Oral Counting Sequences: A Theoretical Discussion and Analysis through the Lens of Representational

Redescription Voutsina, Chronoula Educational Studies in Mathematics, v93 n2 p175-193 Oct 2016
Empirical research has documented how children's early counting develops into an increasingly
abstract process, and initial counting procedures are reified as children develop and use more
sophisticated counting. In this development, the learning of different oral counting sequences that
allow children to count in steps bigger than one is seen as an essential skill that supports children's
mental calculation strategies. This paper proposes that the reification or refinement of the counting
process that results to increased-in-sophistication use of counting is underlaid by the process of
knowledge explicitation that the model of representational redescription postulates. The paper uses a
case study to provide insight into the pathway that a 6-year-old child followed from learning how to
verbally count in twos and tens to being able to use this knowledge for calculation purposes. The
proposal is that knowledge of oral sequences is redescribed in more explicit and accessible formats
before children are able to connect their knowledge of the verbal counting with the goal of using the
sequence for calculation. The discussion presented here queries the notion of spontaneity as an
inherent element of the theory and discusses the role that social interaction may play in supporting
knowledge redescription. If it is the case that children's knowledge of oral counting sequences is
redescribed into increasingly explicit formats before it can be applied for calculation, then children
need to be provided early in their education with structured activities that trigger knowledge
redescription and support the necessary connections between counting, number structure and
calculation.

Assessing Children's Strategy Choices to Make Better Decisions about Remediation Hopkins, Sarah
Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (MERGA) (39th, Adelaide, South Australia,
2016) A considerable number of children rely on counting to solve single-digit addition problems
when they are expected to use accurate retrieval-based strategies. There are different reasons why
this may be so. Children may use inefficient counting strategies, produce errors when applying
backup strategies or lack sufficient confidence to just state the answer. In this study, children in Years
2-6 (n = 94) were assessed on how the solved single-digit problems. Data were analysed to identify
five performance groups that represented different patterns of difficulty. The findings highlight how
interventions need to be better tailored to suit individual learning needs and indicate how this may be
achieved.

Counting on Using a Number Game Betts, Paul Teaching Children Mathematics, v21 n7 p430-436
Mar 2015 Counting all and counting on are distinct counting strategies that can be used to compute
such quantities as the total number of objects in two sets (Wright, Martland, and Stafford 2010). Given
five objects and three more objects, for example, children who use counting all to determine quantity
will count both collections; that is, they count (starting with one set): "One, two, three, four, five"
[move to other set of objects] "six, seven, eight." (Starting with the larger or smaller set does not
matter.) Children who count on do not need to count both collections; that is, given knowledge that
one set has five objects, they count on the second collection, "six, seven, eight," to determine the total
number of objects (or they start with the smaller set and count on the larger set). A child who relies
on counting all uses the objects in each set to determine the total quantity. Children who can use
counting on do not rely on physical objects, because they are using the counting sequence (which
number name comes next in the sequence) to determine total quantity (Wright, Martland, and
Stafford 2010). To count on, given the quantity of the first set, a child could use one of several
strategies to keep track of the second set (e.g., fingers, verbalization cues, head bobbing). This article
considers how to help children who persistently use the counting all strategy for adding quantities,
despite reform-based interventions intended to shift them to using counting on. A number board

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game with a special rule for moving a token seems to help these children take up counting on as a
strategy within various numerical contexts.

Teaching Young Children Decomposition Strategies to Solve Addition Problems: An Experimental

Study Cheng, Zi-Juan Journal of Mathematical Behavior, v31 n1 p29-47 Mar 2012 The ability to count
has traditionally been considered an important milestone in children's development of number sense.
However, using counting (e.g., counting on, counting all) strategies to solve addition problems is not
the best way for children to achieve their full mathematical potential and to prepare them to develop
more complex and advanced computational skills. In this experimental study, we demonstrated that it
was possible to teach children aged 5-6 to use decomposition strategy and thus reduced their
reliance on counting to solve addition problems. The study further showed that children' ability to
adopt efficient strategies was related to their systematic knowledge of the part-part-whole
relationship of the numbers 1-10. (Contains 5 tables and 5 figures.)

Both Answers Make Sense!" Lockwood, Elise Mathematics Teacher, v108 n4 p296-301 Nov 2014
Formulas, problem types, keywords, and tricky techniques can certainly be valuable tools for
successful counters. However, they can easily become substitutes for critical thinking about counting
problems and for deep consideration of the set of outcomes. Formulas and techniques should serve
as tools for students as they think critically about counting problems; they should not become
students' only mechanisms for counting. Counting is, ultimately, about enumerating a desirable set of
objects, and this goal should not be lost on students. Teachers should encourage students to ground
their work in the set of outcomes that they are trying to count and to use problem types, keywords,
and formulas as resources in that work. The practice of systematically creating lists can help students
build a foundation for more complex counting problems that they may encounter. By encouraging
students to consider sets of outcomes as they count, teachers can help students ground their
counting procedures and strategies in something concrete, enabling them to think and work in
accessible contexts. Doing so can foster a perspective of counting as a meaningful and flexible activity
rather than a mindless application of formulaic rules and procedures. With a robust understanding of
how their counting processes structure and organize the set of outcomes, students can be more
equipped to develop into successful counters and combinatorial thinkers.

Help! They Still Don't Understand Counting Sadler, Faith H. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, v6
n1 Article 3 Oct 2009 Recent research has revealed new information about how preschoolers develop
an understanding of counting, and offers exciting new strategies for teaching. These new strategies
encourage children to problem solve and use reasoning to understand quantities and how counting
works rather than simply providing them practice with counting procedures. There has been evidence
for several years now that this type of problem-solving approach (or investigative approach) to
mathematics instruction is beneficial for young elementary school students with special needs
(Baroody, 1996; Baroody, 1999; Clements, 2000; National Research Council, 2001). Thus, it is likely that
these new findings about preschoolers apply not just to young typically developing children but also
to preschoolers with special needs. This article describes a new developmental framework for
counting and weaves within it helpful activities derived from recent research as well as a few activities
based on long-established best practices. Lastly, this article briefly discusses how difficulty with
counting may or may not be indicative of a math disability.

Assessing Early Number Learning: How Useful is the Annual National Assessment in Numeracy?
Weitz, Maria; Venkat, Hamsa Perspectives in Education, v31 n3 p49-65 Sep 2013 Annual National
Assessment (ANA) performance in Mathematics across the primary grades in South Africa indicates a
decrease in mean performance across Grades 1-6. In this paper, we explore the apparently high
performance in Grade 1 through a comparative investigation of learner responses on two

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assessments: the Grade 1 ANA taken in February 2011 by Grade 2 learners and a diagnostic oral
interview test drawn from the work of Wright et al. (2006), administered at the same time. Our
findings point to a predominant pattern of high performance on the ANA and low performance on
Wright et al.'s tests. In-depth analysis of the responses of two learners in this group indicates that this
discrepancy is due to acceptance in the ANA of correct answers produced through highly
rudimentary counting strategies. The diagnostic test, in contrast, awards lower marks when correct
answers are produced in inefficient ways. We conclude with concerns that acceptance of low-level
counting strategies in the ANA may well work against persuading Grade 1 and 2 teachers to work
towards more sophisticated strategies.

Mental Calculation: Why Don't They Get It? Thompson, Ian Mathematics Teaching, n221 p30-31 Mar
2011 Ever since "mental arithmetic" was updated to "mental calculation," official documents have
succeeded in perpetuating several basic misconceptions and misunderstandings about this topic. This
situation does not augur well for the successful teaching of mental calculation strategies to young
children. In this article, the author takes issue with the advice for mental calculation in regard to
addition and subtraction strategies. He discusses three of these strategies: (1) compensation; (2)
complementary addition; and (3) counting on

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