best candidates (Bastedo, et. al.,

2016). A great example of this was the response to the potential threats of the Soviet Union after the

launch of Sputnik. The National Defense Education Act of 1958 was passed, thus cementing the

commitment to rebuilding and strengthening the research capabilities of the county. This was done

through effective training done at universities to support science education through a myriad of

fellowships and traineeship programs hosted by many government agencies (Harris and Miller,

2005).

Graduate education continued to grow at a constant rate. The field began to expand with

offerings of more fields of study, including sciences and other professional fields. However, between

1969 and 1975, the government no longer had the funds to support university research and graduate

education. While this seemed to be a drastic change from what institutions and students had grown

accustomed to, it set the path for what graduate education looks like now. It became common

practice for doctoral students to assist with faculty research in sponsored projects as well as serve as

teaching assistants in undergraduate courses to help alleviate the university stresses of enrollment

surges. The compromise allowed the graduate students to attain significant learning experiences

while enabling their institutions to expand their capacity for research and undergraduate education

(Bastedo, et. al., 2016).

Present: Here and Now

Graduate school enrollment continues to rise as the benefits of obtaining a higher education

degree for an individual remains significant. This allows individuals to receive the added benefit of

being set apart from others applying within the same work force. Additionally, looking from a

socioeconomic lens, going to graduate school would be linked to a possibility for higher career

earnings, which can aid not only that individual pursuing graduate education, but their families in

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cases of financial dependence. While receiving an education, students are exposed to experiences and

opportunities within their specialized field, giving them an upper hand in the job market to assert the

value they have compared to their non-graduate degree receiving peers.

Economists Becker and Mincer believe that graduate students school choice comes down to

Human Capital theory. As stated in Graduate School Choice: An Examination of Individual and

Institutional Effects, Human Capital theory has been the most widely used approach for exploring

choice decision related to undergraduate and graduate education (English & Umback, 2016, p. 5).

There are different ways that they can be integrated into todays workforce just based on having our

graduate degrees. While human capital theory is a popular lens in dissecting graduate school choice,

the economic theory allows the graduate the ability to produce and act as additional added value to a

company or their career field, while also adding direct knowledge, training skills, and the already

existed abilities that individual may have.

There are many variables students must consider in the twenty-first century to have access to

graduate school. From a socioeconomic perspective, students must ask themselves what program is

going to set them up for the most success. From the perspective of first generation college graduates,

finding a place that they feel they belong and can form a close-knit family hold high importance.

Lastly, considering mentorship possibilities remains as prevalent today as it was in the past. In Lyons

The Mentor in Graduate Education, it is states that the late 1970s saw the placement of mentoring

on the agenda of issues of importance in higher education. The importance of mentorship has only

grown since then. With the societal and educational network growing so quickly, it is crucial to rely

on and look up to mentors for direction, teachable-learning moments, and hands on experience from

those already in the business. Through the research of Lyons, two hypotheses were tested, the first

stating a significantly higher percentage of doctoral students who have mentors will be male than

female (Lyons, 1990) and the second being a positive overall evaluation of ones graduate

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experiences at the doctoral level is positively related to having a mentor (Lyons, 1990). The

importance of mentorship is linked to the effectiveness of one's growth, providing insight on

networking, experience, and the day to day tasks of working in their fields of study.

Taking a look at the trend in diversity for higher education across the board, according to the

Census, the population of advanced higher education has increased. Looking at ethnic and racial

composition of higher education students in 2015, the enrollments are as followed: 12.2% White,

13.5% non-Hispanic white alone, 8.2% African American, 21.4% Asian, 4.7% Hispanic (Census,

2016, p.2). There has been an increase in overall enrollment because the benefit of higher education

is becoming more apparent. The overall increase in educational attainment documented over the

past 6 decades occurred as young and more educated cohorts replaces older, less educated cohorts in

the adult population (Census, 2016, p.2). As the value of higher education spreads via word of mouth,

there is still a general assumption that a bachelors degree will do.

Future: Where It Is Headed

The future of graduate education will very much align with access to graduate studies,

especially for underrepresented populations. Many of these students are first generational and their

success and ultimate admission to graduate programs will depend greatly on innovation and

creativity by the best administrators in the country. Studies suggest these students will benefit greatly

from mentorship programs and community outreach, creative recruitment practices, and innovative

and sustainable programs to attract talent from all sectors of the country that is more diverse from

what has been used in the past. However, the future of how graduate students pay for their education,

especially doctoral students and professionals attending graduate school on tuition waivers, is very

much in doubt due to the changing political climate in Washington, D.C.

Luna and Prieto (2009) looked at the role mentoring played in first generation Latino

students pursuit of graduate degrees at the University of Texas (Luna & Prieto, 2009). The students

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

were part of the schools Intellectual Entrepreneurship (IE) Pre-Graduate School Internship Program.

The program focuses on diversity, lived experiences and the cultures these first generation students

grew up in. Luna et al. concluded students in the program did suffer environmentally in their attitudes

and knowledge of graduate school access, but their connection with their socioeconomic

backgrounds gave them a sense of responsibility to further their education in the hopes of one day

giving back to their communities. This kind innovative program offers a glimpse at what universities

are doing to create access for future generations of students from varied backgrounds.

To remain nationally and globally competitive, American research universities must look at

their own recruiting practices for diverse populations. State lawmakers can muddy the waters when it

comes to these efforts. Garces looked at four states which banned affirmative action (non-

discriminatory admissions) including Floridas 1999 One Florida initiative (Garces, 2012). These

bans have a negative effect on the candidate pool because it essentially places a limit on the number

of talented students research universities can recruit. Garces maintains with a shrinking talent pool,

theres less training, less research and less global impact. In fact, she showed a decrease in

enrollment of undergraduates and graduates from underrepresented populations in the first 13 years

of the 21st century (Garces, 2012). Garces did cite one study on the effects of affirmative action bans

in four states on enrollment by Hinrichs (2009). He showed that at four-year public serving

institutions as ranked in the top 50 by U.S. News and World Report (1995) the bans decreased

enrollment by more than 4 percent in California, Texas, Florida and Washington.

As educational leaders, university administrators must continue to look at access to create

sustainable programs for graduate students despite funding challenges. Borrego, Boden and

Newswander (2014) used Richard Scotts 1995 three pillars of institutions to describe the necessary

changes needed for sustainable programs. Most of the study was based on the depletion of funding

from the National Science Foundation and universities proposed responses to keep programs afloat,

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

particularly interdisciplinary offers. In Scotts Regulative Model,universities focused on policies,

curriculum, and new sources of funding to phase out of date programs and create innovative and

fresh ones. Innovative programs and curriculum will help universities deepen their talent pool for

graduate school candidacy.

The Normative Modellooks at the value universities placed on training students in a variety of

disciplines when the funding is scarce. The theory here is training leads to innovative research,

collaboration and what Borrego et al. calls emerging opportunities for funding based on research

grants (Borrego et. al, 2014, p. 871). Federal and State leaders who support these universities and

find value in this research can justify their push for financial support.

Finally, Scotts Cultural-Cognitive Modeldeals environmental changes within the university.

Borrego et al. maintain a change in the culture and systems internally leads to the creation of new

programs and opportunities for graduate students. The Cultural-Cognitive approach suggests buy-in

from administrators, and collaboration between faculty and staff universities can transform courses

and programs that will widen the opportunity gaps for graduate education for all candidates across a

diversified spectrum (Borrego et al., 2014, p. 872).

Access, recruiting and sustainable programs will lead talented graduate students of all

demographics to the universities, but there is a real question on how these students will pay for

school. Particularly the growing populations in the past decade of first generation students, minorities

from lower socio-economic backgrounds and non-traditional students, including university

professional staff members.

Once these talented students reach universities of their choice some very real financial

decisions must be made. Some graduate students are facing years of debt due to loans they must take

out to attend school. Wilbert and Haddad (2014) looked at the various factors for this rising cost to

graduate students including loan debt, tuition, fees, books, decrease state and federal funding,

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

stagnant or depleting endowments and something he called premature affluence or the use of these

loans to maintain a lifestyle these students expect from their years in high school and co-dependence

on their parents (Wilbert & Haddad, 2014, p. 1). Wilbert and Haddad estimate that students on track

to graduate in four years to six years are borrowing nearly $24,000 (or approximately $6,000 per

year).

Perna, McLendon, and Monks (2014) takes the burden of student debt a step further in

looking at the decreases in state and federal aid in the last ten years, coupled institutions who have a

need-blind admission policy where students from lower socio economic backgrounds require

student loans to offset the cost of attending school in the first place. Couple that with the political

change which has led to a push to expand the Budget Control Act of 2011 which scaled federally

subsidized student loans six years ago. The concern here is graduate students make more money after

graduation and the taxpayers paying off the terms of their loans are in lower tax brackets. Another

issue facing graduate students is a very real possibility of having to take out these loans to pay for

taxes on their tuition waivers. The National Association of Graduate-Professional Students (NAGPS)

is condemning a U.S. House Ways and Means Committee proposed tax reform bill known as the Tax

Cuts and Jobs Acts because it includes a section that could potentially tax tuition waivers for

professionals seeking their graduate degrees. The silver-lining here, the U.S. Senates version of the

bill would not including the tax on tuition waivers.

As political winds change funding, financing and paying for graduate education will continue

to be a concern for twenty-first century graduate student. Administrators, staff and faculty will have

to be conscience of the tuition inflation, student debt, not to mention work on collaborating to be

creative in admission practices and curriculum innovations.

Conclusions and Recommendations

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This expository essay aimed to discuss the past, present, and future of graduate education.

The strides that have been made since its inception are exceptional. Various models, theories, and

practices have been utilized, as well as the growth of the population of students and purpose of

education. There are many obstacles that have been faced by institutions and students and though

there has been exceptional growth, there is still growing that must be done by institutions as

addressed within this paper. The most prevalent policy issue impacting graduate education is

graduate tuition waivers, as they are currently under attack. With discussion on accessibility, this

policy could set back graduate education further as opposed to continuously moving forward and

focusing on other areas of accessibility. Accessibility, the globalization of campuses across the

United States, and a changing political and economic climate are going to challenge higher education

leaders in America to change the model of graduate education. Recommendations include:

A. Focus programs and funding on accessibility for top students from all socioeconomic

backgrounds in the United States.

B. Curriculum changes to doctoral and master's degree work to motivate students and help them

see the light at the end of the tunnel to discourage dropping out, including loosening teaching

requirements of doctoral students.

C. Increase the programming designed to promote graduate education to students with STEM

backgrounds from middle school to undergraduate work in universities across the United

States. Use successful programs at other universities as a template for these efforts.

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

References

Bastedo, M. N., Albach, P., & Gumport P. (2016) (4th Ed.) American higher education in the Twenty-

first Century. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.

Borrego, M., Boden, D., & Newswander, L. K. (2014). Sustained change: Institutionalizing

interdisciplinary graduate education. The Journal of Higher Education, 85(6), 858-885.

Brubacher, J., Rudy, W. (1999). Higher education in transition: A history of American colleges and

universities. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Camille, L. Bauman, R. Bauman, K. (2016). Educational attainment in the United States, Census.

Retrieved from

https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf

English, D. and Umbach, P. (2016), Graduate school choice: An examination of individual and

institutional effects, The Review of Higher Education, 39(2). p.173-211.

Garces, L. M. (2012). Racial diversity, legitimacy, and the citizenry: The impact of affirmative action

bans on graduate school enrollment. The Review Of Higher Education, 36(1), 93-132.

Harris, M. M. & Miller, J. R. (2005) Needed: Reincarnation of National Defense Education Act of

1958. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(2), 157-171.

Hinrichs, P. (2009). The effects of affirmative action bans on college enrollment, educational

attainment, and the demographic composition of universities. Review of Economics and

Statistics. 94(3), p.712-722.

Kennedy, D. (1995). Another centurys end, another revolution for higher education. Change. 27(3),

p. 8-15.

Luna, V., Prieto, L. (2009). Mentoring affirmations and interventions. Journal of Hispanic Higher

Education, 8(2), 213-22

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RUNNING HEADER: GRADUATE EDUCATION: PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Lyons, W., Scroggins, D., & Rule, P. B. (1990). The mentor in graduate education. Studies in Higher

Education, 15(3), 277-285.

Perna, L.W., Mclendon, M., Monks, J. (2014). The role of institutional and state aid policies average

student debt. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 665(1),

pp. 123-142.

Wilbert, J, and Haddad, M. (2014). Student loan debt: How are the funds spent? Journal of Academic

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